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Qualitative Research Methods
Training Course
Kampot Province, Cambodia
10-16 November 2003
EH/GTZ/November
2003
Research Question:
Who are the health providers in the
village and what care do they
provide?
EH/GTZ/November
2003
Training objectives
1. To familiarize the participants with the
principles and practice of qualitative research
methods in public health
2. To discuss a mix of qualitative methods
and their application in public health research
and programming
3. To practice using qualitative research
methods in an applied context
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2003
Qualitative Research Methods
Social mapping
In-depth interviews
Observation
Free-lists and ratings
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2003
Meaning of Methods
1. Epistemology or the study of how we do things
2. At a general level, it is about strategic choices,
for example, whether we do participant
observation fieldwork, document analysis or an
experiment
3. At the specific level, it is about what sample you
select, whether you do face to face interviews or
use a telephone or use an interpreter or learn the
language and do the interviews yourself
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2003
Rationalism is the idea that human beings achieve
knowledge because of their power of reason. That is,
there are a priori of truths, and if we prepare our minds
adequately those truths will be evident to us.
Versus Empiricism, who consider that the only
knowledge that human beings acquire is from sensory
experience. They consider that we are born with brains
like empty boxes and that boxes are filled with the
experiences throughout our life. We come to
understand what is true from what we are exposed to.
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2003
Scientific method
Science is “an objective, logical, and
systematic method of analysis of
phenomena, devised to permit the
accumulation of reliable knowledge”
(Lastrucci, 1963:6).
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2003
Objective – “the idea of truly objective inquiry
has long been understood to be a delusion.
Scientists do hold, however, that striving for
objectivity is useful. In practice this means
constantly trying to improve measurement (to
make it more precise and accurate) and
submitting our findings to peer review” (Bernard
1995).
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2003
Method – Each scientific discipline has
developed a set of techniques for gathering and
handling data, but there is, in general, a single
scientific method.
The METHOD is based on 3 assumptions:
(a) reality is “out there” to be discovered;
(b) direct observation is the way to observe it;
(c) material explanations for observable
phenomenon are always sufficient, and that
metaphysical explanations are never needed.
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2003
Reliable – something that is true in Phnom
Penh, for example, is equally true in
Kampot Province
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2003
Social Science
Asks questions and seeks to explore the answers
Social science uses various methods to answer
the question/s
Most anthropological work is qualitative. In
applied anthropology there is a growing interest
in mixing qualitative and quantitative research
to answer the research question/s
Important not to mix quantification and
science. Keep them separate.
Quantification is important in anthropology, as it
is in any science. But all sciences are not
quantified and all quantification is not science
· EH/GTZ/November
2003
Some social scientists do not use quantitative
methods, for example, sociologists.
Ethnography does not mean qualitative. As a
noun it means a description of a culture. As a
verb it is ‘doing ethnography’, and it means
collection of data that describes a culture.
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2003
The rest of the training program will be
about methods that will let you build an
ethnographic record. Some of these
methods involve fieldwork. Some
methods involved in building an
ethnographic record include, watching,
listening. Some methods result in words
and OTHERS result in numbers.
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2003
Characteristics of Qualitative and
Quantitative Research
Qualitative research
Inductive
Holistic
Subjective/insider
centered
Process orientated
Actor’s world view
Relative lack of control
Goal to understand
actor’s view
Discovery orientated
Explanatory
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2003
Quantitative research
Deductive
Particularistic
Objective / Outsider
centered
Outcome orientated
Natural science
Attempt to control
variables
Goal to find facts &
causes
Verification orientated
Confirmatory
Quantitative Research
Use numbers and statistics, examples,
experiments, correlation studies using surveys &
standardized observational protocols, simulations,
supportive materials from case studies (example,
test scores).
General sequence of research:
Observe events / present questionnaire / ask questions
with fixed answers
2. Tabulate
3. Summarize data
4. Analyze
5. Draw conclusions
1.
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2003
Culture is the shared traditions,
beliefs and life-ways of a group of
people
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2003
Qualitative Research
Use descriptions and categories (words).
Examples: open-ended interviews,
naturalistic observation (common in
anthropology) document analysis, casestudies, life histories, mapping, pile sorts and
ratings, descriptive and self-reflective
supplements to experiments and correlation
studies.
