Download ES Chapter 13

Thunderstorms
Objectives
• Identify the processes that form thunderstorms.
• Compare and contrast different types of thunderstorms.
• Describe the life cycle of a thunderstorm.
Vocabulary
– air-mass thunderstorm
– sea-breeze thunderstorm
– frontal thunderstorm
Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms
• At any given moment, nearly 2000 thunderstorms
are occurring around the world.
• Some are capable of producing hail the size of
baseballs, swirling tornadoes, and surface winds
of more than 160 km/h.
• All thunderstorms, regardless of intensity, have
certain characteristics in common.
Thunderstorms
How Thunderstorms Form
• For a thunderstorm to form, three conditions
must exist.
1. There must be an abundant source of moisture
in the lower levels of the atmosphere.
2. Some mechanism must lift the air so that the
moisture can condense and release latent heat.
3. The portion of the atmosphere through which
the cloud grows must be unstable.
Thunderstorms
How Thunderstorms Form
Limits to Growth
– The air in a thunderstorm will keep rising until:
1. It meets a layer of stable air that it cannot overcome
2. The rate of condensation, which diminishes with
height, is insufficient to generate enough latent heat
to keep the cloud warmer than the surrounding air
– Typical thunderstorms last only about 30 minutes and
individual storms are only about 24 km in diameter.
Thunderstorms
How Thunderstorms Form
Thunderstorms
Air-Mass Thunderstorms
• Thunderstorms are often classified according to
the mechanism that caused the air to rise.
• An air-mass thunderstorm is a thunderstorm that
results from the air rising because of unequal
heating of Earth’s surface within one air mass.
– Mountain thunderstorms occur when an air mass rises
as a result of orographic lifting, which involves air
moving up the side of a mountain.
– Sea-breeze thunderstorms are local air-mass
thunderstorms caused, in part, by extreme temperature
differences between the air over land and the air
over water.
Thunderstorms
Air-Mass Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms
Frontal Thunderstorms
• Frontal thunderstorms are thunderstorms that
are produced by advancing cold fronts and, more
rarely, warm fronts.
• Cold-front thunderstorms get their initial lift
from the push of the cold air which can
produce a line of thunderstorms along the
leading edge of the cold front.
• Because they are not dependent on daytime
heating for their initial lift, cold-front
thunderstorms can persist long into the night.
Thunderstorms
Stages of Development
• A thunderstorm usually has three stages: the
cumulus stage, the mature stage, and the
dissipation stage.
• The stages are classified according to the
direction in which the air is moving.
Thunderstorms
Stages of Development
Thunderstorms
Stages of Development
Cumulus Stage
– In the cumulus stage, air starts
to rise nearly vertically upward.
– Transported moisture
condenses into a visible
cloud and releases
latent heat.
– As the cloud droplets
coalesce, they form larger
droplets, which eventually
fall to Earth as precipitation.
Thunderstorms
Stages of Development
Mature Stage
– As precipitation falls, it cools
the air around it which
becomes more dense than the
surrounding air, so it sinks
creating downdrafts.
– The updrafts and downdrafts
form a convection cell.
– In the mature stage, nearly
equal amounts of updrafts and
downdrafts exist side by side in
the cumulonimbus cloud.
Thunderstorms
Stages of Development
Dissipation Stage
– The supply of warm, moist air
runs out because the cool
downdrafts cool the area
from which the storm
draws energy.
– Without the warm air, the
updrafts cease and
precipitation can no
longer form.
– The dissipation stage is
characterized primarily by
lingering downdrafts.
Thunderstorms
Section Assessment
1. Why does there need to be an abundant source
of moisture in the lower levels of the
atmosphere for thunderstorms to form?
The moisture feeds into a thunderstorm’s
updrafts, releasing latent heat when it
condenses.
Thunderstorms
Section Assessment
2. What is the main cause of thunderstorm
dissipation?
The downdrafts created by a thunderstorm
eventually cut off the flow of warm, moist air
into the storm. Without the warm updrafts,
precipitation can no longer form and the
convection stops.
