Download 15. Biosphere as a system for guaranteeing of human existence

Biosphere as a system for
guaranteeing of human existence
Lecturer: ass. prof. Rybitska L.N.
PLAN
1. The structure of biosphere
2. Ecosystem as a unit of
biosphere
3. Human ecology as ecology of
Homo sapiens
4. Pollution of environment
• At the first time the term
"biosphere" was coined by austrian
geologist Eduard Suess in 1875; he
defined:
The biosphere is the aggregate of
different organisms that live on
Earth's surface.
• In the 1929 the term "Biosphere"
was coined by Russian scientist
Vladimir Vernadsky as:
The biosphere is the life zone of the
Earth and consists of all living
organisms, including human beings,
and all organic matters.
The structure of biosphere
Biosphere has 3 phases of substances:
1. Liquid
2. Solid
3. Gas
The parts of hydrosphere, atmosphere and
lithosphere (where the organisms live)
belong to biosphere.
Atmosphere
• The atmosphere is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, argon,
water vapor, and a number of trace gases. This
composition has remained relatively constant throughout
much of Earth's history. Different processes and
chemical reactions (such as transpiration and
condensation of water, photosynthesis, the formation of
air flow, climate and weather) run in atmosphere.
Chemical reactions maintain the ratios of major
constituents of the atmosphere to each other. For
example, oxygen is released into the atmosphere by
photosynthesis and consumed by respiration. The
concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere is maintained
by a balance between these two processes:
• Photosynthesis: CO2 + H2O + light → "CH2O" + O2
Respiration: "CH2O" + O2 → CO2 + H2O + energy
•
"CH2O" denotes the average composition of organic matter.
Atmospheric gas composition (average). Concentrations of gases shown in
color are rising due to human activities.
Gas
Mole fraction
Nitrogen (N2)
0.78
Oxygen (O2)
0.21
Water (H2O)
0.04 to < 5x10-3; 4x10-6 — strat
Argon (Ar)
0.0093
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
370x10-6 (date: 2000)
Neon (Ne)
18.2x10-6
Ozone (O3)
0.02x10-6 to 10x10-6
Helium (He)
5.2x10-6
Methane (CH4)
1.7x10-6
Krypton (Kr)
1.1x10-6
Hydrogen (H2)
0.55x10-6
Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
0.32x10-6
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
0.03x10-6 to 0.3x10-6
Chlorofluorocarbons
3.0x10-9
Carbonyl Sulfide (COS)
0.1x10-9
Atmosphere structure
• Earth's
atmosphere
extends more than
560 kilometers
(348 miles) above
the planet's
surface and is
divided into four
layers, each of
which has distinct
thermal, chemical,
and physical
properties. Life
can exist only in
the lowest part of
atmosphere –
troposphere.
Hydrosphere
• Water is essential substance for all living organisms on
Earth and plays a key role in the evolution and
development of life on our planet.
• The biosphere as we know would not exist without
liquid water (for example, planet of Solar system Mars).
• Water is also important for living organisms to transport
the soluble nutrients (phosphates and nitrates).
Hydrosphere structure
• Oceans are divided into zones that offer a wide range of
conditions for life.
Lithosphere
• Soil is the component of
lithosphere. It contains
mineral and organic
matters. All living
organisms can use
these matters for their
nutrition and
development.
Lithosphere structure
Anthroposphere
It is that part of the environment that is
made or modified by humans for use
for human activities and human
habitats. It is sometimes also called
technosphere.
Human population causes the
destruction of different parts of
biosphere (deforestation,
desertification, pollution etc.).
Ecology
As the human activity has
negative influence to nature,
nowadays there is a new
sciense – ecology.
Ecology is the scientific study of
relationships in the natural
world.
It includes relationships
-between organisms and their
physical environments
(physiological ecology);
-between organisms of the same
species (population ecology);
-between organisms of different
species (community ecology);
-between organisms and the
fluxes of matter and energy
through biological systems
(ecosystem ecology).
Ecosystem is the complex association of
plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms
that interact with their nonliving
environment in such way to regulate the flow
of energy through them and the cycling of
nutrients within
them. Ecosystem
consists of both
living (biotic)
and nonliving
(abiotic)
components.
Abiotic factors
They include:
•
•
•
•
•
soil,
water,
light,
inorganic matters,
weather.
Biotic factors
They are the factors of the living nature. There
are 2 forms of interaction of biotic factors:
1. Predation;
2. Symbiosis.
Predation
One animal,
the predator
kills and eats
another animal,
the prey.
