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INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION

Forensic science is the
application of science
to criminal and civil
laws enforced by police
agencies in a criminal
justice system.
Forensic Science Timeline

Orfila (1814) father
of forensic
toxicology
 Bertillon (1879)
father of criminal
identification
(anthropometry)
 Galton (1892) first to
study and classify
fingerprints

Landsteiner (1901)
discovered A,B,O
blood types
 Lattes (1915)
developed a simple
technique for
identifying blood
group of dried blood
stains
1814 Mathieu Bonaventure Orfila
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In 1814, published the
first scientific study of
the effects of poisons
on animals
Father of forensic
toxicology
In 1840, gave expert
testimony in a French
arsenic poisoning
murder case
1879 - Alphonse Bertillon
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Considered the Father
of criminal identification
Developed the science
of measurement called
Anthropometry
Based on taking a
specific series of body
measurements as a
means of personal
identification
Anthropometry
There were eleven measurements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Height
Stretch: Length of body from left
shoulder to right middle finger
when arm is raised
Bust: Length of torso from head to
seat, taken when seate
Length of head: Crown to forehead
Width of head: Temple to temple
Length of right ear
Length of left foot
Length of left middle finger
Length of left cubit: Elbow to tip of
middle finger
Width of cheeks
Length of left pinky
1892 - Francis Galton

First definitive study of
fingerprints.
 Developed a method for
classifying fingerprints
for filing purposes
 Published the book
Finger Prints in 1892
• First statistical proof
that fingerprints could
be used as a unique
identification system
1901 - Karl Landsteiner

Discovered that
blood could be
grouped into
different categories
 The blood
categories are now
known as the A, B,
AB, and O blood
types
Leone Lattes 1915

A professor of Forensic
Medicine at University
of Turin, Italy.

Discovered a method to
test for the A,B,O blood
groups on dried
bloodstains.
1887 - Sherlock Holmes
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Fictional character
created by Sir Arthur
Conan Doyle
First novel: A Study in
Scarlet
Holmes was the first
person to apply many of
modern forensic
principles to solve a
crime before any police
department used them
Forensic Science Timeline

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Goddard (1925)
microscopic bullet to
firearm comparison
Osborn (1910)
published Questioned
Documents
McCrone (1946)
developed advanced
microscopic
technology

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Gross (1893)
published Criminal
Investigation
Locard (1910)
founder, director of
Institute of
Criminalistics at the
University of Lyons,
France
1925 - Calvin Goddard
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Forensic Scientist
Colonel in U.S. Army
Medical doctor
Published the first
reference on ballistics
Professor of political
science at Northwestern
University
1910 - Albert S. Osborn

Developed
fundamental
principles of
document
examination
 Responsible for use
of documents as
scientific evidence
 Published the first
text: Questioned
Documents
1946 - Walter C. McCrone
The first recognized
world-wide expert in
microscopy
• Started a research
foundation devoted
to microscopy in
1960
• Famous for his
forensic analysis of
the Shroud of Turin
•
1893 - Hans Gross
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Public prosecutor and
judge in Graz, Austria
Advocate for scientific
method in forensics
Published first book that
explained how police
could utilize the fields of
microscopy, chemistry,
physics, mineralogy,
zoology, botany,
anthropometry and
fingerprinting in criminal
investigations
1910 - Edmond Locard
Set up the first “crime
lab” in an attic in Lyons,
France in 1910
 Basic forensic science
Locard’s Exchange
Principle:
Whenever any two
objects come in contact
with each other there is an
exchange of material
between the two objects

U.S. Forensic Science Timeline

Los Angeles (1923)
August Vollmer
established the oldest
forensic laboratory in
the U.S.
 UC Berkeley (1948)
Paul Kirk, first head of
the first U.S. school of
Criminology

FBI (1932) J. Edgar
Hoover established
the first national
forensic science
laboratory
 FBI (1981)
established the
Forensic Science
Research and
Training Center
Full-Service Crime Laboratory
BASIC SERVICES SUPPLIED:
PHYSICAL SCIENCE UNIT
 BIOLOGY UNIT
 FIREARMS UNIT
 DOCUMENT EXAMINATION UNIT
 PHOTOGRAPHY UNIT