Thunderstorms
Section Assessment
3. Identify whether the following statements are
true or false.
______
true Latent heat is crucial in maintaining the upward
motion of a cloud.
______
false Thunderstorms are more likely to develop along
a warm front instead of a cold front.
______
true A mountain thunderstorm is an example of an
air-mass thunderstorm.
______
true In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, updrafts
are roughly equal to downdrafts.
Severe Weather
Objectives
• Explain why some thunderstorms are more severe
than others.
• Recognize the dangers of severe thunderstorms,
including lightning, hail, high winds, and floods.
• Describe how tornadoes form.
Vocabulary
– supercell
– downburst
– tornado
– Fujita tornado intensity scale
Severe Weather
Severe Weather
• Occasionally, weather events come together in
such a way that there is a continuous supply of
surface moisture.
• This happens along a cold front that moves into
warmer territory and can lift and condense a
continuous supply of warm air.
Severe Weather
Severe Thunderstorms
• Other factors also play a role in causing some
storms to be more severe than others.
• Cold fronts are usually accompanied by upperlevel, low-pressure systems that are marked by
pools of cold air, which cause the air to become
more unstable.
• When the strength of the storm’s updrafts and
downdrafts intensifies, the storm is considered to
be severe.
Severe Weather
Severe Thunderstorms
• Supercells are self-sustaining, extremely
powerful severe thunderstorms, which are
characterized by intense, rotating updrafts.
• Only about ten percent
of the roughly 100 000
thunderstorms that
occur each year in the
United States are
considered to be
severe; even fewer
become supercells.
Severe Weather
Lightning
• Lightning is an electrical discharge caused by the
friction of falling and rising ice crystals within
strong drafts of a cumulonimbus cloud.
• Some atoms lose electrons and become positively
charged ions, while other atoms receive the extra
electrons and become negatively charged ions.
• This creates regions of air with opposite charges.
• To relieve the electrical imbalance, an invisible
channel of negatively charged air, called a
stepped leader, moves from the cloud toward
the ground.
Severe Weather
Lightning
• When the stepped leader
nears the ground, a
channel of positively
charged ions, called the
return stroke, rushes
upward to meet it.
• The return stroke surges
from the ground to the
cloud, illuminating the
channel with about 100
million V of electricity.
Severe Weather
Lightning
Severe Weather
Lightning
The Power of Lightning
– A lightning bolt heats the surrounding air to about
30 000°C.
– Thunder is the sound produced as this superheated air
rapidly expands and contracts.
– Each year in the United States, lightning accounts for
about 7500 forest fires, which result in the loss of
millions of acres of forest.
– Lightning strikes in the United States cause a yearly
average of 300 injuries and 93 deaths to humans.
Severe Weather
Lightning
Severe Weather
The Fury of the Wind
• Instead of dispersing over a large area underneath
a storm, downdrafts sometimes become
concentrated in a local area.
• Downbursts are violent downdrafts that are
concentrated in a local area and can contain wind
speeds of more than 160 km/h.
– Macrobursts can have wind speeds of more than 200
km/h, can last up to 30 minutes, and cause a path of
destruction up to 5 km wide.
– Microbursts affect areas of less than 3 km wide but can
have winds exceeding 250 km/h.
Severe Weather
Hail
• Hail is precipitation in the form of balls or lumps of
ice that can do tremendous damage.
• Hail forms because of two characteristics common
to thunderstorms.
– Water droplets exist in the liquid state in the parts of a
cumulonimbus cloud where the temperature is actually
below freezing.
– The abundance of strong updrafts and downdrafts
existing side by side within a cloud.
Severe Weather
Hail
• The supercooled water droplets in the cloud freeze
on contact with other ice pellets and are caught
alternately in the updrafts and downdrafts.
• The ice pellets are constantly encountering more
supercooled water
droplets and growing.
• Eventually they become
too heavy for the
updrafts to keep aloft
and fall to Earth as hail.
Severe Weather
Floods
• When there are weak wind currents in the upper
atmosphere, weather systems and resulting
storms move slowly.