Symbiosis
It is a biological relationship in which two
dissimilar organisms live together in a close
association. Biologists distinguish three main
types of symbiosis:
1. parasitism,
2. commensalisms,
3. mutualism.
Parasitism
It is a relationship where one species benefits
and the other is harmed.
Commensalisms
It is a relationship where one
species benefits and the
other is not affected.
Entamoeba coli
Mutualism
It is a relationship where
both species benefit .
Escherichia coli
Living components
• Producers are autotrophic organisms with the
capability of carrying on photosynthesis and
making food for themselves (green plants on land
and algae in water). A plant fixes about 1% of the
solar energy that falls on its green parts.
• Photosynthesis – a process where by chlorophyllcontaining organisms trap sunlight energy to build a
sugar from carbon dioxide and water.
Living components
• Concumers are heterotrophic organisms that use
preformed food. There are 4 types of consumers:
• Herbivores (primary consumers) feed directly on
green plants or plant products.
Examples are grasshoppers, mice, rabbits, deer,
beavers, moose, cows, sheep, goats and
groundhogs.
• Carnivores (secondary or tertiary, consumers)
feed on only other animals.
Examples are foxes, frogs, snakes, hawks, and
spiders.
Living components
• Omnivores feed on both plants and animals.
Examples of omnivores are: bears, turtles, monkeys,
squirrels.A human being eating both leafy green
vegetables and beef is an omnivore too.
• Decomposers feed on detritus. There are a bacterial
and fungal species.
Every ecosystem is characterized by 2
fundamental phenomena:
• -energy
flow
• -chemical
cycling
Chemical cycling
• water cycle
• nitrogen cycle
• carbon cycle • oxygen cycle
It occurs because
all the energy
content of
organic food is
eventually lost
to the
environment as
heat.
It begins
when
producers
absorb
solar
energy.
Energy flow
Energy and nutrient transfer
through ecosystems
The sequence of organisms through which energy
may move in a community is called a food chain.
As the human
population
increases in
size, the space
allotted to
natural
ecosystems
is reduced in
size. Natural
ecosystems
are then no longer able to process and rid the
biosphere of wastes, which accumulate and are
called pollutants.
Pollutants are substances added to the environment,
particularly by human activities, that lead to
undesirable effects for all living things. Human
beings add pollutants to all parts of the biosphere land, water and air.
The high level of industry
and
agriculture
concentration and
human
economic activities lead to
terrible situation that human
life in many countries is
ecologically dangerous. The pollution of
environment (water pollution, air pollution, land
pollution) has the negative influence to human
health. That is why nowadays a new branch of
ecological science begins to develop. It is human
ecology.
Human ecology
is an academic
discipline that
deals with the
association
between humans
and their natural
environment.
Human ecology views human communities and human
populations as part of the ecosystem of Earth. It is the
special ecology of the species Homo sapiens.
In the world, human ecology was established as a
sociological field in the 1920's, although geographers
were using the term much earlier.
Nowadays the main
development line of
human ecology is
directed to the decision of
the problems by the
environment, ways of the
rational usage of nature ,
the optimization of human
life conditions in diverse
anthropological systems.
Human ecology explores not only the
influence of humans on their environment but
also the influence of the environment on human
behaviour and health. It is a way of thinking
about the world, and a context in which we
should define our questions and ways to answer
those questions.
?
?
?
?
?
?
The object of investigation
is the system:
Environment
Human
The structure of
environment
Environment
Natural (can have
natural or changed
(anthropogenic)
condition)
Biosphere
Hydrosphere
Social
Atmo
sphere
Litho
sphere
Different
subsystems
of structure
of society
The place of human ecology in the
system of ecological sciences
Ecological sciences
Applied
Theoretical
Bioecologi
cal
Human
ecology
Animal
ecology
Geoecol
ogical
Plant
ecology
Technoecol
ogical
Fungi
ecology
Socioeco
logical
Microorga
nism
ecology
The main tasks of human ecology:
• the investigation of human health condition;
• the research of dynamics of human health condition in the
process of historical and social-economical development;
• the forecast of the health condition of the future generations;
• the investigation of the processes of human health protection;
• the analysis of global and regional problems of human ecology;
• the research of influence of environmental factors to human
health;
• the composition of medical-geographical maps that show the
territorial differentiation of human diseases;
• the addition of medical-geographical maps and environmental
pollution maps and the determination of correlative
dependence between human diseases and environmental
pollution;
• the determination of value of boundary technogenic load limit
to human organism.
Human ecology uses many methods of
investigation:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
mathematical;
statistical;
biochemical;
physical;
bacteriological;
clinical;
physiological etc.