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2003
General sequence of qualitative
research:
1. Observe events / ask questions with open
ended answers
2. Record/log what is said (or not said) and
done (or not done)
3. Interpret (personal reactions, write
emergent speculations or hypotheses,
monitor methods)
4. Return to observe, or ask more questions
of people
5. [recurring cycles of 2-4 – iteration]
6. Formal theorizing [emerges out of
speculations and hypotheses]
7. Draw conclusions
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2003
Three key methods
1.Detailed open-ended interviews (not
highly structured or limited responses)
2. Direct observation
3. Written documents (work with words
and visual data, not numbers)
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2003
Strengths of qualitative research
Depth and detail (versus standardized questionnaire)
Openness – can generate new theories and
recognize phenomena ignored by most or all
previous researchers and literature
Helps people see the world view of those studiedtheir categories, rather than imposing categories;
simulates their experience of the world
Attempts to avoid pre-judgment (this is questionable
in reality).Present people on their terms, without
being judgmental, try to respect them from their
perspective so the reader can see their views (always
difficult)
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2003
Weaknesses of qualitative research
Fewer people studied (usually)
Less easily generalized because of few people /
locations in studies
Difficult to aggregate data and make systematic
comparisons
Dependent on researchers personal attributes and
skills
Participation in the research can always change the
social situation (although, not participating can also
change the social situation as well)
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2003
Ten themes of qualitative research
Naturalistic – not manipulating the situation, watch
naturally occurring events, not controlling them.
Inductive – categories emerge from observing,
creation and exploration centered, theories emerge
from data. Often induce hypothesis, test it, then look
for other possible explanation or additional
hypothesis.
Holistic – look at total, what unifies phenomenon, it
is a complex system, see overall perspective. Often
research and academics study smaller and smaller
parts and overlook the big picture. Need to try and
get a larger picture, including the specific and unique
context. But can look at specific variables too.
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2003
Characteristics of Qualitative
Research
Personal contact – share the experience, not trying to be the
objective outsider. Must know people to understand them, and
gain insight by reflecting and being empathetic with them. If try
to be objective probably won’t understand their views (but might
understand things about them).
Dynamic constant shifting with the changing phenomenon and
context: what method fits now and also, use trial and error. Don’t
stick with the one method when you know that it is not working.
Stop. Realize that things may unfold differently than you
expected, go with the flow. Respond creatively.
Unique case selection – not as concerned about
generalizability (actually generalization is a cooperative venture
of researcher and reader = researcher describes context fully
and reader decides if new context is similar in crucial respects)
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2003
Characteristics of Qualitative
Research con’t
Thick description – lots of detail, lots of quotations
Context sensitivity - emphasize many aspects of
social, historical and physical context.
Empathetic – trying to take a view of the other
person and be non-judgmental. Not subjective in
terms of my biases, not objective in terms of no bias,
but taking on their perspective to the degree possible.
How does reality appear to those being studied. Yet,
also reporting own feelings and experiences as part
of the data. Try to omit judgments, but freely admit
own feelings. Do not try and hide them. Admitting
them adds to the validity of the data.
EH/GTZ/November
2003
Characteristics of Qualitative
Research con’t
Flexible design - You don’t always specify it
completely before research; variables and
hypotheses and sampling and methods are at least
partly emergent – need to unfold. Need to be able to
tolerate contradictions. Trial and error with categories
too – need to reformulate categories many times. Go
from parts to whole and then back again. Cycle back
and forth. Then reconstruct, pull data apart again,
make better reconstructions, etc. Use multiple
methods or as many as feasible, as long as you get a
better picture of what is happening and how it is
understood – even use quantitative methods.
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2003
Researcher Roles
The ‘traditional’ role for a qualitative researcher is to
be nonexistent. This is ideal but not always possible
and practical. The ideal is that participant act exactly
as they would if you were not present.
Problem – tends to ignore differences made in the
environment by the researcher.
Qualitative research states that the researcher should
document these differences.
It is difficult to obtain the participants views without
interacting
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2003
Researcher Roles con’t
The presence of the researcher could cause other
reactions, eg suspicion, affected behavior,
demonstrations for the researcher’s behalf. But time
and familiarity tend to blur these responses. In time the
researcher becomes part of the environment. But not
initially.
Researcher is an instrument in qualitative research. To
gather data. People reading the research need to know
about the instrument. So, you need to describe relevant
aspects of the yourself, your biases and assumptions,
expectations, relevant history. Keep track in your field
notes personal reactions, insights into the self and past.