• Flooding can occur when a storm dumps its rain
over a limited location.
• If there is abundant moisture throughout the
atmosphere, the processes of condensation,
coalescence, and precipitation are much more
efficient and thus produce more rainfall.
• Floods are the main cause of thunderstormrelated deaths in the United States each year.
Severe Weather
Tornadoes
• A tornado is a violent, whirling column of air in
contact with the ground.
• Before a tornado reaches the ground, it is called
a funnel cloud.
• Tornadoes are often associated with supercells.
• The air in a tornado is made visible by dust and
debris drawn into the swirling column, or by the
condensation of water vapor into a visible cloud.
Severe Weather
Tornadoes
• A tornado forms when wind speed and direction
change suddenly with height, a phenomenon
known as wind shear.
– Under the right conditions, this can produce a
horizontal rotation near Earth’s surface.
– A thunderstorm’s updrafts can tilt the twisting column
of wind from a horizontal to a vertical position.
– Air pressure in the center drops as the rotation
accelerates.
– The extreme pressure gradient between the center and
the outer portion of the tornado produces the violent
winds associated with tornadoes.
Severe Weather
Tornadoes
Severe Weather
Tornadoes
Tornado Classification
– The Fujita tornado intensity scale classifies
tornadoes according to their path of destruction, wind
speed, and duration.
– The scale ranges from F0, which is characterized by
winds of up to 118 km/h, to the violent F5, which can
pack winds of more than 500 km/h.
– Most tornadoes do not exceed the F1 category.
– Only about one percent ever reach the violent
categories of F4 and F5.
Severe Weather
Tornadoes
Tornado Distribution
– While tornadoes can occur at any time or place, some
places are more conducive to their formation.
– Most tornadoes form in the spring during the late
afternoon and evening, when the temperature contrasts
between polar air and tropical air are the greatest.
– Tornadoes occur most frequently in a region called
“Tornado Alley,” which extends from northern Texas
through Oklahoma, Kansas, and Missouri.
Severe Weather
Tornadoes
Tornado Safety
– In the United States, an average of 80 deaths and
1500 injuries result from tornadoes each year.
– The National Weather Service issues tornado watches
and warnings before a tornado actually strikes.
– The agency stresses that despite advanced tracking
systems, advance warnings may not be possible.
– Signs of an approaching or developing tornado include
the presence of dark, greenish skies, a towering wall of
clouds, large hailstones, and a loud, roaring noise
similar to that of a freight train.
Severe Weather
Tornadoes
Severe Weather
Section Assessment
1. Match the following terms with their definitions.
___
B supercell
___
C macroburst
___
D microburst
___
A tornado
A. a violent, whirling column of
air in contact with the ground
B. self-sustaining, extremely
powerful thunderstorms that
are characterized by intense,
rotating updrafts
C. downburst causing a path of
destruction up to 5 km wide
D. downburst causing a path of
destruction up to 3 km wide
Severe Weather
Section Assessment
2. Does cloud-to-ground describe lightning?
Why or why not?
Lightning is the illumination that you see when
the return stroke surges from the ground to the
cloud, lighting the channel of the stepped leader.
It would be better to say ground-to-cloud.
Severe Weather
Section Assessment
3. Why do so many tornadoes form in
“Tornado Alley”?
Large temperature contrasts occur most
frequently in the Central United States, where
cold continental polar air collides with maritime
tropical air moving northward from the Gulf
of Mexico.
Tropical Storms
Objectives
• Identify where tropical cyclones originate.
• Describe the life cycle of a tropical cyclone.
• Recognize the dangers of hurricanes.
Vocabulary
– tropical cyclone
– eye
– eyewall
– Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale
– storm surge
Tropical Storms
Tropical Storms
• Tropical cyclones are large, rotating, lowpressure storms that form over water during
summer and fall in the tropics.
• The strongest of these cyclonic storms are
known in the United States and other parts of
the Atlantic Ocean as hurricanes.
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
• Tropical cyclones thrive on the tremendous
amount of energy in warm, tropical oceans.