Human ecology is connected with many
sciences:
•
•
•
•
immunology;
hygiene of environment;
ecotoxicology;
medical geography etc.
The main terms of human ecology:
• Hygiene standard – is the definite range of values of the
environmental factor which is optimal or is not dangerous
for human health, activity and life;
• Maximum permissible concentration – is maximum
amount of toxic substance in unit of volume or mass of
water, air or soil which does not have any influence to
human health;
• Maximum permissible level – is periodical or permanent
influence of the environmental factor to human organism
which can not cause any diseases or changes in human
health condition;
• Maximum permissible dose – is the amount of toxic
substance which penetrating in human organism does not
hurt it.
In real conditions humans feel the influence
of different environmental factors.
Chemical
Carbon (IV) oxide
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone
Medical substances
Heavy metals
environ
mental
factors
Light
Physical
Temperature
Humidity
Relations between humans
Biological
Relations between humans and plants
Relations between humans and animals
Relations between humans and microorganisms
The influence of physical factors to
human organism
• solar activity – there is the close connection
between death, birth and solar activity.
If there are spots on the sun surface, people have
bad mood, their activity is reduced, there is an
accentuation of chronic diseases, especially
diseases of cardiovascular and central nervous
systems.
• weather – it can have different influence to
human organism. It influences to human
behavior and psychological condition. Many
peoples suffer foehnic disease 1-2 days before
the beginning wind weather;
• temperature – high temperature can change
the immunological reactionary
of human organism, reduces
the attention and causes
anemia. Low temperature can
change the system of
thermoregulation of human
organism. It reduces
metabolism and
immunological reactions to
different infections.
The influence of anthropogenic
factors to human organism
• ozone hole – it can pass ultraviolet rays that effect human
cells, cause mutations.
Effects on humans
UVB(the higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone) is generally accepted
to be a contributory factor to skin canser. In addition, increased surface UV
leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans.
1. Basal and Squamous Cell Carcinomas.They are the most common forms
of skin cancer in humans. The mechanism by which UVB induces these
cancers is well understood—absorption of UVB radiation causes the
pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule to form dimers, resulting in
transcription errors when the DNA replicates. These cancers are relatively
mild and rarely fatal, although the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma
sometimes requires extensive reconstructive surgery.
2. Malignant Melanoma. It is another form of skin cancer, malignant
melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in
about 15–20% of the cases diagnosed. The relationship between malignant
melanoma and ultraviolet exposure is not yet well understood, but it appears
that both UVB and UVA are involved.
3. Cortical Cataracts. There is an association between ocular cortical
cataracts and UVB. There are data that percentage of this disease among
white women are lower than white men. So the risk is bigger in men.
Moreover, there are no data linking sunlight exposure to risk of cataract in
African Americans.
Increased Tropospheric Ozone. Increased surface UV leads to increased
tropospheric ozone. Ground-level ozone is generally recognized to be a
health risk, as ozone is toxic due to its strong oxidant properties.
• greenhouse effect – it is the increase of environmental
temperature (global warming) that has negative influence to
human organism.
• acid rains – they can hurt human respiratory tracts
and skin, attack fruits and vegetables.
• photochemical fogs – it is the mixture of different
gases that are wastes from the plants of chemical
industry and transport. It hurts human respiratory
tracts and causes poisoning.
Santiago/Chile/Winter 2003
• heavy metals – lead, mercury, manganese, zinc,
chromium etc. – they are poisons that hurt all organs
and central nervous system in human organism,
cause pathological changes in them.
Effects on
humans
Some of these elements are
actually necessary for humans
in minute amounts (cobalt,
copper, chromium,
manganese, nickel) while
others are carcinogenic or
toxic, affecting central
nervous system (manganese,
mercury, lead, arsenic),
kidneys or liver (mercury, lead,
cadmium, copper) or skin,
bones, teeth (nickel, cadmium,
copper, chromium).
Water pollution
Water is the most spread nonorganic substance in whole world. It is the basis of all
processes in alive organisms and it is the unique source of oxygen in the process of
photosynthesis. The biosphere would not exist without liquid water.
Hydrosphere is polluted with human help. Industrial wastes
can include heavy metals and organic chlorides, such as
pesticides. These materials are not destroyed under natural
conditions. So they accumulate in the bottom mud of deltas
of highly polluted rivers and cause environmental problems.
Water pollution
Mineral
Biological
(bacterial)
Organic
Sand,
mineral
salts, acid
and alkali
solutions
Causative
agents of
cholera,
dysentery,
typhus etc.
plant and
animal
remains,
animal and
human feces
Every year 5 million peoples die in the result of poisoning by polluted
water. Nowadays new diseases appear that are connected with
chemical water pollution.
