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Supporting Collaboration Managing Information Resources Data, Information and Knowledge Data Facts devoid of meaning or intent e.g. structured data in DB Information Data that has meaning (data in context) Content: term for the Web age Information presented electronically in a variety of media: charts, text, voice, sound, graphics etc. Knowledge Information with direction or intent The Three-level Database Model The three-level database model Level 1: the conceptual level Level 2: the logical level Logical views of an organizations data as under the control of the DBAs Level 3: the physical level Containing the various "user views" of the corporate data that each application program uses Specifying the way the data is physically stored Advantages Level 2 absorbs changes made at level 3 Data only needs to be stored once in level 2 Different programs can draw on it and vary the relationships among the data Getting Corporate Data into Shape The Problem: management can not get consistent view across the enterprise The Cause: an application-driven chaos Incompatible data definitions from application to application Getting applications running as quickly as possible The Solution: a data-driven approach ERP is one of the main driving force for getting data into shape in many companies What is Data Warehouse? “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant, and nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon Data Warehouse vs. Heterogeneous DBMS Traditional heterogeneous DB integration: A query driven approach Data warehouse: update-driven, high performance Build wrappers/mediators on top of heterogeneous databases Information from heterogeneous sources is integrated in advance and stored in warehouses for direct query and analysis Why have a separate data warehouse Promote the high performance of both systems An OLAP operation needs no concurrent transaction support Structures, content and uses of data are different in two systems Document Management Estimated that 90% of an organization’s information is in documents rather than structured databases Types of Documents Contracts and Agreements Reports Manuals and Handbooks Correspondence Memos Drawings and Blueprints … Content Management Traditional “homegrown“ content management The Webmaster was the publishing bottle neck 3 phases of content management life cycle Input-process-output XML & Web Content Management XML is used to put tags on data giving that data meaning Computers use the meanings to manipulate the data and perform work Use of XML moves Web content from being in a human-only readable format to being in a computer-readable format The content can be passed to back-end transaction processing systems and cause an action to take place e.g. ordering a book or configuring a new computer Manipulating the content to work with transaction applications – the basis for e-commerce Managing Operations Main Shift in the Operations Viewpoint What’s New in Operations? Companies have "cleaned their operational house" More operations managers are managing outward Y2K problem moved company from a survival mode to a planning mode CIOs does not relinquish responsibility for operations Ensure their people are properly managing relationships Operations are being "simplified" Centralizing applications in one place rather than distribute them on PCs Server based computing (thin client) Certain operations are being offloaded e.g. Microsoft offloaded webcasts to Netpodium Outsourcing IS Function Outsourcing means turning over a firm's computer operations, network operations, or other IT function to a vendor for a specified time The focus of CIOs in operations is changing In the past, ensuring they had the in-house expertise to keep systems and networks up and tuning Now, determining where best to perform the various kinds of operations In house or with a third party and manage it accordingly The Driving Forces Behind Outsourcing 70% of US economy had global competition in 1970s Companies had to focus on core business, which led to huge amount of merger and acquisition activity Companies were priced based on their shareholder value Focus and value Management must stress value, they must consider outsourcing in all their nonstrategic functions Outsourcing Transitional outsourcing Best-of-breed outsourcing Shared services Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) E-business outsourcing Utility Computing The Balance Between Security and Risk Information Security is a balancing act between ease of access to information and protecting that information from increasing threats The Information Security Manager must Constantly bear in mind the organization's appetite for risk Assess where the "appropriate" balance lies Be prepared to press their case "strenuously" when they believe the risk is not within acceptable bounds. Security's Six Pillars A secure system should provide: Nonrepudiation – a transaction cannot be denied by any of the parties to it Confidentiality – data or services are protected from unauthorized access Integrity – data or services are delivered as intended Assurance – (authentication) the parties to the transaction are who they say they are Availability - the system will be available for legitimate use; no DOS. Auditing – the system tracks activities within it at levels sufficient to reconstruct them Technologies for Developing Systems The Evolution of System Development Web services & SOA… Integrated product lines Component-based systems Software architecture Packages RDBMS & SQL Software development environments Inheritance 1980 Abstract data types objects Programming-in-the-large Information hiding NATO SE conference 1970 Separate compilation Subroutines 1950 1990 High-level languages Sequence of instructions Architectural elements Modules, system organization Data structures, algorithm, objects 1960 2000 The Spiral Model Structured System Development Some elements of the structured system development Hand coding in third generation language "Structured programming" development methodology DBMS Development of mostly