Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Bellwork: 02/28/2014 1. Change 10 to 25% of your tank water today if you have not done so this week. 2. Check the water chemistry of your tank and turn a copy in to me. 3. I am not handing back exams yet, but you can come see your grade if you talk to me. 4. Answer the following questions & write down your own opinion. I encourage you to talk to each other as your are forming your opinions. Thought Questions: One/Person, Include name and date on paper 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. To what extent do humans owe animals ample space without human interaction and reduction in interference/suffering? If an animal is in trouble, due to disease, accident, etc, but the trouble is not caused by humans, should humans intervene to help? Why/why not? If an organism is determined to be sentient (able to reason and recognizes itself as an individual) is it ethical to keep said animal in captivity for the sake of entertainment? If the growth of human civilization causes the disruption or destruction of an animal’s habitat, do humans owe any protections to the displaced animals? Should the benefit (not key to survival) of humans always supersede the survival of a non-human species? Should the basic needs of humans always supersede the survival of a non-human species? Thought Questions: 2. If an animal is in trouble, due to disease, accident, etc., but the trouble is not caused by humans, should humans intervene to help? Why/why not? Thought Questions: 3. If an organism is determined to be sentient (able to reason and recognizes itself as an individual) is it ethical to keep said animal in captivity for the sake of entertainment? Thought Questions: 4. If the growth of human civilization causes the disruption or destruction of an animal’s habitat, do humans owe any protections to the displaced animals? Thought Questions: 5. Should the benefit of humans always supersede the survival of a non-human species? Should the basic needs of humans always supersede the survival of a non-human species? 02/25/2014 1. Any thoughts/questions so far on the documentary we are watching? 2. Think skeptically & critically 3. Tomorrow we will start with a review quiz and then do water changes and water chemistry Marine Mammals Marine Mammals • Like the marine reptiles and birds before them, several different types of land animals successfully invaded the ocean: – Seals, sea lions, and the walrus (order Pinnipedia) – Sea otter and the polar bear (order Carnivora) – Manatees and dugongs (order Sirenia) – Whales, dolphins, and porpoises (order Cetacea) • 120 species altogether What is a Mammal? • Land-dwelling ancestors • Mammals have a 4 chambered heart. • Mammals are warmblooded. • They have hair/fur. • Have mammary glands. • Give birth to live young. Major Marine Mammal Groups Carnivora Pinnepeds • Pinnepeds are marine mammals that have flippers and blubber, that need to breed on land. • Seals, Walruses, and Sea Lions all belong to this Order. • Pinnepeds live in cold water, they have a thick layer of blubber to keep them warm. • They are mostly carnivores and feed on squid and fish. • They have streamlined bodies and are excellent swimmers. • Seals are the largest group of pinnepeds. • • • • • Seals vs. Sea Lions and Fur Seals Seals lack prominent ear flaps Seals have smaller front flippers Seals have fore flipper claws Different hip structures Different locomotion strategies Seals • Seals have rear flippers. • They move forward by pulling themselves along the ground. • Seals do not have ear flaps. • They are hunted for their fur and are protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972. • There are approximately 19 species of Seals. Weddell seal New Zealand fur seal Sea Lions • Are also called Eared Seals, because they have external ear flaps. • They can move their rear flippers forward to walk. • They are graceful and agile swimmers. • These are the animals that you see at Sea World or an Aquarium doing tricks and they also work for the US Navy. • At one time they were hunted for their fur, but are now protected by the MMPA of 1972. Sea lions and fur seals vs. Seals Sea lions and fur seals (Otariidae) Seals (Phocidae) Walruses • Have large protruding tusks for digging up mollusks. • They have stiff whiskers for feeling around on the