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33
ANCIENT GREEK DRAMA
A Case Study on Sophocles and Oedipus the King
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
The Ancient Greek Theater
• The ancient Greek theater originated in the 6th century
B.C.
• At that time Greece was divided into city-states, which
functioned as independent countries and included a
single major city and the area surrounding it. Athens,
Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth were powerful city-states in
ancient Greece.
• Athens was the leading cultural center, renowned for its
arts, learning, and philosophy while Sparta was the
dominant military power.
Ancient theater on the Greek island of Kós
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
The Ancient Greek Theater continued…
• Thespis of Icaria was considered the first Greek actorplaywright. He was accompanied onstage by only a
chorus. Thespis played all the roles he created,
distinguishing characters with the use of masks. At
times, he would engage in dialogue with the leader of
the chorus. Unfortunately, none of his scripts has
survived. Still today actors are referred to as thespians.
• The most important competition for playwrights occurred
during the festivals in honor of Dionysus (god of change,
transformation, wine, agriculture, and fertility) –
festivals funded with public and private moneys.
Dramatists submitted three tragedies and a satyr (a
short, comic afterpiece) in hopes of winning prizes.
Sophocles won more first prizes than any other
playwright.
Woman holding a theatrical mask
Terracotta figurine made in Tanagra, Greece
ca. 325–300 BC.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
“In Athens, the classical period, the Golden Age
of Greek civilization, all Athenians have to be
theatergoers because it’s a civic obligation to go
to the theater. … It’s not just political … it’s a
religious duty – in fact, festivals and religion go
together. ... Theater … was taken so seriously
that we might as well call it … a sacred narrative.
… It’s as real as what history might be to us.”
— Professor Gregory Nagy
Professor of Classical Greek
Literature, Harvard University
Director of the Center for Hellenic
Studies in Washington, D.C.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
The Theaters
• Since the theater was so important to the ancient Greeks, elaborate
construction plans were undertaken for grandiose outdoor amphitheaters
which could accommodate audiences of more than 15,000.
• The audience sat in tiers that sloped up hillsides on which the theater were
built.
• The performance took place on an elevated platform ( proskenion). Behind the
acting area was a scene building (skene) that functioned as dressing room and
as scenic background. Below the stage was the orchestra or dancing place for
the chorus.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
The Actors
• Actors wore masks that amplified their voices, similar to megaphones. The
masks were large, and with the elevated shoes sometimes worn by actors, the
characters seemed larger-than-life. Movement was difficult, so sweeping
gestures, like beating one’s chest in grief, were necessary to convey emotion.
• Actors were carefully trained, especially in vocal dexterity and movement. With
an advanced knowledge of acoustics, the theater designers made it possible for
all in the audience to hear the actors’ voices. All actors were men who often
played several roles in a play. Actors were so respected in ancient Greece that
they were exempt from military service.
• Thespis was the lone actor on stage in his productions. Aeschylus added a
second, Sophocles added a third. Therefore, no more than three actors were
ever on stage at the same time in an ancient Greek tragedy.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
The Audience
•
Everyone was expected to participate in the theater either as part of the play or part of
the audience. The king would invite foreign dignitaries as his guests. (Despite being
considered the cradle of democracy, Athenian culture discriminated against women. In
the theater, they were forced to sit in the upper tiers.)
•
The audiences were more expressive than audiences of today. If they liked a
performance they would roar with approval. If they disliked a performance, they might
hiss and throw things at the stage. The judges decided prizes based upon audience
reaction.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Playwrights
•
In addition to Sophocles, the two other major tragedians from ancient Greece are
Aeschylus and Euripides.
•
Aeschylus (c. 525–c. 455 BCE), wrote over 70 plays, but only 7 have survived. He is the
author of The Oresteia, the only extant Greek trilogy, which consists of Agamemnon, the
Libation Bearers, and the Eumenides. His plays have a pronounced moral and religious
content. By adding a second actor to his productions, he emphasized character
interaction and reduced the role of the chorus.