In a separate journal – write your personal notes.
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2003
Emic = an insider, become full participant in activity,
helps minimize distinction/difference between
researcher and participants
Etic = an outside view, A fly on the wall. Lots of
variation in between, can vary role within a study –
starts as outside and move to membership. Or
change to outsider role at end to verify hypothesis
generated as participant.
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2003
Gatekeepers
Initial entry into the field of study
Control access
Problems with / for gatekeepers
Position of gatekeeper in the research
Gatekeepers’ perception of the researchers, eg. Spy
Expectations of gatekeepers on researchers, eg,
outcomes such as reports, relationships, money
Compromises
Gatekeepers and problems for the research and
researcher
DO NO HARM
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2003
Access to research subjects
Access to subjects is often challenging for the
researcher
Trust and respect is very important
Difficulties when participants are not very verbal
Role of key informant in research process
Positives and Negatives of involving key
informant, eg, not always representative view of
‘others’, vested interest in research subject,
access to resources, political position, looking
for a friend, have problems with others in the
community, most educated person, others?
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2003
Access to research subjects con’t
Stay around the study site early in the
research process. This is sometimes called
the “mapping phase”, ie, map the area, social
context of environment, kinship relations,
services or networks. Physical mapping is an
excellent way to “meet and greet” and learn
about the physical environment. Doing a
video often helps.
If physical environment is very familiar, try to
look for the ‘other’ aspects of the
environment, eg, other health providers
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2003
Sample and Selection
Study a subsection of a population
Look at selection in a probabilistic manner –
try to get a representative sample of the
group under study.
Not generalizable for the whole population,
but generalizable for the population under
study.
Choosing a population to study is dynamic
and ongoing. The choice of who to study
next are products of what is being found, not
the initial plan.
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2003
Suggestions for accessing subjects
1. Maximum variation of participants, example, women
who attend health services and women who do
not, different age groups, social and economic
backgrounds, and so on.
2. Snowball approach and networking – each person
studied is chosen by the previous participant - this
will show linkages between participants. This is
sometimes the only way to find and obtain a
sample of certain population groups, eg, women
who have been trafficked for prostitution.
3. Extreme cases – studying one or more people at
some extreme. This needs to be included in the
sample with the ‘average’ and the ‘opposite’. This
may or may not be possible, but you have to seek
these people out. There may only be one or two
people, but you have to include them.
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2003
4. Typical case - decide what characterizes
‘typical’ and go and look for them.
5. Unique case – very rare combination of
things – usually found by accident.
6. Ideal case – perfect situation. “if it won’t work
here, it won’t work anywhere.
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2003
It is very important to be able to say how and
why you sampled in a given manner. So,
keep detailed field notes on the decisions you
made about sampling and why you made
them. Go into detail in the field notes, give
examples and the reasons for the choices
you made.
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2003
Informed consent
Definition of informed consent consists of the
elements- information, comprehension, and
choice.
Country specific laws provide conditions for informed
consent.
Local standards and protocols when conducting
research with human subjects
Oral or written consent
Anonymous
Difficulties obtaining informed consent in special
populations, for example, children and refugees.
Costs and benefits of obtaining informed consent
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2003
Ethical behavior in research
Courtesy
Respect
Empathy
Honesty
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2003
Triangulation
TRIANGULATION involves using a combination of
methods, researchers, data sources and theories in a
research project.
Outcomes:
Different results will be obtained by using different
researchers and different data sources
Methods are not neutral tools that will produce the
same results regardless of the method. Triangulation
addresses this problem.
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2003
Recording field work data
Two types of note-taking
1. Field-notes
2. Interview transcriptions
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2003
Field-notes
Ideal situation is to write field-notes by
hand, and at the study site
Field-notes can be written in point form at the
study site and expanded later
Field-notes can be typed into the computer
later.
Many people do not put field-notes into the
computer, they work from their journal.
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2003
Recording Observations in the field
Write about actual events
Avoid inferences and generalizations
Write down detail
Describe the obvious
Take photographs if you can
Describe actions without evaluating
Push yourself to get details
Write your opinion in separate section
When NOTHING is happening record physical
environment in detail
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2003
Practical field-note taking
Use large margins on the page. This
gives space for comments, additional
information, evolving questions or
theories
Feel free to draw pictures, diagrams
and symbols
Write clearly
Feel comfortable where you write fieldnotes
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REMEMBER
You need reliable data [FACTS] to be able to
generalize
Qualitative research relies upon carefully
documented data so that conclusions can be
formed
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2003
Interview transcriptions
Include open-ended questions in the transcription
(most formed before the interview)
Include a large margin on the page for comments,
quotes, etc.