ocean floor. • They are the largest Pinneped, weighing up to 2700 lbs. Sea Otters • They are the smallest Marine Mammal, weighing 60-80 lbs. • They lack a layer of blubber, and make up for it by trapping air in their dense fur. • They were slaughtered to the brink of extinction for their beautiful fur, but became protected by an international agreement in 1911. • They are playful, and intelligent. • They eat mostly shell fish and spend most of the day maintaining their fur. Sea Otter • Enhydra lutris – Native to north Pacific – 394,000 hairs/cm2 – No blubber – Female 45 lbs; Male 65lbs – Diet: Sea urchins, abalone, mussels, clams, crabs, snails and about 40 other marine species. – Uses tools – Dives to 330 ft – Rests in coastal kelp forests Sea Otters Sea otter as a keystone species Bellwork: 04/01/2013 1. What are two differences between a seal and a sea lion? 2. List three characteristics that can be found in all mammals: 3. What do walruses eat and how do they detect them? Polar Bear Pop size: 22,000 to 27,000 Weight: 550 to 1,700 pounds Polar Bear • Ursa maritimus – United States, Canada, Russia, Greenland and on the Arctic islands of Norway – Male: 10 feet tall and weigh over 1400 lbs – Female: seven feet and weigh 650 lbs – wild polar bears live up to age 25. – Good swimmers – Thick blubber – Thick fur Polar bears • Polar bears are the least adapted to the marine lifestyle • Land animals that are adapted to the cold • Considered marine mammals because they feed almost exclusively on marine organisms • Very good swimmers, but can’t dive below surface well • Hunt seals and walruses, occasionally cetaceans Range: • Circumpolar in Arctic • Range depends on sea ice • normal range occasional range over pack occasional range over permanent ice Polar Bears • They are semi aquatic, and inhabit both the land and the sea. • They feed primarily on seals. • They have recently been put on the endangered species list because of loss of habitat due to global climate change. Manatees and Dugong • Sirenians (order Sirenia) include the manatees and dugong • Sirenians, also known as sea cows, have a pair of front flippers, but no rear limbs • Swim with up-and-down strokes of their paddle- (manatee) or V- (dugong) shaped tails • Closest land relative is the elephant! West African manatee Similar to W. Indian manatee but: blunter snout more protruding eyes more slender body West Indian manatee Dugong Tusks Cetacean-like tail No nails on flippers Totally marine Amazonian Manatee <3m long White patches Totally freshwater Manatees The Florida Manatee Dugong Manatees and Dugong • Sirenians are the only herbivorous marine mammals; feed on aquatic plants and algae • Some species live in fresh and/or brackish water • Inhabit temperate or subtropical waters • Severely threatened by motor boat collisions, harmful algal blooms, pollution, and severe winters 10,000 Dugong Range Manatee 9.8 ft, 800-1200lbs 3,000 in U.S. Stellar’s Sea Cow (the sirenian you’ll never see) • The Stellar Sea Cow was a large, herbivorous marine mammal formerly abundant in the North Pacific • Described by naturalist Wilheim Stellar in 1741; hunted to extinction within 27 years of discovery! – 8 meters long – Fed on kelp – Did otter hunting play a role? Cetaceans • This is the largest group of Marine Mammals, consisting of Whales , Dolphins, and Porpoises. • These, of all the Marine Mammals, have made the most complete transition to aquatic life. • These animals spend their entire lives in the water. • They are streamlined, and look remarkably fish-like. • They breathe air through lungs and have nostrils on the tops of their heads called a blowhole (some single, some double). Order Cetacea • Adaptations for deep diving • Use oxygen efficiently – Able to absorb 90% of oxygen inhaled – Able to store large quantities of oxygen – Able to reduce oxygen required for noncritical organs • Muscles insensitive to buildup of carbon dioxide • Collapsible lungs Mysticeti • Most of the largest Cetaceans – i.e. Blue Whales (Balaenoptera musculus) which are the largest animal in history • Exceeding 100 feet and weigh as much as 160 tons – Smallest is the pygmy right whale (Caperea marginata) • Measure up to 23 feet – More examples: humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae), fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus), and