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COMMUNITIES BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY: all the INTERACTING populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time. LIMITING FACTOR: any biotic or abiotic that RESTRICTS the existence, number, reproduction, or distribution of organisms. COMMUNITIES TOLERANCE: the ability of an organism to withstand (or TOLERATE) fluctuations in biotic and abiotic environmental factors. SUCCESSIONS: the orderly, natural CHANGES and species replacements that take place in the communities of the ecosystem. COMMUNITIES TWO TYPES OF SUCCESSION PRIMARY SUCCESSION: the colonization of BARREN LAND by communities of organisms. CLIMAX COMMUNITY: communities of organisms become STABLE, and reaches an EQUILIBRIUM. COMMUNITIES TWO TYPES OF SUCCESSION SECONDARY SUCCESSION: the sequence of changes that takes place after an existing community is severely DISTURBED in some way. Example: 1988 forest fire of Yellowstone National Park fire → wildflowers → shrubs → trees → insects → animals BIOMES Review: BIO: Greek (biotikos) = LIFE! BIOTIC: pertaining to life or LIVING THINGS. ABIOTIC: (“a” = NOT) NON-LIVING component of the environment. BIODIVERSITY: “The VARIETY of life”! INDIGENOUS: NATIVE to (originated from) a particular place. BIOMES BIOMES: A large group of ECOSYSTEMS that share the same type of CLIMAX community. Two types: terrestrial & aquatic AQUATIC: (in water) Examples: marine, estuaries, intertidal zones, freshwater, wetlands, swamps, marshes, and bogs. TERRESTRIAL: (on land) Examples: tundra, taiga, desert, grassland, temperate forest, and tropical forest. BIOMES WORLD’S MAJOR BIOMES DESERT FOREST GRASSLAND TUNDRA TAIGA CHAPARRAL FRESHWATER MARINE BIOMES DESERT BIOMES Deciduous FOREST Tropical Rain BIOMES GRASSLAND BIOMES TUNDRA BIOMES TAIGA BIOMES CHAPARRAL BIOMES FRESHWATER BIOMES MARINE Terrestrial Biomes Aquatic Biomes www.learner.org Climographs DESERT Climate & Soils: Very dry; hot days & cold nights; rainfall less than 10 in/year (25 cm/year). Soils are thin and porous.. Dominant Vegetation: Widely scattered thorny bushes & shrubs, cacti Dominant Animal Life: Rodents, lizards, snakes, numerous insects, owls, hawks, small birds, dingo, jackrabbit, toads Geographic Distribution: North & Southwest Africa, parts of Middle East & Asia, Southwest United States, Northern Mexico Spadefoot Toad © Billy Price http://rrms-biomes.tripod.com Dingo Jackrabbit DESERT 1st Trophic Level: Primary Producers - Plants These are plants that make food through photosynthesis. Including: Trees, shrubs, cactus, wildflowers, grasses 2nd Trophic Level: Primary Consumers - Herbivores These animals are usually small and eat little. Including: Ants and other insects, rats and mice, some reptiles. 3rd Trophic Level: Secondary Consumers - Small Carnivores The predators are the secondary consumers. They occupy the third trophic level. Again we see cold-blooded animals, such as snakes, insect-eating lizards, and tarantulas. In the harsher desert environments, they are the top predators. 4th Trophic Level: Tertiary Consumers - Carnivores These are high level consumers, carnivores that will eat other carnivores. DESERT Interesting Facts: The Gobi Desert in Asia is cold for most of the year. Mountains on the edge of deserts prevent rain from entering. The rain stays on the other side of the mountain creating rain forests next to many deserts. These deserts are called rain shadows. The world's deserts are growing through desertification. This happens when grasslands that border the desert become as dry as the desert. Desertification can also be caused by intense farming. The cactus can store gallons of water in their stems and trunks The jackrabbits abnormally large ears allow it to relieve heat Kangaroo rats take water from the food they eat, thus, they never have to drink. Climatograph El Paso, TX www.drought.unl.edu Note: 35 C = 95 F 15 C = 59 F 350 mm = 13.8 in. www.uwsp.edu 150 mm = 6 in. FOREST Deciduous • Ave. annual temperature = 10C (50F) • Rainfall = 30-60 inches a year • Five different zones. These zones are the Tree Stratum Zone, Small Tree and Sapling Zone, the Shrub Zone, the Herb Zone, and the Ground Zone. • Four distinct seasons. • In fall and winter, the trees lose their leaves. • Plants use the forest’s nutrients by leaning toward the sun and absorbing the nutrients from the ground. • Many deciduous forests have lost land due to habitat destruction (farms and towns that are built). • Always located in temperate zones above tropical forests and below coniferous forests. • Animals are usually acorn feeders or omnivores. Tertiary Consumers =Cougars, bears Secondary Consumers=Foxes, owls, opossums, birds, skunks Primary Consumers=Deer, rodents, birds, insects Primary Producers=Fruit trees, berry bushes, fungi, ferns www.world-builders.org Rainforest Temperate Tropical • Temperate evergreen forests include diverse