• This latent heat from water that has evaporated
from the ocean is released when the air begins
to rise and water vapor condenses.
• Rising air creates an area of low pressure at the
ocean surface.
• The cyclonic rotation of a tropical cyclone begins
as warm air moves toward the low-pressure
center to replace the air that has risen.
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
• As the moving air approaches the center of the
growing storm, it rises, rotating faster and faster
as more energy is released through condensation.
• Air pressure in the center of the system continues
to decrease, while surface wind speeds
increase—sometimes in excess of 240 km/h.
• As long as atmospheric conditions allow warm air
to be fed into the system at the surface and to be
removed from the system in the upper
atmosphere the process will continue.
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
Formation of Tropical Cyclones
– Tropical cyclones require two basic conditions to form:
• An abundant supply of very warm ocean water
• Some sort of disturbance to lift warm air and
keep it rising
– These conditions exist in all tropical oceans except the
South Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean west of the
South American Coast.
– They occur most frequently in the late summer and
early fall, when Earth’s oceans contain their greatest
amount of stored heat energy.
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
Movement of Tropical Cyclones
– Tropical cyclones move according to the wind currents
that steer them.
– In the deep tropics, tropical cyclones are often caught
up in subtropical high-pressure systems that are
usually present.
– They move steadily toward the west, then eventually
turn poleward when they reach the far edges of the
high-pressure systems.
– There, they are guided by prevailing westerlies and
begin to interact with midlatitude systems.
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
Stages of Tropical Cyclones
– Tropical cyclones usually begin as disturbances that
originate either from the ITCZ or as weak, low-pressure
systems called tropical waves.
– Only a small percentage these ever develop into
hurricanes because conditions throughout the
atmosphere must allow rising air to be dispersed into
the upper atmosphere.
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
Stages of Tropical Cyclones
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
Stages of Tropical Cyclones
– When a disturbance over a tropical ocean acquires a
cyclonic circulation around a center of low pressure, it is
known as a tropical depression.
– When wind speeds around the low-pressure center of
a tropical depression exceed 65 km/h, the system is
called a tropical storm.
– If air pressure continues to fall and winds around the
center reach at least 120 km/h, the storm is officially
classified as a hurricane.
Tropical Storms
Tropical Cyclones
Stages of Tropical Cyclones
– Once a hurricane, the development of a calm center of
the storm, called an eye, takes place.
– The eyewall is a band immediately surrounding the eye
that contains the strongest winds in a hurricane.
Tropical Storms
Classifying Hurricanes
• The Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale classifies
hurricanes according to wind speed, air pressure
in the center, and potential for property damage.
• The Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale ranges from
Category 1 hurricanes to Category 5 storms,
which can have winds in excess of 155 mph.
• Most of the deadliest hurricanes that strike the
United States were classified as major hurricanes.
Tropical Storms
Classifying Hurricanes
Running Out of Energy
– A hurricane will last until it can no longer produce
enough energy to sustain itself. This usually
happens when:
• The storm moves over land and no longer has
access to the warm ocean surface from which
it draws its energy.
• The storm moves over colder water.
Tropical Storms
Hurricane Hazards
• Hurricanes can cause a lot of damage, particularly
along coastal areas.
• Much of this damage is associated with violent
winds of the eyewall, the band about 40 to 80 km
wide that surrounds the calm eye.
Tropical Storms
Hurricane Hazards
Storm Surges
– A storm surge occurs when hurricane-force winds drive
a mound of ocean water, sometimes as high as 6 m
above normal sea level, toward coastal areas where it
washes over the land.
– In the northern hemisphere, a storm surge occurs
primarily on the right side of a storm relative to its eye,
where the strongest onshore winds occur.
– Floods are an additional hurricane hazard, particularly if
the storm moves over mountainous areas, where
orographic lifting enhances the upward motion of air.