•
Euripides (c. 480–406 BCE) wrote about 90 plays with no more than 19 having survived.
His greatest works include Alcestis, Medea, Trojan Women, and The Bacchae. He is also
the author of Cyclops, the only complete satyr play still extant. His plays portray
especially strong women.
• Aristophanes (c. 446– c.386 BCE ) is the foremost comic playwright of ancient Greece.
Eleven of his forty plays have survived, including The Acharnians, Clouds, Peace, The
Birds, Lysistrata, and The Frogs.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Sophocles
•
Sophocles (c.496-406 BCE) was born during the Athenian Golden Age, when the
military power, artistic glory, and philosophical achievements of Athens were at
their zenith.
• He held political and military positions, serving as a general in the Athenian army.
• He also served as a priest of Asclepius, the Greek god of healing and medicine.
•
He was also known for his musical skill and his handsome appearance.
•
In ancient Greece and today, however, he is best known as a playwright. He
wrote more than 100 plays, but only 7 have survived: Ajax, Antigone,
Trachinian Women, Electra, Philoctetes, Oedipus at Colonus, and Oedipus
the King, which many consider the greatest play ever written.
•
In Poetics, Aristotle (c. 384–322 BCE) used Oedipus as his model to
illustrate the power and workings of a great and forceful tragedy.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Oedipus the King and Greek Tragedy
• Oedipus the King follows the conventional structure of a Greek tragedy:
Prologue – provides exposition and establishes the conflict that the protagonist
must face.
Párodos – the entrance of the chorus.
Episodia – a series of scenes, usually debates between characters in which the
action and the events of the play are presented.
Stasimon – an ode presenting the communal voice of the chorus that separates
the scenes.
Exodos – the concluding scene, including the final lines of the chorus.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Classical Unities
• As Aristotle outlines in Poetics, Sophocles observes the classical unities in
Oedipus:
Time – the action of the play takes place within one day.
Place – the action of the play takes place in one setting (the palace steps).
Action – the play includes only action and details that lead to the
conclusion.
• Sophocles’s use of the classical unities contributes to the play’s conciseness and
suspense. There are no extra scenes and no extra words. Every detail drives
the play to its conclusion. The result is a powerful and absorbing drama.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
King Oedipus
As the play opens, what is Oedipus’s objective?
Does it change as the plot progresses?
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Oedipus’s Objective
• At first Oedipus wants to rid the country of its torment, which
remains his goal. But it becomes more specific with the return of
Creon from Delphi: to find the killer of Laїos. Finally, it becomes
to identify his parents, which is to say, to identify himself. His
objective becomes more specific, but never deviates or becomes
inconsistent with service to country.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Oedipus as Tragic Hero
King Oedipus serves as Aristotle’s paradigm of a traditional tragic hero. Consider the
following characteristics:
1. The traditional tragic hero must be extraordinary in rank and deed – “of high estate,”
“great reputation and prosperity.”
What kind of king was Oedipus? Note how the citizens react to him at the beginning of
the play, and, perhaps more revealingly, at the end after his downfall. Is anyone in the
play pleased with Oedipus’s fall and humiliation? What heroic deeds did he perform?
2. A Tragic Flaw – “Hamartia”
A tragic flaw is the personality trait or fated mistake that leads to a tragic hero’s
downfall. Some argue that Oedipus is guilty of hubris (excessive pride); others that he is
too rash (consider his actions before the play opens and his temper during the play). But
does Oedipus’s whole character contribute to his movement from happiness to misery in
a sudden reversal of fortune? Oedipus may be proud and he may be rash, but he is very
caring, very honest, and relentless in his pursuit of the truth; in short, he is very noble
and very brave.
3. Outside elements cooperate in the hero’s fall.
Consider the oracles, the actions of his parents, and bad luck. Can we hold Oedipus fully
responsible for his downfall?