• Itay-itay – it is the disease caused by water with
high concentration of cadmium;
• Minomata – it is the disease caused by water with
high concentration of mercury;
• Molybdenum podagra – it is the disease caused by
water with high concentration of molybdenum;
• Fluorosis - it is the disease caused by water with
high concentration of fluor.
land pollution
The geosphere and biosphere are intimately connected
through soils, which consist of a mixture of air, mineral
matters, organic matters, and water. Soils can accumulate
almost all toxic substances.
The main sources of soil pollution are:
• Industry;
• Transport;
• Agriculture.
Pesticides
Land
pollution
Nitrates
Bacterial
In agriculture people use pesticides and nitrates.
These substances are very dangerous and toxic.
They can cause mutations, cancer, pathological
processes in central nervous system, respiratory
and alimentary tracts, skin.
Teratogen is any
agent that can disturb
the development of
an embryo or fetus.
Teratogens may
cause a birth defect
in the child. The
classes of teratogens
include
-radiation,
-maternal infections,
-chemicals,
-drugs.
Drugs known to be capable of acting as teratogens include, ACE inhibitors like
benazepril (brand name: Lotensin), captopril (Capoten), enalapril (Vasotec),
fosinopril sodium (Monopril), lisinopril (Zestril, Prinivil), lisinopril and
hydrochlorothiazide (Zestoretic, Prinzide), quinapril (Accupril), and ramipril
(Altace); the acne medication isotretinoin (Accutane, Retin-A); alcohol, whether
ingested chronically or in binges; androgens (male hormones); the antibiotics
tetracycline (Achromycin), doxycycline (Vibramycin), and streptomycin; bloodthinners, such as warfarin (Coumadin); seizure medications, including
phenytoin (Dilantin), valproic acid (Depakene, Depakote, Valprotate),
trimethadione (Tridione), paramethadione (Paradione), and carbamazepine
(Tegretol); the anti-depressant/anti-manic drug lithium (Eskalith, Lithotab);
antimetabolite/anticancer drugs methotrexate (Rheumatrex) and aminopterin;
the antirheumatic agent and chelator penicillamine (Ciprimene, Depen);
antithyroid drugs, such as thiouracil/propylthiouracil and carbimazole/
methimazole; cocaine; DES (diethylstilbestrol), a hormone; and thalidomide
(Thalomid). Obviously, alcohol and illegal or unnecessary drugs should never be
used by women who are pregnant, or who plan to get pregnant. However,
sometimes a medication necessary for health is also a teratogen: thyroid
medication, blood thinners, and lithium are just a few examples. In these cases,
female patients should work carefully with their doctors to determine if an
alternative treatment is possible before and during pregnancy. In some cases
the danger of birth defects is limited to a certain part of the pregnancy, and
medication can be started again after that period has passed. Other medications
can be safely restarted with the baby's birth. Some medications also pass
through breast milk, however, and if they cannot be avoided the mother may
need to choose formula feeding instead.
air pollution
Air pollution is
the introduction
of chemicals,
particulate matters
or biological
materials that
cause harm or
discomfort to
humans or other living organisms, into the
atmosphere.
The results of air pollution:
•
•
•
•
Photochemical smog;
Acid deposition;
Global warming;
Destruction of the ozone shield.
Human population
DEFORESTATION
poses a threat to
the biosphere by
habitat destruction,
especially by the
destruction of
tropical rainforests
(deforestation).
This process is driving thousands of species to
extinction each year and reducing biological
diversity.
This is the logo of WWF (World
Wildlife Fund). Their aim is to
protect the future of nature.
This organization is normally
based on preserving endangered
wildlife that is facing the threat of
extinction. Reason of being
extincted is due to selfishness and
greediness of human being again. We tend to
destroy their habitat and even kill all these
innocent animals for our benefits like selling
their body parts like skin and so on. So our
next generation will not view all these
beautiful creatures by their own eyes.
SOUND POllution
It is excessive, displeasing human,
animal or machine-created
environmental noise that disrupts
the activity or balance of human or
animal life.
The source of most outdoor noise
worldwide is mainly construction
and transportationsystems,
including motor vehicle noise,
aircraft noise and rail noise.
Noise pollution can cause annoyance and aggression,
hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep
disturbances, and other harmful effects. Furthermore, stress
and hypertension are the leading causes to health problems,
whereas tinnitus can lead to forgetfulness, severe depression
and at times panic attacks.
