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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
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Physical Design
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Introduction
 Database Design Methodology
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requirements specification
ER/EER modelling
validation of ER/EER models; aggregation of different views
transformation of ER/EER model into relational model
normalisation
physical design
monitor and tune operational system
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Outline
 overview of physical design
 base relations and enterprise constraints
• known from before
 transactions analysis
 file organisation and indexes
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Physical Design – Rationale
 all the documentation produced until physical design
represents a detailed specification of what we intend
to build, of what is required
 informally, physical design is the process that
transforms these specifications into a good working
system, using the functionality provided by the
chosen DMBS
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Overview of Physical Design
 express logical model using the DDL language of the
chosen/target DBMS
 design optimal storage
 design user views
 design security mechanisms
in next lecture
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Express Logical Model in Target DBMSd
 essentially covered in the first term
 design and implement base relations
 analyse and document derived data
 design enterprise constraints
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Design Base Relations
 are domains supported?
 are attribute constraints supported?
• NOT NULL, UNIQUE
 are keys supported?
 candidate
• primary
• alternate (UNIQUE + NOT NULL)
 foreign
• referential integrity
• FK rules
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Analyse and Document Derived Data
 derived attributes
 not present in the relational model;
 but present in the EER model
• it is possible that not all derived attributes are documented thus far
• then, this issue can be given further consideration at this point
 trade-off
 calculate a derived attribute each time it is being used
• may be too time-expensive
 store it in the database
• redundancy, therefore more space required (space-expensive) and
possibility of inconsistencies
• to maintain consistency – integrity constraints of active rules; now
this may become time-expensive
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Design Enterprise Constraints
 support for integrity constraints
 e.g., SQL’s
• CONSTRAINT … CHECK … NOT EXISTS …
 support for active rules or triggers
 e.g., Postgres’:
• CREATE RULE … ON UPDATE TO … WHERE … DO …
 example?
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Design Optimal Storage
 criteria
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maximise transaction throughput
maximise response time
minimise storage space
(they determine and are determined by the system resources)
 issues
 transactions analysis
 file organisation and indexes
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Analyse Transactions
 identify critical transactions to the functionality of the
information system
 e.g., transactions that should never fail
 identify transactions that put a significant load on the
DBMS
 run frequently
 processing time is high
 identify the periods when the database system is
heavily used (down to individual transactions)
 identify type of users by whom or locations from
where the database is going to be heavily used
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Map Transactions [Paths] to Relations
 identifies mostly used
relations
 matrix
 transactions
 relations
 elements of the matrix:
• Y/N (i.e. used, not used)
• number of accesses
(per hour, day …)
T1
T2
T3
T4
I R UD
I R UD
I R UD
I R UD
rel 1
rel 2
rel 3
rel 4
rel 5
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Determine Frequency Information
 determine average, maximum and minimum number
of times a transaction runs per hour, per day, …
 transaction usage map
 determine peak periods
 determine demanding transactions that have in
common some of the resources they access
 problems due to locking
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Bookings for Personal Tutor
 (A) check availability
• see if tutor is available
at a specific time
 (B) see my appointments
• list all my appointments
for given period
 (C) see details of my
appointments
• list all my appointments,
including the tutor’s
nameand office
Student
Tutor
name
office
email
With
(A)
name
programme
email
(C)
For
Booking
day
time
topic
(B)
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Transaction Usage Maps
frequency: per hour
Student
300
Tutor
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1
1
With
(A)
avg: 20
max: 200
For
avg: 20
(C) max: 100
0..*
Booking
1500
0..*
(B)
avg: 40
max: 150
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Analyse Data Usage
 more detailed analysis
 (relations) attributes and the type of access
• updated attributes – not candidates for access structures
 attributes used in predicates
• are candidates for access structures
 attributes involved in joins
• candidates for access structures
 attributes affecting performance of critical transactions
• higher priority for access structures
 transaction analysis form
• refer to Connolly, p.490
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Analyse Transactions - Conclusion
 essentially, the transaction analysis identifies the
critical aspects related to the usage of the database
(e.g., relations used frequently, attributes involved in
“expensive predicates”, …)
 on its basis, file organisations and indexes can be
chosen
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
File Organisation
 data has to be stored in an efficient way
• all 4 operations (insert, retrieve, update and delete) require
efficiency
 efficient has different meanings in different contexts
 different storage structures or file organisations
represent efficient ways for different contexts; e.g.