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Oedipus as Tragic Hero continued …
4. Recognition – “Anagnorisis”
Oedipus becomes fully aware of the import of his past actions only when the
messenger from Corinth addresses him. By the end of the play, he has gained
knowledge about himself, the gods, and the world.
5. Willingness to Suffer
As an extraordinary and now fully informed individual, the tragic hero must be
willing to suffer for his transgressions, even though he may not be fully
responsible. Oedipus not only accepts his edict issued early in the day, but he
also blinds himself as further punishment.
At the end of the play, consider how Sophocles develops audience sympathy for
Oedipus. Is this the reason for the scene with the fallen king and his two
daughters?
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Oedipus as Tragedy
• Restoration – Traditional tragedy follows a pattern of upheaval and
restoration. Because the tragic hero is such an important figure, the nation
itself is affected by his fate. However, by the end of the play, the tragedian
restores hope and the country is once again in balance. At the end of Oedipus,
the future of Thebes looks promising: the curse is removed and Creon seems
well suited to be king.
• Poetry – The traditional language of tragedy is poetry, which establishes an
exalted atmosphere and expresses the heights and depths of human emotion
and action more completely.
• Catharsis – The emotional renewal created by an audience’s feelings of pity and
terror for a tragic hero, resulting in the recognition that the hero’s tragic fate
was just and that his acceptance of that fate makes the tragedy complete.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Freud on Oedipus
• Are you more fascinated or horrified by King Oedipus?
• Consider Sigmund Freud’s comments on the king and
his theory of the Oedipus Complex:
“His destiny moves us only because it might have been
ours – because the oracle laid the same curse upon us
before our birth as upon him. It is the fate of all of us,
perhaps, to direct our first sexual impulse toward our
mother and our first hatred and our first murderous wish
against our father. Our dreams convince us that that is
so. … Here is one in whom these primeval wishes of our
childhood have been fulfilled, and we shrink back from
him with the whole force of the repression by which those
wishes have since that time been held down within us.”
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Iocastê and Creon as Foils
• A foil is a character who contrasts with the protagonist. The contrast
emphasizes personality traits of the protagonist.
• Consider Iocastê as a foil to Oedipus. Is Oedipus more courageous than Iocastê
in confronting the truth? Her suicide, which many find understandable given
her circumstances, contrasts with Oedipus’s dignity and bravery as he confronts
his tragic fate, further enhancing his tragic stature. Most readers and viewers
will not lose any respect and sympathy for Iocastê.
• Consider too how Creon contrasts with Oedipus. Note Creon’s calm response to
charges of treason and Oedipus’s quick-tempered response to Teiresias and his
accusations concerning his brother-in-law. At the close of the play, note too
how Creon double checks with the oracles before banishing Oedipus.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Dramatic Irony
• Dramatic Irony is a discrepancy between what the characters know and what
the audience or readers know.
• Sophocles uses dramatic irony to create tension and suspense as we wait in
horror for Oedipus to catch up with us.
• Consider specific examples. in Scene I, Oedipus says, “… I take the son’s part,
just as though / I were his son, to press the fight for him and see it won!” (ll.
48-50).
• In Scene III, Oedipus says, “… I can not be dishonored. / Luck is my mother”
(ll. 161-62).
• What other instances of dramatic irony occur in the tragedy?
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Light and Darkness Imagery
Note, among others, the following images of light and darkness that run
throughout the play:
• In the Prologue we hear that Thebes is “all darkened” (line 33) and that Oedipus
“must bring what is dark to light” (line 134).
• In the Párodos the chorus tells of the “nightfall of the past” (line 7).
• In Scene I, Teiresias warns Oedipus that he will be driven from Thebes “with
only night upon your precious eyes” (lines 202-04) – also an example of
foreshadowing.
• In Scene II, Oedipus tells Iocastê that “a shadowy memory crossed my mind”
(line 201).
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Light and Darkness Imagery continued …
• Odes I, II, III, and IV include references to the
sun, lightning, flaring light, and more.