southern right whale (Eubalaena australis) Odontoceti • Largest and most diverse group – i.e. the sperm whale is the largest • Reaching about 60 feet – The largest living predator of warmblooded animals is the killer whale – More examples: Dolphins and porpoises Sperm Whale Order Cetacea • Suborder Odontoceti (toothed) – Dolphins, porpoises, killer whale, sperm whale – Echolocation to determine distance and direction to objects – Determine shape, size of objects Bottle Nose Dolphin – Tursiops trucatus Harbor Porpoise Dolphins vs. Porpoises • Porpoises – – – – Smaller, more stout body shape Blunt snout Triangular, smaller dorsal fin Blunt or flat teeth • Dolphins – – – – Larger, more streamlined shape Longer rostrum Falcate dorsal fin (hooked) Pointy teeth like killer whales (orca) Taxonomic History • Hippopotamids are closest living relatives – Followed by ruminants • i.e. cows – Followed by Artiodactyls • There are more than 120 species of Cetaceans. • They are divided into two groups: toothed Whales (which includes Dolphins and Porpoises), and toothless Whales which have a Baleen. • Instead of teeth, Baleen Whales have rows of flexible, fibrous plates, that hang from the upper jaws (called a Baleen). These are used to filter out plankton and tiny organisms from the water. • Baleen Whales are the largest animals to ever have lived on this planet. • There are 13 species of Baleen Whales, the Blue Whale being the largest at up to 110 ft. long, and up to 200 tons. • The remaining 80 species of Cetaceans are toothed Whales. • Their teeth are adapted for a diet of squid, fish, and other prey. • Teeth are used to catch and hold prey, not to chew it. • The largest of the toothed Whales is the Sperm Whale, made famous by the novel “Moby Dick”. • Killer Whales, or Orcas, are predators, eating seal, penguins, sea otters, and fish. • They are more common in cold water, but are found round the world. Use of Baleen SLEEP • Voluntary breathing – must be conscious to open blow hole. • A few species sleep as such: – Right whales (very buoyant) – Sperm whales (float – do not have to breathe for hours at a time) • Duplication of brain function – part of brain can sleep while another part awake. How do Cetaceans reduce drag for fast swimming? • Fusiform body – Tapered at both ends • Paddle-shaped front limbs • No external digits or claws • Tail flattened laterally and bearing horizontal flukes at the tip • Vestigial ear pinnae • Hairless body • Thick subcutaneous blubber layer filled with fat and oil • Dolphins are highly intelligent creatures, and can be easily trained. • They are very playful, and have been known to “escort” ships for miles at a time. • Porpoises have flattened spade-like teeth and shorter noses than dolphins • Dolphins, Porpoises, and Whales travel in groups called Pods. • They are protected by the MMPA of 1972, but are still hunted. Marine Mammal Project 1. Pick your partner if you want one 2. Groups can be no larger than 2 3. Pick a list of animals for your project 4. The order that you get to select your organism will be random 5. Due April 17th Coping with Cold Climates • Small cetaceans – Have high metabolic rates – Flippers and flukes have a countercurrent heat exchange system • Heat from arterial blood warms venous blood as it returns to the heart • Large cetaceans – Small surface to volume ration • Lose little heat to the surrounding environment • Both are insulated by thick blubber layer Physiological Adaptations for Deep Diving • Rapid exchange in lungs – Enhanced by double capillary layer in the intraalveolar septae – Humans use 4% of Oxygen inhaled, Cetacea use 12% – Twice the number of erythrocytes (red blood cells) and myglobin molecules in their blood • Allows for efficient capture and transport of oxygen Physiological Problems with Deep Diving • Increased pressure with increased depth • At high pressure gases go into solution more quickly • Air breathing organisms have a problem with Nitrogen gas absorption into blood – Causes decompression sickness • i.e. Bends or Caisson’s Disease Physiological Solutions to Deep Diving • Structural Adaptations – Lungs are small • The total amount you take in = the total amount you let out – Dead air spaces are large • i.e. trachea and nasal cavity – Trachea is large and supported by cartilaginous rings – Bronchioles are small but