• “heap” structure is suitable for bulk-loading and bulk-retrieval
(all student names, all programmes, …)
• “hash” structure is suitable for “exact match” queries (student
name = ‘Joe Bloggs’)
 note that a structure that is efficient in one context
may not be efficient in a different context
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Index
 a structure that allows the DBMS to locate records in
a table/file more quickly
 the decision as of
 which attributes to be chosen as indexes, and
 which type of indexes they should be (which type of file
organisation)
… is determined by the results of the transaction
analysis
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
File Organisation vs Index
 file organisation – method of storing data on disk,
with our without the use of indexes
 index – data structure used to access records more
quickly
 primary and clustering index – part of the storage of the
actual records; the records themselves are physically
ordered according to the index
 secondary index – auxiliary data structure; the records may
be (usually are) unordered according to the index;
 index is sometimes used to mean secondary index
 the issue of indexes is subsumed by the issue of file
organisation
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
File Structures/Types
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Heap / unordered
Index Sequential Access Method
Hash
B+ tree
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Heap / Unordered
 records are written in the file in the same way as they
are inserted, at the end of the file
 insertion is efficient, in particular for bulk-loading
 there is no ordering
 retrieval is very inefficient if it involves predicates/conditions
 similarly update and deletion
 the space freed by deleted records is not
automatically reused
 administrator has to run routines
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Indexed Sequential Access (ISAM) / Ordered
 records are ordered on the basis of some attributes –
the index field
 primary index – ordering attributes are a key
• one index value to a tuple
 clustering index – ordering attributes are not a key
• one index value to a group of tuples
 sequentially ordered secondary indexes can also be
created
 what is the difference be between a clustering index and a
secondary sequential index?
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Use of ISAM Files
 recommended
 exact matching (based on the index field)
 range of values (based on the index field)
 drawback
 ISAM indexes are static (created when the file is created)
 not recommended
 updates to index field
• the access key sequence deteriorates
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Hash (“random” or “direct” access)
 a hash function calculates the address where each
record is to be stored
 the calculation is performed on the basis of some fields
 records appear to be randomly distributed across the file
space
 the function should be chosen such that it leads to an as
good as possible distribution of the records in the
available space
 problem : most hashing functions do not guarantee a unique
address, because the file space much smaller than possible
values of hash field
• address generated by hash function  BUCKET (with SLOTS)
• COLLISION (SYNONYMS)  same bucket, different slots
 hash attributes – secondary index
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Use of Hash Files
 recommended
 for retrievals based on exact matches, in particular when the
access order (the order in which queries arise) is random
 not recommended
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retrieval based on pattern match
retrieval based on ranges of values
retrieval based on other fields than the exact hash filed
when the hash field is frequently updated
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
B+ Tree
 B  Balanced tree
 more versatile than the hash structure
 details – optional issue
 recommended
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exact match (index filed)
pattern matching (index filed)
range of values (index filed)
part index filed specification
 advantage
 B+ tree is dynamic – it grows as the relation grows
 performance does not deteriorate with updates
 B+ tree – secondary index
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Choosing Indexes
 consider results from transactions analysis
 primary/clustering index
 attribute(s) used in joins
 attribute(s) most often used to access the relation
 secondary indexes
 trade-off: maintenance of an index vs. efficiency of queries
• work in class on maintenance operations
 choosing secondary indexes
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index primary key (if not already a primary index)
index attributes often involved in joins and selection criteria
do not index attributes which are frequently updated
…
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
File Organisation - Conclusion
 pre-defined file-structures exists that provide better
efficiency of certain database operations in certain
contexts
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
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Term 2, 2004, Lecture 5, Physical Design
Marian Ursu, Department of Computing, Goldsmiths College
Conclusions
 physical design
 what it consists of
 transaction analysis
 identifies “hot-spots” of the database
 file organisation and indexes
 make work with the “hot-spots” more efficient
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