mainframe applications Various automated, but not well integrated software tools User participation mainly in require definition and installation phases th 4 Generation Language (4GL) A programming language closer to human languages than 3GL 4GL specifies the purpose without details on procedures E.g. SQL SELECT NAME, SCORE FROM STUDENT Internet-based Systems Internet-based systems must be: Scalable Reliable Integrated with systems of customers or business partners Three cornerstones for Internet-based systems Application servers Java Web service System Integration Three traditional integration approaches DBMSs Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) A data-centered approach, allowing applications to share data stored in a single or distributed database An application-centered approach, all applications come from a single vendor and are specifically designed to communicate with each other Middleware A third-party approach, applications communicate with each other through a third-party translation software The Traditional Project Management Triangle The three competing constraints Increased scope typically means increased time and increased cost A tight time constraint could mean increased costs and reduced scope A tight budget could mean increased time and reduced scope SCOPE QUALITY COST TIME Supporting Decision Making Technologies Supporting Decision Making Computer technologies that support decision making Decision support system (DSSs) Data mining Executive information systems (EISs) Expert systems (ESs) Agent-based modeling Multidisciplinary foundations for DS technologies Database research, artificial intelligence, statistical inference, human-computer interaction, simulation methods, software engineering etc. DSS Architecture (1) Knowledge Discovery (KDD) Process Data mining—core of knowledge discovery process Pattern Evaluation Data Mining Task-relevant Data Data Warehouse Data Cleaning Data Integration Databases Selection Architecture: A Typical Data Mining System Graphical User Interface Pattern Evaluation Data Mining Engine Database or Data Warehouse Server data cleaning, integration, and selection Data World-Wide Other Info Database Warehouse Web Repositories KnowledgeBase Architecture of an ES Description of a problem Inference Engine User User Interface Advice and explanation Knowledge Base Knowledge Representation In AI, the primary aim of knowledge representation is to store knowledge so that programs can process it and achieve the verisimilitude of human intelligence The representation theory has its origin in cognitive science Knowledge can be represented in a number of ways Case-based reasoning Artificial neural networks Stored as rules Agent-based Modeling Simulate the behavior that emerges from the decisions of a large number of distinct individuals Computer generated agents, each making decisions typical of the decisions an individual would make in the real world Trying to understand the mysteries of why businesses, markets, consumers, and other complex systems behave as they do Supporting Collaboration & Knowledge Work Organization Structure ---Demise of Hierarchy Command-and-control hierarchical bureaucracies Coordinated, collaborative self-managed groups Characteristics of Groups (1) Collaboration is all about getting work done in a group rather than individually Characteristics that differentiate groups include: Membership Some groups are open, some are closed. Interaction Some groups are loosely coupled (salespeople with their own territories) Others work closely together (project team) Characteristics of Groups (2) Hierarchy Location Some members are co-located, some are dispersed Time Some groups have a chain of command (tiers of committees) Some groups are short-lived, some are ongoing Some group member works full time on the group's work, other groups only require intermittent work These characteristics illustrate that providing computer-based support for groups is not uniform From inter-company groups to global teams Community of Practice (2) Three characteristics of CoPs are crucial The domain The community An CoP has an identity defined by a shared domain of interest. CoP members engage in joint activities and discussions, help each other, and share information The practice Members of a community of practice are practitioners. They develop a shared repertoire of resources: experiences, stories, tools, ways of addressing recurring problems—in short a shared practice Group Activities and Supporting Tech Group activities Communication and interaction Decision making and problem solving Communication: transmitting information from one person to others Interaction: back-and-forth communication over time Group members reach a decision or form a consensus Supporting tech Communication: email, office systems Collaboration: CSCW (Groupware) Decision making: GDSS The CSCW Matrix Companies Want to Manage Knowledge (1) Controversial views on knowledge management Knowledge can be captured in computer systems Knowledge can not be captured in a machine, it only exists inside a person’s head Information VS. knowledge Knowledge management is a misnomer Knowledge cannot be managed, but only shared The more people are connected, the more they exchange ideas, the more their knowledge spreads and can thus be leveraged Companies Want to Manage Knowledge (2) Tacit and explicit knowledge Tacit knowledge exists within a person's mind and is private and unique to each person Explicit knowledge has been articulated, codified, and made public Effective knowledge management requires transferring knowledge between these two states Nurturing, cultivating and harvesting knowledge Knowledge management knowledge sharing CoPs and Knowledge Management Traditional knowledge management captures only the most explicit forms of knowledge Tacit knowledge is more related with day-to-day activities and how work is done in practice Communities are the critical building blocks of a knowledge-based company People, not processes, do the work Learning is about work, work is about learning, and both are social Organizations are webs of participation