braced by muscles and cartilaginous rings down to alveoli – Ribs are free from sternum Sperm Whale – Physeteridae www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm Cont. • Mechanism – Total exhalation before diving – Diving pressure forces collapse of lungs • Forces air into dead air spaces, including nasal passages – Dead air spaces devoid of vascular tissue – Nitrogen is six times more soluble in oils then in water • Blubber is highly vascular and serves as Nitrogen reservoir • Oil also present in nasal sinus and may absorb nitrogen there as well Cont. • Alter blood distribution – Rate of flow slows down (undergo bradycardia) – Eliminated at non-critical organs via shunts • i.e. digestive tract – Reserved for critical tissues • i.e. heart and brain • High tolerance to Carbon Dioxide and lactic acid build up in tissue Communication • One way Cetaceans communicate is through Echolocation. • They release tiny bubbles through their blowholes and make clicking sounds to communicate with each other and determine distances, and warn others about danger. • This is natures version of Sonar. • The Melon (fatty structure on the top of their heads) focuses and directs these sound waves. • Cetaceans produce a rich variety of sounds tha are associated with different moods, sexual signaling, feeding, alarms…… Communication • Flukes or Flippers – Slap the surface • Breaching – Leaping from the waters surface – Helps them to attain an elevation of several yards • Spy-hopping – Raise head out of water to investigate objects or potential prey Echolocation • Good vision of marine mammals is limited by ocean conditions. • Mammals emit clicks of different pitches. – Low frequency – great distance – High frequency – closer range • Dolphins can detect schools of fish at more than 100 meters (330 feet). Echolocation • Toothed whales send sound through water. • Sound is reflected, returned to the animal, and interpreted. • An evolved inner ear structure may help toothed whales pick up sounds. • Increased marine noise pollution may affect cetacean echolocation. Echolocation LONGEVITY • Harbour porpoise – 15 years • Bottlenose dolphin – 50 years • Killer whale – 90+ years • But only 20-25 years in captivity • Blue whales - 100+ years • Bowhead whales – 218 years + Long life cycles and low reproductive rate means that the recovery of depleted populations is slow Mating • Usually have one mating season per year • Gestation is about 10 to 17 months • Females give birth to a single calf every one to six years • Calves are born tail first and must swim from the moment of birth • Mysticetes nurse for about six months • Odontocetes nurse for over two years Social behavior • Highly sociable within their respective species; often forming pods – Pods often collaborate in hunting, playing, traveling, and taking care of young – Usually remain in pods throughout their life – Pods are beneficial because hunting is easier in a group; also pods decrease predation Breaching • When Whales leap in the air and loudly crash on the surface of the water. • This can be a warning signal, getting rid of external parasites, fun, or a way of scanning the surface. Ecosystem Roles • Vital roles as consumers • Host a range of internal parasites – Cestodes in their intestines (Tetrabothrium and Diplogonoporus) – Plerocercoids in their blubber (Phyllobothrium and Monorygma) – Trematodes in their stomachs, livers, intestines, and sinuses (Bolbosoma) • Host a range of external parasites – Cookie-cutter sharks (Isistius brasiliensis) Cont. • Cetaceans are mutualists with animals that feed on ectoparasites • Birds have a commensal relationships with cetaceans – Seagulls often follow schools of dolphins and consume small fish stirred up by the feeding cetaceans – Pilotfish (Naucrates ductor) sometimes accompany killer whales and eat scraps from their kills Economical Importance for Humans • Disadvantage – Impact commercial fisheries due to competition for fish • Advantage – Hunted for meat, oil, and blubber in 19th century • Oil is used for lighting and heating – Important for entertainment and tourist industries Killer Whale Whaling • 1600’s Europeans exploited whales in North Atlantic • Americans dominated whaling industry. • Hunted for blubber which was used to make soap and lamp oil • Baleen used for making stays on corsets. • Explosive