High noise can contribute to cardiovascular effects. It can
increase or decrease blood pressure that lead to coronary
artery disease.
RADIATION POllution
The Chernobyl disaster
• The Chernobyl disaster
was a nuclear accident
that occurred on 26 of April
in 1986 at the Chernobyl
Nuclear Power Plant in the
Ukrainian SSR (now
Ukraine). It is considered
the worst nuclear power
plant accident in history,
and it is the only one
classified as a level 7
event on the International
Nuclear Event Scale.
The disaster began during a systems test on 26
of April in 1986 at reactor number four at the
Chernobil plant, which is near the town of
Pripyat. There was a sudden power output
surge, and when an emergency shutdown
was attempted, a more extreme spike in
power output occurred, which led to a reactor
vessel rupture and a series of explosions.
This event exposed the graphite moderator
components of the reactor to air, causing
them to ignite. The resulting fire sent a plume
of radioactive fallout into the atmosphere and
over an extensive geographical area,
including Pripyat. The plume drifted over large
parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern
Europe, Western Europe, and Northern
Europe . Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and
Russia had to be evacuated, and over
336,000 people were resettled. According to
official post-Soviet data, about 60% of the
fallout landed in Belarus.
Despite the accident, Ukraine continued to
operate the remaining reactors at Chernobyl
for many years. The last reactor at the site
was closed down in 2000, 14 years after the
accident.
Aerial view of the damaged core.
Roof of the turbine hall is
damaged. Roof of the adjacent
reactor 3 (image lower left) shows
minor fire damage.
Effects of Chernobyl Accident on human health
Down syndrome (trisomy 21). In West Berlin, Germany, prevalence of Down syndrome
peaked 9 months following the main fallout. Between 1980 and 1986, the birth prevalence
of Down syndrome was quite stable (i.e., 1.35–1.59 per 1,000 live births [27–31 cases]). In
1987, 46 cases were diagnosed (prevalence = 2.11 per 1,000 live births). Most of the
excess resulted from a cluster of 12 cases among children born in January 1987. The
prevalence of Down syndrome in 1988 was 1.77, and in 1989, it reached pre-Chernobyl
values.
Chromosomal abberations. Reports of structural chromosome aberrations in people
exposed to fallout in Belarus and other parts of the former Soviet Union, Austria, and
Germany argue against a simple dose-response relationship between degree of
exposure and incidence of aberrations. These findings are relevant because a close
relationship exists between chromosome changes and congenital malformations.
Inasmuch as some types of aberrations are almost specific for ionizing radiation,
researchers use aberrations to assess exposure dose.
Neural tube defects (NTDs) in Turkey. During the embrionic phase of fetal development, the
neural tube differentiates into the brain and spinal cord. Chemical or physical
interactions with this process can cause NTDs. Common features of this class of
malformations are more or less extended fissures, often accompanied by consecutive
dislocation of central nervous system (CNS) tissue. NTDs include spina bifida occulta
and aperta, encephalocele, and—in the extreme case—anencephaly. The first evidence in
support of a possible association between CNS malformations and fallout from
Chernobyl was published by Akar et al. in 1988. The Mustafakemalpasa State Hospital,
Bursa region, covers a population of approximately 90,000. Investigators have
documented the prevalence of malformations since 1983. The prevalence of NTDs was
1.7 to 9.2 per 1,000 births, but during the first 6 months of 1987 increased to 20 per 1,000
(12 cases). The excess was most pronounced for the subgroup of anencephalics, in
which prevalence increased 5-fold (i.e., 10 per 1,000 [6 cases]). In the consecutive
months that followed (i.e., July–December 1987), the prevalence decreased again (1.3 per
1,000 for all NTDs, 0.6 per 1,000 for anencephaly), and it reached pre-Chernobyl levels
during the first half of 1988 (all NTDs: 0.6 per 1,000; anencephaly: 0.2 per 1,000).
Acute radiation syndrome (ARS) also known as radiation
poisoning, radiation sickness or radiation toxicity, is a
constellation of health effects which occur within several
months of exposure to high amounts of ionizing radiation.
The onset and type of symptoms that develop depends on the
dose of radiation exposure.
Relatively smaller doses result in
gastrointestinal effects such as
nausea and vomiting and symptoms
related to falling blood counts such
as infection and bleeding.
Relatively larger doses can result
in neurological effects and rapid
death. Treatment of acute radiation
syndrome is generally supportive with
A Japanese girl recovering
blood transfusions and antibiotics.
from the effects of
radiation sickness.
It Is Not Too Late
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle
Love your planet!
don’t harm it!
Thank you
for
attention !