Physical Science Unit

Applies principals
and techniques of
chemistry, physics
and geology to the
identification and
comparison of
crime-scene
evidence
 Evidence can be
drugs, glass, paint,
explosives and soil
Biology Unit
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Biologists and
biochemists identify and
perform DNA profiling
DNA can be extracted
from bloodstains, body
fluids, hairs
Compare and identify
hairs and fibers, wood,
plants and other
botanical materials
Firearms Unit
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Examines firearms,
discharged bullets,
cartridge cases,
shotgun shells and
ammunition of all types
Examine garments and
other objects that might
be exposed to gunshot
residue and target
distance
Also examine tool
marks
Document Examination Unit

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Studies handwriting,
typewriting on
questioned documents
Determines authenticity
and or certifies source
of document
Analyzes paper, ink,
writing depressions,
obliterations, erasures,
and burned or charged
documents
Photography Unit

Examines records
and records physical
evidence
 Uses digital
imaging, infrared,
ultraviolet and X-ray
photography
 Make invisible
information visible
Optional Crime Laboratory
Services
THESE SERVICES ARE FOUND IN
CENTRALIZED LABORATORIES:
TOXICOLOGY UNIT
 LATENT FINGERPRINT UNIT
 POLYGRAPH UNIT
 VOICEPRINT ANALYSIS UNIT
 CRIME-SCENE INVESTIGATION UNIT

Toxicology Unit

Examines body
fluids and organs to
determine the
presence or
absence of drugs or
poisons
Latent Fingerprint Unit

Processes and
examines evidence
for latent (or nonvisible) fingerprints
or palm prints
Polygraph Unit

Polygraph (lie
detector) technology
is usually used by
criminal
investigators
 Technicians are
trained in
interrogation
techniques
Voiceprint Analysis
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Believed that speech
patterns are unique to
an individual
Analysis of telephoned
threats or taped
messages
Uses sound
spectrograph, that
transforms speech into
a visual graphic display
called a voiceprint
Crime-scene Investigation Unit

Specially trained
personnel that travel
to a crime scene to
collect and preserve
physical evidence
 Must be able to
distinguish between
physical evidence
that is valuable and
that which is not
Functions of a Forensic Scientist
Applies physical and natural science
techniques to analyze the many types of
physical evidence
(Only physical evidence is free of error
or bias)
 Subjects all physical evidence to
principals of Scientific Method
 Explain the significance of the results in
a court of law as an expert witness

Scientific Method
Formulate a question worthy of
investigation.
 Formulate a reasonable hypothesis to
answer the question.
 Test the hypothesis through
experimentation.
 Upon validation of the hypothesis, it
become suitable as scientific evidence

Role of an Expert Witness

An expert witness is an individual whom the court
determines possesses knowledge relevant to the
trial that is not expected of the average person.
 The expert witness is called on to evaluate
evidence based on specialized training and
experience that the court lacks the expertise to do.
 The expert will then express an opinion as to the
significance of the findings.
 Forensic scientists also participate in training law
enforcement personnel in the proper recognition,
collection, and preservation of physical evidence.
Admissibility of Evidence
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The Frye v. United States decision set guidelines for
determining the admissibility of scientific evidence
into the courtroom.
To meet the Frye standard, the evidence in question
must be “generally accepted” by the scientific
community.
1993 case of Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceutical,
Inc., the U.S. Supreme Court asserted that the Frye
standard is not an absolute requirement for the
admissibility of scientific evidence.
Trial judges were said to be ultimately responsible as
“gatekeepers” for the admissibility and validity of
scientific evidence presented in their courts, as well as
all expert testimony.
Daubert Evidential Criteria
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Whether the scientific technique or theory can
be tested.
Whether the technique has been subject to
peer review and publication.
The techniques potential rate of error.
Existence and maintenance of standards .
Whether the scientific theory or method has
attracted widespread acceptance within a
relevant scientific community.
Special Forensic Services

A number of special forensic science services
are available to the law enforcement
community to augment the services of the
crime laboratory.
 These services include forensic pathology,
forensic anthropology, forensic entomology,
forensic psychiatry, forensic odontology,
computer science, and forensic engineering.
Special Forensic Services
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Forensic Psychiatry is an area in which the
relationship between human behavior and legal
proceedings is examined.
Forensic Odontology involves using teeth to provide
information about the identification of victims when a
body is left in an unrecognizable state. Also
investigates bite marks.
Forensic Engineering is concerned with failure
analysis, accident reconstruction, and causes and
origins of fires or explosions.
Forensic Computer Science involves the examination
of digital evidence.