harpoon developed in 1800’s • Right Whales first to be seriously depleted. Slowswimming, floats after being harpooned. Explosive Harpoon: Whaling • 1900’s Whaling moved to Antarctic feeding grounds. Reached its peak in 1930’s Estimated that more than 1 million whales killed in Antarctica. • Blue whales yielded more than 9000 gallons oil. 30,000 blue whales killed during 1930-31 season, 200,000 killed between 1924 and 1971. • The Japanese, Iceland, Faroe Islands, and Norway are the main contemporary whaling countries • Japanese and Norweigian fishing Industries have been whaling under false pretenses (scientific whaling). • It is common for Cetaceans to get caught in fishing nets meant for other species. Faroe Islands: grindadráp • The event, considered more of a party in modern times, takes place every summer • 950 to 1,000 pilot-whales killed during each hunt • Even in the Faroe islands, pilot whales are considered unsafe for human consumption Faroe Islands: grindadráp Faroe Islands: grindadráp Faroe Islands: grindadráp Faroe Islands: grindadráp Whaling (cont.) • 1946 – International Whaling Commission set up by 20 countries to stop “over-fishing”. Collected data on whale numbers from whalers, set non-binding, annual quotas. • After WWII - Demand for whale oil dropped, due to substitutes created. Whale meat still in demand by pet-food industry and Japanese kujiraya or whale-meat bars • 1972 U.S. passed Marine Mammal Protection Act which bans hunting of all marine mammals(exception are Alaskan native fisheries) and importation of all marine mammal products. Whaling (cont.) • 1974 IWC protected blue, gray, humpback, right whales • 1985 moratorium declared on all commercial whaling by IWC. • 1987 Soviet Union halted all whaling/1988 Japan, Iceland and Norway opted to continue whaling of minke, fin and sei whales under “scientific whaling”. Iceland dropped out of IWC • 1994 IWC members created Antarctica as sanctuary, main feeding ground of 80% of remaining great whales. Whaling • International Whaling Commission (IWC) 1948 – established to manage whale hunting • In 1986, 72 IWC nations banned whaling • Three ways to legally hunt whales: – Objection to IWC ban – Scientific whaling – Aboriginal subsistence whaling When the whaling moratorium was enacted, Norway put in a reservation. Norway is, therefore, NOT BOUND BY THE BAN. It initially respected the ban, but then restarted commercial whaling in 1993. Japan eventually signed up to the whaling moratorium. However, it uses a loophole in the moratorium that allows whales to be killed for scientific research. After blubber and stomach content samples are taken, meat is processed and sold in markets In 1994, the International Whaling Commission made the Southern Ocean a Whale Sanctuary – hunting of whales is banned in this area regardless of the moratorium Despite this, Japan still hunts minke whales in the Antarctic for ‘scientific purposes’ SCIENTIFIC PERMITS ... A report distributed at the IWC by Kaschner & Pauly refuted the Japanese claims that whales are eating too many fish "Our analysis clearly shows that there is no evidence that food competition between [marine mammals and fisheries] is a global problem." "Consequently, there is little basis to blame marine mammals for the crisis world fisheries are facing today." "We find that the bulk of consumption by marine mammals occurs in areas of low overlap [with fisheries]… In other words, what marine mammals consume is largely stuff that we do not catch in areas where we do not fish.“ "The bulk of what they eat is actually not fish, it’s krill and other things that we don’t eat." Dolphins and Man • Dolphins are being substituted for whales by some countries. Not protected by IWC • 28 species are in immediate danger of extinction • Vaquitas – small, shovel-nosed porpoise of Gulf of California – only 100 to 300 left. • Depleting fish and squid on which dolphins feed. • Peru – dolphin meat cheaper than beef or chicken • Tuna Fishermen – use purse seine nets and drift nets which trap and drown many dolphins Purse Seine and Drift Nets Drift net Closing Purse Seine Net Fishing Purse seine net • Whales as Endangered Species Fewer whales now than before whaling • International Whaling Treaty • Hunting of gray whale banned in 1938 • Gray removed from endangered list in 1993 as population rebounded