Tropical Storms
Hurricane Hazards
Storm Surges
Tropical Storms
Hurricane Hazards
Hurricane Advisories
– The National Hurricane Center, which is responsible
for tracking and forecasting the intensity and motion
of tropical cyclones in the western hemisphere, issues
a hurricane warning at least 24 hours before a
hurricane strikes.
– The center also issues regular advisories that indicate
a storm’s position, strength, and movement.
Tropical Storms
Hurricane Hazards
Hurricane Advisories
Tropical Storms
Section Assessment
1. Match the following terms with their definitions.
___
A tropical depression A. a tropical cyclone with wind
speeds of at least 65 km/h
___
C hurricane
___
B eyewall
___
D storm surge
B. the band that has the
highest wind speeds in a
hurricane
C. a tropical cyclone with wind
speeds of at least 120 km/h
D. a mound of wind-driven
water that washes over
coastal lands
Tropical Storms
Section Assessment
2. What are the two main events that cause
hurricanes to weaken?
Hurricanes will weaken when they lose their
energy source or warm ocean water. This
happens when the hurricane moves over land or
an area with cooler water.
Tropical Storms
Section Assessment
3. What are the three main threats that a
hurricane poses?
The three main threats that a hurricane poses
are extreme winds, storm surges that cause
coastal flooding, and heavy rains that cause
inland flooding.
Recurring Weather
Objectives
• Describe recurring weather patterns and the problems
they create.
• Identify atmospheric events that cause recurring
weather patterns.
Vocabulary
– drought
– heat wave
– cold wave
– wind-chill factor
Recurring Weather
Floods and Droughts
• Floods can occur when weather patterns cause
even mild storms to persist over the same area.
• Droughts are extended periods of well-belownormal rainfall.
• Droughts are usually the result of shifts in global
wind patterns that allow large high-pressure
systems to persist for weeks or months over
continental areas.
Recurring Weather
Floods and Droughts
Heat Waves
– Heat waves, which are extended periods of abovenormal temperatures, can be formed by the same highpressure systems that cause droughts.
– As the air under a large high-pressure system sinks, it
warms by compression and causes above-normal
temperatures.
– The high-pressure system also blocks cooler air
masses from moving into the area, so there is little
relief from the heat.
Recurring Weather
Floods and Droughts
Heat Waves
– If the air is humid, it slows the rate of evaporation,
which diminishes the body’s ability to regulate internal
temperature.
– Because of the danger, the National Weather Service
routinely reports the heat index.
– The heat index assesses the effect of the body’s
increasing difficulty in regulating its internal
temperature as relative humidity rises.
Recurring Weather
Floods and Droughts
Recurring Weather
Cold Waves
• A cold wave is an extended period of belownormal temperatures.
• Cold waves are brought on by large, highpressure systems of continental polar or
arctic origin.
• Winter high-pressure systems are much more
influenced by the jet stream than are summer
systems and therefore rarely linger over one area.
• Several polar high-pressure systems can follow
the same path and subject the same areas to
bout after bout of numbing cold.
Recurring Weather
Cold Waves
• The wind-chill factor is measured by the windchill index, which estimates the heat loss from
human skin caused by the combination of cold
air and wind.
Recurring Weather
Section Assessment
1. What is the primary cause of a drought?
Droughts are usually the result of shifts in
global wind patterns that allow high-pressure
systems to persist for weeks or months over
continental areas.
Recurring Weather
Section Assessment
2. What would the heat index be if the air
temperature is 90ºF with a 60 percent
relative humidity?
The heat index would be 100ºF.
Recurring Weather
Section Assessment
3. Which type of air masses are usually
responsible for cold waves?
Cold waves are caused by air masses of
continental polar or arctic origin.
Chapter Resources Menu
Study Guide
Section 13.1
Section 13.2
Section 13.3
Section 13.4
Chapter Assessment
Image Bank
Section 13.1 Study Guide
Section 13.1 Main Ideas
• For a thunderstorm to occur, there must be abundant
moisture in the lower levels of the atmosphere and a
mechanism to lift the moisture so it can condense. In
addition, the air must be unstable so that the growing
cloud will continue to rise.