• The imagery of light and darkness reinforces
the shadowy nature of knowledge. It can be
very difficult to detect the truth among all the
shadows, camouflages, and ambiguities.
• One of the ironies in the play is that those who
are blind see the truth most clearly: Teiresias
and Oedipus at the end.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Chorus
• The chorus most distinguishes a
traditional Greek tragedy not only from
a modern and contemporary play, but
also a Shakespearean tragedy.
• The Greek chorus sang and danced in
the orchestra, the area between the
audience and the stage, and
represented the common or communal
viewpoint, often raising questions and
concerns that would be on the minds of
audience members.
• The chorus has several other functions. For instance, since the violence occurs
offstage and the scenes usually include only dialogue, the chorus relieves an
otherwise static presentation with its dances or stylized movements as it crosses the
stage during the odes.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Chorus continued …
•
The chorus serves to make the passage of time more plausible, as a few hours
in the play’s action sometimes passes between scenes.
• The chorus interacts with characters through the Choragos, a functional
character who in Oedipus provides cautious advice and suggestions, verifies the
identity of the shepherd, and worries about Iocastê.
• What specific functions does each ode have in Oedipus?
• In the Párodos:The chorus establishes a melancholy mood and provides
exposition. The leading citizens of Thebes are confused, frightened, and
desperate.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Chorus continued …
•
In Ode I, the chorus prepares the audience for what will occur, including the fact that the
killer of Laïos will be caught and that Teiresias will make a bold, bewildering
pronouncement.
•
In Ode II, the chorus helps introduce theme, such as the importance of keeping the laws
of the gods, maintaining faith in the oracles of Delphi, and avoiding the sin of hubris.
• In Ode III, the chorus focuses attention on the critical issue: Who are the parents of
Oedipus? The tone is desperate and full of concern for their beloved King.
•
In Ode IV, the chorus expresses great sympathy for Oedipus, which, in part, manipulates
the audience’s emotional response.
•
In the Exodos, the choragos closes the play with a comment about human frailty and the
unpredictable nature of existence.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
Religion in Oedipus
•
At the time Sophocles wrote King Oedipus, many Greeks were
losing faith in the oracles. Through the play, Sophocles makes a
strong statement in favor of the traditional religion based on
Homeric mythology and faith in the oracles.
•
Consider Ode II, but particularly lines 34-46:
Shall we lose faith in Delphi’s obscurities,
We who have heard the world’s core
Discredited …
The deeds and the strange prophecies
Must make a pattern yet to be understood.
…
Our masters call the oracle
Words on the wind, and the Delphic vision blind!
•
Consider the fate of those who disregard the oracles.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
For Further Consideration
• Does Oedipus’s punishment exceed his crime? If you were
responsible for Oedipus’s punishment, what would be the
sentence? If any? What could Oedipus have done to avoid his
downfall? Anything? Do you feel pity for Oedipus? Why or why
not?
• Compare Oedipus as a tragic hero with Hamlet and Othello.
• Read W. B. Yeats’s Purgatory, a play inspired by Oedipus and in
which a son kills an abusive father. Was Oedipus’s father
abusive? How do Oedipus and the Old Man in Purgatory pay for
the murder?
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33
For Further Consideration continued…
• Read Ruth Eisenberg’s poem “Jocasta.” The poem opens a window
onto the Queen’s possible motivations and feelings. But how
consistent are these motivations with Sophocles’s Iocastê?
• Research Teiresias. How does he obtain his gift of prophecy? In
what other myths does he display his gift?
• Write a newspaper column reporting the tragedy of Oedipus. Base
your account on interviews with characters. You might interview
Iocastê just prior to the messenger’s arrival from Corinth, one of
the suppliants after Teiresias’s meeting with Oedipus, the
Choragos after the action of the play has transpired, Creon three
days later, or one of Creon’s sons a few days later.
Literature: Craft & Voice | Delbanco and Cheuse | Chapter 33