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Rhythm and timing
 Clarke, E.F. Rhythm and timing in music. In Deutsch, D.
Chapter 13
 Krumhansl, C.L. (2000). Rhythm and pitch in music
cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 1, 159 – 179
 Davies, J.B. (1978) The psychology of music. Stanford
University Press.
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
 Two types of time relations are fundamental to
the temporal organization, or rhythm, of
musical sequences:
 the segmentation of an ongoing sequence into
temporal groups of events based on their
durational values
 the extraction of an underlying temporal regularity
or beat
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
Basic psychological research on
rhythm
Stimulus
 Patterns constructed of tones of varying
durations or very brief tones at varying delays
 Pitch of the tones is not simultaneously varied
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
Response
 Time measurement of most interest is the time
between the onset of successive events (interonset interval IOI)
 Time is measured in milliseconds (ms) rather
than in beats per minute (bpm)
 60 bpm = 1000 ms
 120 bpm = 500 ms
 240 bpm = 250 ms
 Range of focus: 100 ms to 5000 ms
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
1.
2.
3.
4.
Task of participant (P)
Verbal estimation: E presents temporal
interval, P gives verbal estimate of its
duration (in clock time)
Production: E states the duration (in clock
time), P produces the interval
Reproduction: E presents a temporal interval,
P reproduces it
Method of comparison: E presents two
temporal intervals in succession, P judges the
relative duration
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
Time perception
 If the time between events ( e.g., brief tones) is
too short (< 100 ms), listeners hear the
sequence as a single, continuous event.
 If intervals are much greater than 1500 ms,
listeners have difficulty grouping the sounds,
which seem disconnected from one another.
 Larger, hierarchically organized rhythmic
patterns consisting of groups can be formed
out to approximately 5 s.
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
 Perceived duration:
 Very short intervals tend to be overestimated.
 Large intervals tend to be underestimated.
 In the range of 40 to 600 ms, the subjective
duration of time interval is proportional to the
physical duration plus a constant of approximately
80 ms
 Filled duration illusion:
 A duration filled with stimulus events is perceived
as being longer than an identical duration empty of
any external events.
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
Grouping
 When listeners hear a sequence of identical
sounds, they tend to group them by twos,
fours, or less often by threes (subjective
rhythmization).
 The number of elements in groups depend on
tempo; groups with more elements are formed
at faster tempo.
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
Objective rhythmization
 Different sounds (longer, louder, different
pitch, followed by longer pause)
 Pauses – strongly mark group endings
 Group of three or four: 600 to 700 ms pauses
 Pauses longer than 1800 ms are not produced.
 Lengthening a sound has similar effect.
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
 Element duration and intensity trade off with each
other.
 A sound that is lengthened is perceived as more intense.
 A more intense sound is perceived as longer.
 Longer and more intense sounds are heard as
accented, and these elements tend to define the
beginning of a group.
 Higher pitched sound tends to define the beginning of
a group.
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
The work of Paul Fraisse to an understanding of
rhythm in music are the following:
1. The perceptual present as the dividing line between
the direct perception of duration and its estimation.
2. The fundamental status of pendular motion and the
close association between rhythm and movement.
3. The distinction between rhytmia and arhythmia,
based on the distinction between a continuous and a
bimodal distribution of duration ratios between
successive intervals.
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
4. The existence of categorical distinction between
two types of duration (temps long and temps court)
in rhythm, in a mean duration ratio of 1:1 or 2:1,
and with the quality of duration and collection,
respectively.
5. A threshold between these categories at a value
around 400 – 600 ms.
6. (The operation of two complementary principles
(assimilation and distinction) that preserve both the
integrity and distinctiveness of the two categories.
Based on the theory of Piaget)
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005
Implications of basic research for
rhythmic patterns in music
1. Although humans quite accurately estimate
time and detect small differences in duration,
the most impressive abilities are found in the
perception and production of rhythms. (The
patterns of duration, rather than absolute
durations, are psychological primary.)
2. Rhythm perception is strongly linked to
rhythm production.
A.Diederich – International University Bremen – USC – MMM – Spring 2005