Download Download: SQL

SQL
Nitin Singh/AAO RTI
ALLAHABAD
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OBJECTIVES
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What is SQL?
Types of SQL commands and their function
Query
Index
Views
Synonyms
Database transactions
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SQL
 Sequential Query Language
 Used for authenticating,accessing,
manipulating of data from database.
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Types of SQL Commands
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Data Definition Language(DDL)
Data Manipulation Language(DML)
Data Query Language(DQL)
Data Control Language(DCL)
Data Administration Command
Transactional Control Command
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DDL
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Create Table
Alter Table
Drop Table
Create Index
Alter Index
Drop Index
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DML
 Insert
 Update
 Delete
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DQL
 Select Statement: Used to select rows from
a table
 Select contains following main keywords
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SELECT
FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
ORDER BY
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Transactional Control Command
 Commit
 Rollback
 Savepoint
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DCL
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Alter Password
Grant
Revoke
Create Synonym
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Data Manipulation Language
 Inserting into the table
INSERT INTO emp ( name , age , doj , phone_no)
VALUES(‘Anshuman’, 21 , 12/07/1999, ‘393751’) ;
 Updating Existing Data
UPDATE emp
SET name = ‘Sumit’
age = 31
WHERE name = ‘Anshuman’ ;
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Data Manipulation Language
 Deleting data from table
DELETE FROM emp
WHERE name = ‘Anshuman’ ;
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Managing Tables
 Creating A Table
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CREATE TABLE emp
( name VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL ,
age NUMBER(2)
NOT NULL ,
doj
DATE
NOT NULL )
STORAGE
(INITIAL 2K
NEXT 3K) ;
Continue……….
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Managing Tables
 Modifying the table
ALTER TABLE emp
MODIFY (name VARCHAR2(12) NOT NULL)
ADD
phone_no VARCHAR2(10) ;
 Dropping the table
DROP TABLE emp CASCADE
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ALLAHABAD
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DQL
 Selecting all the rows of table emp
– SELECT *
FROM emp
 Selecting phone no. & age of employee
Anshuman from table emp
– SELECT phone_no , age
FROM emp
WHERE name = ‘Anshuman’ ;
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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 Used to provide summarization information
for a SQL statement, such as
COUNT,TOTAL,AVERAGE .
 Aggregate functions to be covered are
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COUNT
SUM
MAX
MIN
AVG
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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 COUNT
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Used to return no. of rows .
Return a numeric value when used with a query.
Can be used with three options: */DISTINCT/ALL.
COUNT(*) counts all the rows of a table including
duplicates, whether a NULL value is contained in a
column or not.
– COUNT(ALL) counts all the rows including the
duplicates but excluding the rows containing NULL
values.
– COUNT(DISTINCT)counts all the rows excluding
the duplicate rows and the rows containing NULL
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values.
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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 Usage:
– SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM emp ;
– SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT name)
FROM emp ;
– SELECT COUNT(ALL name)
FROM emp ;
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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 SUM
– Used to return a total on the values of a column
– DISTINCT can be used with SUM where only distinct column
values are to be added.
 Usage:
– SELECT SUM (age)
FROM emp ;
– SELECT SUM(DISTINCT age)
FROM emp ;
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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 AVG
– Used to find the averages for a group of rows.
– Can be used with DISTINCT command when average of
distinct rows is to be found out.
 Usage:
– SELECT AVG(age)
FROM emp ;
– SELECT AVG(DISTINCT age)
FROM emp ;
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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 MAX
– Used to return the maximum value of a column in a group
of rows.
– NULL values are ignored .
 Usage:
– SELECT MAX(age)
FROM emp ;
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AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS
 MIN
– Used to return the minimum value of a column for a group
of rows.
– NULL values are ignored .
 Usage:
– SELECT MIN(age)
FROM emp ;
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ACCESSING DATA FROM
MULTIPLE TABLES
 By joining the tables
 By using nested queries.
 By using compound queries
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JOIN
 Join combines two or more tables in order
to retrieve data from multiple tables.
 Example
SELECT name , address
FROM student , stu
where student.stid = stu.stid ;
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Sub Query
 Query within another query
 Sub query is used to return data that will be
used in the main query as a condition to
furthur restrict the data to be retrieved .
 Used with Select , Insert , Update , Delete
statements.
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COMPOUND QUERY
 Includes two or more SELECT statements
 Formed by using
UNION,INTERSECT,EXCEPT operators.
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INDEX
 Pointer to the database.
 When index is created , it records the location of values in
a table that are associated with the column that is indexed.
 Entries are added to the index when new data is added to
the table .
 When a query is executed against the database and a
condition is specified on a column in the WHERE clause
that is indexed, the index is first searched for the values
specified in the WHERE clause . If the value is found in
index , the index returns the exact location of the searched
data in the table.
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INDEX
 Types of index
– Single column index
– Unique index
– Composite index
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Single Column Index
– Based on only one table column
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Creating Single Column Index
– CREATE INDEX name_idx
ON emp(name) ;
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INDEX
 Unique Index
– Does not allow any duplicate values to be inserted into the
table
 Creating Unique Index
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX name1_idx
ON emp(name) ;
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INDEX
 Composite Index
– An index on two or more columns
 Creating Composite Index
CREATE INDEX nam1_idx
ON emp(name, age) ;
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INDEX
 Dropping the index
DROP INDEX name_idx ;
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INDEX
 Conditions where index should be avoided
– Should not be used for small tables.
– Should not be used on the columns that contain high no. of
null values.
– Columns that are frequently manipulated should not be
indexed .
 Conditions where index should be considered
– Columns that are frequently referenced in the ORDER BY &
GROUP BY clauses should be considered for indexes.
– Indexes should be created on the columns with high no. of
unique values.
– Foreign keys are
candidates for index , as they are
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often used to joinALLAHABAD
parent table.
VIEW
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A virtual table.
Looks like a table and acts like a table.
Does not require physical storage space.
ORDER BY clause can’t be used in CREATE
VIEW but GROUP BY clause can be used
which has same effect as ORDER BY clause
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VIEW
 Creating a view
– CREATE VIEW nam_vew AS
SELECT emp.name ,emp.age , detail.address ,
detail.status
FROM emp , detail
WITH CHECK OPTION ;
 Dropping a view
– DROP VIEW nam_vew ;
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SYNONYM
 Another name for table or view
 Usually created so that a user can avoid
having to qualify another user’s table or
view to access the table or view.
 Creating a synonym
– CREATE SYNONYM employ FOR emp ;
 Dropping a synonym
– DROP SYNONYM employ ;
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Managing Database Transactions
 Transaction: Sequence of work
accomplished in a logical manner.
 Commands to control transactions:
– COMMIT
– ROLLBACK
– SAVEPOINT
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Managing Database Transactions
 Commit
• Used to save changes invoked by a transaction to the
database.
• Syntax: COMMIT[WORK] ;
 Rollback
• Used to undo transactions that have not already been
saved to the database.
• Syntax: ROLLBACK[WORK] ;
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Managing Database Transactions
 Savepoint
• It is a point in a transaction that one can roll the
transaction back to without rolling back the entire
transaction.
• Syntax: SAVEPOINT s1 ;
 Example
SAVEPOINT s1 ;
DELETE FROM emp
WHERE name = ‘Anshuman’ ;
SAVEPOINT s2 ;
DELETE FROM emp
WHERE name = ‘Sumit’ ;
SAVEPOINT s3 ;
ROLLBACK s2;
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