Write clearly
Word for word transcription is best
Talk and write slowly, if possible
If information is not clear, ask the person to repeat
the information before writing it down
Do not summarize information
Record your opinion and thoughts (separately)
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2003
Observations
Data about the environment, people, events,
activities that are under study
Traditions and life-ways of people
‘Special’ locations or events
Confirm what has been said or not said
Find more key informants
Check accuracy of information gained in
interviews and social mapping
Provide information previously unknown
Develop relationship with participants
Provide additional data
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2003
Key points when making
observations
Begin with informal conversation
Then introduce the project
Obtain consent to take notes
Explain the purpose of note taking and
getting more detailed data
Identify key informant or additional key
informants
Take in-depth field notes of observations
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2003
Free-list and rating
Simple, yet powerful research method
Generally used to study a cultural domain
Everyone knows the same free-list, example,
diseases, plants, occupations, health workers
Easy to develop & analyse
Enjoyable
Compliments other research methods,
especially social mapping and interviews
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2003
Key points when making free-list
Ask informants to list all the people who
provide care when they are sick (plus, those
that come into the village and those outside)
Ideal to have (15) or more free-lists from the
same study site (good sample for analysis)
Analyse free-lists by:
Order and frequency of recall
Gender
Age
Occupation / practitioner
Location
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2003
Using free-lists
Opening technique to obtain
information to use in interviews
Probe local terminology
Explore ‘special’ terminology
Explore cultural and social domains
Inform programs
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2003
Rating free-lists
Produce ordinal data
Easy to administer
Combined with interviews they are powerful
data generators
Used in a variety of research settings
Useful when exploring many subjects, eg,
foods, diseases, health seeking practices, and
so on
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2003
Key points when making a free-lists
and rating the list
Ask participants to make a list of the subject
under study,eg, childhood illnesses
The order is ‘up to the participant’
DO NOT probe
Let the the informant make their own list and the
‘natural’ order will occur
Obtain at least 15 free-lists, good for analysis
Analyse the free-lists by rating them, for
example, in order of priority 1,2,3,4,5….
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2003
Group Presentations
Guidelines
Introduction (includes literature
review)
Background to the research
Research Question
Research Objectives
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Methods
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Methods used and why
Study site
Study population
Research process
Consent
Confidentiality
Ethical issues
Constraints / problems
Researcher role/s
Unexpected outcomes
Method of analyzing data
Findings
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Who
Why
When
Where
How
What
What for
“Seven Steps of Planning”
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2003
Group Presentations
(2) Persons / group
15 minutes each presentation
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2003
Data Analysis:
Phases
Code Various Units
Develop Categories (Subcategories, &
Superordinate categories)
Give Examples of Categories
Linkages Between Categories
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2003
Coding Data
Can have multiple codes for a unit of data
Work towards developing many and varying
codes
Theory – preexisting or emergent theories
influences coding
May need to code the same data several
times
Computers help, but not essential
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2003
Develop Categories
(main & sub categories)
Requires tat you develop definitions for each
category
Categories and definitions need to be revised
several times during analysis
Keep track of revision of categories and
reasons why you revise categories and
definitions in notes. For example, data
indicates that previous definitions were not
sufficient.
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2003
Making Linkages between
Categories
Need to be specified manually or on
computer
Document the kinds of linkages developed
Consider these kinds of linkages:
Time
Space
Causation
Social/Interpersonal
Many others are possible
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2003
Coding:
Continual & dynamic
Look at the document, such as interviews
Read document (data) many times
Look for indicators of categories in events
and behavior-name them and code them on
the document
Compare codes (often many times) to find
consistencies and differences
Consistencies between codes (similar or
pointing to a basic idea) reveals categories.
EH/GTZ/November
2003
Coding:
Continual & Dynamic con’t
Manually, you can cut apart copies of field
notes/interviews. Now people use computers.
Write ‘memo’ on the comparisons of
emerging categories
Eventually you reach category saturation
when no new codes related to the research
project are formed
Eventually certain categories become more of
a central focus – axial and core categories
Then– you write about (report) the data in
each category
EH/GTZ/November
2003