• Thunderstorms are classified according to the
mechanism that caused the air to rise. In an air-mass
thunderstorm, the cloud rose because of unequal
heating of Earth’s surface within one air mass. In a
frontal thunderstorm, the air rose because it was pushed
up by an advancing air mass.
Section 13.2 Study Guide
Section 13.2 Main Ideas
• Lightning is produced when an advancing stepped leader
unites with an upward-moving return stroke. Thunder is
the sound made by the rapid expansion of air around the
lightning bolt as a result of extreme heating of the
lightning channel.
• Thunderstorms can damage property and cause loss
of life. The hazards of thunderstorms include lightning,
violent winds, hail, floods, and tornadoes.
• The Fujita tornado intensity scale classifies tornadoes
according to wind speed, path of destruction, and
duration.
Section 13.3 Study Guide
Section 13.3 Main Ideas
• Tropical cyclones derive their energy from the evaporation
of warm ocean water and the release of heat.
• The Saffir-Simpson hurricane scale classifies hurricanes
according to intensity.
• Hurricane hazards include violent winds, floods, and
storm surges. The National Hurricane Center tracks
hurricanes and issues advance warnings to help reduce
loss of life.
Section 13.4 Study Guide
Section 13.4 Main Ideas
• Examples of persistent weather events include floods,
droughts, cold waves, and heat waves.
• The heat index assesses the impact of humidity
combined with excessive heat on the human body. The
wind-chill index estimates the heat loss from human skin
caused by a combination of cold air and wind.
Chapter Assessment
Multiple Choice
1. Which of the following states experiences the
highest number of thunderstorm days annually?
a. Oklahoma
c. Florida
b. Tennessee
d. Iowa
Almost the entire state of Florida experiences more than
70 thunderstorm days annually.
Chapter Assessment
Multiple Choice
2. The ____ causes the illumination that
you see as lightning.
a. stepped leader
c. channel
b. return stroke
d. thunder
The stepped leader is the invisible channel of
negatively charged air that moves from the cloud
toward the ground. The return stroke rushes upward
from the ground to meet it, illuminating the channel
with about 100 million V of electricity.
Chapter Assessment
Multiple Choice
3. Which classification on the Fujita tornado
intensity scale represents a strong tornado?
a. F0
c. F3
b. F1
d. F5
F0 and F1 are classified as weak tornadoes. F2 and F3
are classified as strong tornadoes. F4 and F5 are
classified as violent tornadoes.
Chapter Assessment
Multiple Choice
4. Which of the following areas is least likely to be
hit by a hurricane or typhoon?
a. western Africa
b. eastern United States
c. southern Japan
d. eastern India
As a general rule, the most likely areas to be hit by a
hurricane are on the eastern side of continents.
Australia is the exception; both its east and west
coasts are vulnerable.
Chapter Assessment
Multiple Choice
5. Cold waves are caused by ____.
a. high-pressure systems
b. low-pressure systems
c. mT air masses
d. cT air masses
Cold waves are brought on by large high-pressure
systems that originate in the polar regions.
Chapter Assessment
Short Answer
6. Explain why cold-front thunderstorms can last
through the night?
Cold-front thunderstorms get their initial lift from
the push of cold air. They are not dependent on
daytime heating. The thunderstorm can persist
as long as the flow of moist, warm air into it is
not disrupted.
Chapter Assessment
Short Answer
7. What is wind shear and why is it important in the
formation of tornadoes?
Wind shear is when wind speed and direction
change suddenly with height. This can produce
a horizontal rotation near Earth’s surface. If this
occurs close to the thunderstorm’s updrafts the
twisting column of wind can be tilted from a
horizontal to vertical position.
Chapter Assessment
True or False
8. Identify whether the following statements are
true or false.
______
true Tornadoes can occur virtually anywhere
on Earth.
______
false Typical thunderstorms last about two hours.
______
true High instability in the atmosphere limits
thunderstorms.
______
true Air-mass thunderstorms generally occur during
mid-afternoon.
______
false Tropical disturbances have a cyclonic
circulation.
Image Bank
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