vegetation, animal life and can be found all over the world. The summers are dry and all the trees are conifers. Average Rainfall and Temperature •Average rainfall: 60 - 200 in/yr. •The temperature varies below freezing in the winter, and up to 80 deg. F in summer. • Some of the animals include squirrels, rabbits, mountain lion, bobcat and fox. • Coniferous forests are the largest land biome in the world. The tropical rain forest is a forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth. Almost all tropical rain forests are near the equator. Rain forests cover 6% of the Earth’s land surface. Average Rainfall and Temperature An average rainfall in a tropical rain forest is 95 in/yr. The average temperature about 28 degrees Celsius The temperature in a rain forest rarely gets higher than 93 °F (34 °C) or drops below 68 °F (20 °C) Places in the World • Tropical: Most are located in South America, West Africa, and Southeast Asia. Almost all rainforests are near or on the equator. •Temperate: East Asia, Australia, New Zealand, western edge of North and South America. Climate usually portrays proximity to ocean. Temperate Rain Forest Tertiary Consumers =Lynx, wolves, bears, cougars Secondary Consumers=Shrew, amphibians, weasels, raccoons, insects, birds Primary Consumers=Salmon, insects, deer, elk, birds, chipmunks, squirrels, voles Primary Producers=Ferns, mosses, shrubs, mushrooms Interesting Facts: • Climate usually portrays proximity to the ocean •Wildfires are uncommon because of constant high moisture content •Unlike tropical rain forests, temperate rain forests have seasonal variations Tropical Rain Forest Tertiary Consumers =Jaguars, tigers, snakes, Secondary Consumers= Reptiles, amphibians, bats, insects, birds Primary Consumers=Monkeys, birds, insects, small mammals Primary Producers=Vines, epiphytes, flowering plants, Both canopy and understory trees Interesting Facts: • About 1/4 of the medicines come from the tropical rain forest • More than half of the animals and plant species are living in the rain forest. • More than 1,400 varieties of tropical plants are thought to be potential cures for cancer. Rainforest Climatograph Tropical Temperate Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Vancouver, Canada www.drought.unl.edu TAIGA (Boreal Forest) • The Northern coniferous forest or boreal forest often called Taiga developed in cooler and drier regions as do temperate forests. • They experience long, cold winters and short, cool summers. •It consists of evergreen trees that dominate large parts on the forest interspersed with occasional bogs and lakes. •Soils are typically young, nutrient-poor and somewhat acidic. As a result of the strong seasonal variation in day length, temperature and precipitation, many organisms compile a year’s worth of feeding, breeding, and rearing a young into a few warm, wet months. TAIGA • Stretch across much of Canada, Alaska, Russia and Scandinavia. Average Rainfall and Temperature • Winter's LOWEST temperature in taiga is -65°F. • Winter's HIGHEST temperature is 30° F. • Summer's LOWEST temperature is 30° F • Summer's HIGHEST temperature is 70° F • The average rainfall in Taiga is about 23.88 cm per month. Interesting Facts • There are 2 types of Boreal Forest 1) Open woodland and 2) dense forest. • The world’s largest terrestrial forest. • Since the northern areas were once connected North America and Eurasia were once connected by land bridges during past ice ages, the animals and vegetations of the boreal have been able to spread widely. • Boreal Forests have some of the Earth’s largest wilderness areas that remain. • Fur bearing animals of boreal have been of commercial value, lately this value has drooped due to Western nation’s concern of the animal’s welfare. TAIGA FOOD WEB GRASSLAND • The grassland biome consists of areas of land in which are to dry for forests and to wet for deserts. • Grasslands and the many species they support occupy 25% of all land area. • The grasslands have been exploited by agricultural farmers for their rich soils in which can Indigenous Plants and Animals be used for successfully growing• Dominant animal species consist of mass amounts of crops in one elephants, wildcats, antelopes, buffalo, area. horse, rabbits, leopards, eagles, pumas, and kangaroos. • Sometimes called prairies, • Dominant plants consist of many different savannahs or steppes. kinds of grasses, perennials, and extensively developed roots. • Grasslands are located North of the Trophic of Cancer and South of the Trophic of Capricorn. • Grasslands are located in many parts of the world. In America they are located in the North Central and Eastern United States. • Grasslands are also located in other countries and continents such as Mongolia, Russia, Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Africa, Madagascar, Australia, and New Zealand. • Average temperature in summer:104°F • Average temperature in winter: -40°F • Average amount of rainfall:10-30 inches • Early settlers referred to the grasslands as “prairies” and thought they were dry and flat areas, but realized they contained 80 different species of animals and 300 species of birds. • Grasslands are considered a transitional biome, which means there are found between the desert and forests. • Dominant vegetation: lowgrowing sedges, dwarf shrubs, lichens mosses, and grasses (producers) TUNDRA • Plants are accustomed to sweeping winds and soil disturbance •Birds use the scrubs for nests •Dominant animal life: yearround lemmings, arctic hares (primary consumers), arctic foxes (secondary consumers), lynx, caribou, musk ox; summers: abundant insects, many migrant shorebirds, geese, ducks, pikas. The word tundra derives from the Finnish word for barren or treeless land. The tundra is the simplest biome in terms of species composition and food chains. • Extremely short growing season (6 to 10 weeks) • Long, cold, dark winters (6 to 10 months with mean monthly temperatures below 32。 F or 0。 C.) • Low precipitation (less than five inches/year) coupled with strong, drying winds. • Snowfall is actually advantageous to plant and animal life as it provides an insulating layer on the ground surface. Distribution: The tundra biome is restricted to the high latitudes of the northern hemisphere in a belt around the Arctic Ocean. Many of its species, both plant and animal, have circumpolar distribution areas. Interesting Facts: • Permafrostpermanently frozen subsoil •Among the Earth’s coldest, harshest biomes •Black flies and mosquitoes are abundant. •Tundra are vulnerable to habitat destruction, over-hunting, and extinction through loss of any of the plant or animal species www.world-builders.org CHAPARRAL • Mediterranean scrub and woodlands, some examples are flatlands, rocky hills and mountain slopes. • Chaparral is characterized as being very hot and dry, since they are only found in some terrains like flat plains, rocky hills and mountain slopes. • During the summer fires and droughts are very common due to the terrain and climate. Plants and animals who live in these area have adapted to the conditions many plants have small, hard leaves which hold moisture. •Most animals are mainly grassland and desert types adapted to the hot, dry terrain. • Due to the adaptations the trees produce flammable aromatic oils that are prone to frequent fires. Location Mediterranean Coast Coastal California, Los Angeles and San Francisco South Australia Parts of South Africa Los Angeles, CA CHAPARRAL http://www.worldexecutive.com Annual Precipitation: Less than 300 mm (12 to 17 inches) of rainfall yearly mostly during the winter. This is due to long, dry periods in the summer -Annual Temperature: 59 degrees F in summer, 46 degrees F in winter http://cougarbiology.pbworks.com BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION BIODIVERSITY: variety of species in a specific area. Biodiversity increases as you move towards the EQUATOR. IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY: a. TO NATURE – living things are interdependent b. BRINGS STABILITY: as long as their diversity is maintained c. TO PEOPLE: preserving biodiversity ensures there will be a supply of living things. BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION EXTINCTION: the disappearance of a species Only those species that can ADAPT will escape extinction. The FOSSIL record show that extinctions have occurred many times. ENDANGERED SPECIES: species numbers are so low extinction is possible. THREATENED SPECIES: a species is likely to become endangered. BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY HABITAT LOSS: one of the biggest reasons for decline in biodiversity! HABITAT FRAGMENTATION: the separation of wilderness areas for other wilderness areas As new species MIGRATE to an area, overall species diversity declines. BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY GEOGRAPHIC isolation can lead to GENETIC isolation. EDGE EFFECT: “edges” an ecosystem can have two different abiotic factors. (Ex. housecats in suburbia threaten native nesting birds.) BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY HABITAT DEGRADATION: damage to a habitat by pollution a. water pollution (ex. detergents, heavy metals, ASARCO) b. land pollution (ex. DDT, ASARCO) EXOTIC SPECIES: a species that is NOT NATIVE to a particular area. (introduced or invasive) BIODIVERSITY & CONSERVATION CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION BIOLOGY: study and implementation of methods to protect biodiversity. NATURAL RESOURCES: parts of the environment that are useful are necessary for living organisms. Human Effect on Biodiversity Most of these extinctions have occurred on islands. Habitat Destruction Causes: Overpopulation Deforestation Pollution (air, water, soil) Global Warming (climate change) http://www.defenders.org Ex: Mexican gray wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) “El lobo” Humans and habitat destruction pose the greatest threat to Mexican wolves. Endangered, Species Protection Plan (SPP) 2011 Update - Population of endangered Mexican gray wolves has grown for the first time in four years, up to at least 50 wolves and 2 breeding pairs in the wild – a near 20 percent increase from this time last year. Invasive or Introduced Species Invasive species = one that has been introduced and become a pest in its new location, spreading (invading) by natural means. Barriers such as large rivers, seas, oceans, mountains and deserts encourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier. Invasive species occur when those barriers are blurred. Without barriers such species occupy new niches, substantially reducing diversity. Invasive or Introduced Species Introduced species = a species living outside its native distributional range, which has arrived there by human activity, either deliberate or accidental. Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced Invasive or Introduced Species Intentional: Fish and game for recreation and hunting (rabbits in AUS, carp) Plants for sentimental or aesthetic appeal (ornamental plants) Domestic pets (Feral cats and parrots) Reintroduction (Gray wolf in Yellowstone) Food source (apple snail as protein source in HI) Environmental and biological control (Kudzu as erosion control) Invasive or Introduced Species Unintentional/Accidental: Rats hitchhike on ships Zebra mussel Africanized honey bees “killer bees” Fire ants Levels of organization of matter: Universe Planets Ecosphere/Biosphere Ecosystems (abiotic and biotic) Communities (many species) Populations (one species) Organisms (one individual) Organ Systems/Organs Cells Atoms Trophic Categories Producers (autotrophs) - create their own food through photosynthesis; plants, algae and some bacteria. Consumers (heterotrophs) – cannot create their own food, must obtain energy from the food they eat (producers or other consumers). Trophic Categories cont. Detritus feeders – consume detritus and aide in decomposition. Example: earthworm and some beetles Decomposers – digest the detritus more fully and create inorganic material (breaking the carbon bonds.) Example: bacteria and fungi Food Chain Food Chain = shows simple feeding relationships (begin with producers) Quaternary consumer or “fourth order” Tertiary consumer or “third order” Secondary consumer or “second order” Primary consumer or “first order” Primary producer Biomass and Biomass Pyramid All biomass gets its energy from the sun Only 10% of energy from one trophic level moves to the next trophic level Energy released, low on the Biomass Pyramid, is high potential energy molecules (like glucose) then converted to low potential energy molecules (like carbon dioxide) higher on the Pyramid. Understand the concept of eating lower on the biomass pyramid Energy Pyramids Biomass Pyramids Primary Succession Competition Intraspecific competition: competition among members of the same species Interspecific competition: competition among members of different species Species Interactions PREDATION = the use of one species as a resource by another species; an organism that feeds directly upon another living organism, whether or not it kills the prey to do so. 1. True predators: kill prey and consume most of what they kill 2. Carnivore/Omnivore/Herbivore 3. Parasites: live on or in organism (the host) a. Pathogens – cause disease in their host (e.g. viruses, bacteria, protists) Predation cont. 4. Parasitoids: lay eggs inside other organisms. When eggs hatch, larvae slowly consume the host from the inside out (e.g. parasitic wasps and flies) Exceptions include scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers (which feed on dead things) Species Interactions Keystone Species: plays a critical role in maintaining the structure of an ecological community and whose impact on the community is greater than would be expected based on its relative abundance or total biomass. Species Interactions The sea star Pisaster ochraceus, the original keystone species, feeds preferentially on mussels on northeast Pacific rocky shores. By doing so, the predatory sea star prevents mussels from taking over the entire shore and allows less competitive species to persist, thus enhancing local species diversity. (Source: Multi-Agency Rocky Intertidal Network) The sea otter Enhydra lutris, can be considered a keystone predator because its voracious feeding on herbivorous sea urchins allows kelps to flourish along the rocky coast, along with an entire ecosystem associated with these large marine plants. Photo by Matt Knoth. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) Mutualism http://fybiology.tumblr.com www.asknature.org http://adventuresinscience.edublogs.org Commensalism king.portlandschools.org http://animalreview.wordpress.com http://scienceline.org http://www.cals.ncsu.edu