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Other Aspects of Impact on Human Health City as a Dangerous Place Radiation Radioactive fallout from global weapons testing the United States and other countries conducted more than 500 nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere before 1963 (Nevada). Radioactive particles and gases were spread in the atmosphere, some of these particles and gases traveled great distances before falling to earth (called fallout) where people could be exposed to the radiation. (1) Iodine-131: increased risk of cancer especially thyroid cancer (absorbed through contaminated food). (2). Struntium-90 (SR-90) It mostly from the biggest thermonuclar explosion US and Soviet). Dusts shot up into stratosphere and slowly go down to troposphere and rained on the earth, absorbed by vegetations (chemically similar to calcium). Human get it through produce and animal products that feed on vegetations. It collects in bones and has half life time of 28 years. (large amount of it is still in the stratosphere and soil from previous nuclear test) Affect a person’s bone marrow and increased risk for leukemia. Air quality related illness Asthma: is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways characterized by episodic and reversible airflow obstruction and airway hyperresponsiveness. Clinical manifestations include wheezing, coughing, and shortness of breath. Has increased in prevalence during 1980-1996 in the United States. During 2001--2003, current asthma prevalence was higher in children (8.5%) compared with adults (6.7%), females (8.1%) compared with males (6.2%), blacks (9.2%) compared with whites (6.9%), those of Puerto Rican descent (14.5%) compared with those of Mexican descent (3.9%), those below the federal poverty level (10.3%) compared with those at or above the federal poverty level (6.4% to 7.9%), and those residing in the Northeast (8.1%) compared with those residing in other regions (6.7% to 7.5%). Triggers for asthma: Tobacco smoke (secondhand smoke); Dust mites; outdoor air pollution; cockroach allergen (droppings); pets (furry pets); mold; air pollutions Other Triggers Strenuous physical exercise; some medicines; bad weather such as thunderstorms, high humidity, or freezing temperatures; and some foods and food additives can trigger an asthma attack. Strong emotional states can also lead to hyperventilation and an asthma attack. Smoke from wildfires is a mixture of gases and fine particles from burning trees and other plant materials. Smoke can hurt your eyes, irritate your respiratory system, and worsen chronic heart and lung diseases. Sulfur Dioxide Most sulfur dioxide in the air comes from the burning of coal and oil at electric power plants. Other sources of sulfur dioxide in the air are industrial facilities that use coal or oil, petroleum refineries, cement manufacturing, metal processing, paper pulp manufacturing, and copper smelting Sulfur dioxide is used as a food preservative for some fruits and vegetables; as a disinfectant; for bleaching flour, fruit, grain, wood pulp, wool, textile fibers, wicker, gelatin, and glue; and for making other chemicals. It is also used in metal mining and refining, water treatment, and food processing. Impact Short-term exposure to high levels can be life-threatening by causing breathing difficulties and obstructing airways, especially for people with lung disease. Long-term exposure to persistent levels of sulfur dioxide can cause chronic bronchitis, emphysema, and respiratory illness. It can also aggravate existing heart disease. When sulfur dioxide reacts with other chemicals in the air to form tiny sulfate particles, these particles can gather in the lungs and cause increased respiratory problems and difficulty breathing. Long-term exposure to sulfate particles can cause respiratory disease and even premature death. Prolonged industrial exposure to sulfur dioxide may decrease fertility in men and women. Breathing sulfur dioxide can irritate the nose, throat, and lungs, and cause coughing and shortness of breath. Short-term exposure to sulfur dioxide can cause stomach pain, menstrual disorders, watery eyes, inhibition of thyroid function, loss of smell, headache, nausea, vomiting, fever, convulsions, and dizziness. Direct contact with sulfur dioxide as a gas can irritate and burn the skin and eyes, with possible eye damage. Direct contact with sulfur dioxide as a liquid can cause frostbite. Aflatoxin • is a fungal toxin that commonly contaminates maize and other types of • • crops during production, harvest, storage or processing. Exposure to aflatoxin is known to cause both chronic and acute hepatocellular injury. In Kenya, acute aflatoxin poisoning results in liver failure and death in up to 40% of cases. an estimated 4.5 billion people living in developing countries may be chronically exposed to aflatoxin through their diet. In May, 2006, an outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis was reported in a region of Kenya where aflatoxin contamination of homegrown maize has been a recurrent problem. Harmful Algal Bloom (HAB): occur when certain types of microscopic algae grow quickly in water, forming visible patches that may harm the health of the environment, plants, or animals. can deplete the oxygen and block the sunlight that other organisms need to live, some HAB-causing algae release toxins that are dangerous to animals and humans. can occur in marine, estuarine, and fresh waters. appear to be increasing along the coastlines and in the surface waters of the United States Three types: • blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria): Humans who drink or swim in water that contains high concentrations of this toxins may experience gastroenteritis, skin irritation, allergic responses, or liver damage. • Harmful marine algae, such as those associated with red tides, occur in the ocean and can produce toxins that may harm or kill fish and marine animals. Humans who eat shellfish containing toxins produced by these algae may experience neurologic symptoms (such as tingling fingers or toes) and gastrointestinal symptoms. Breathing air that contains toxins from algae associated with red tide may cause susceptible individuals to have asthma attacks. • Pfiesteria piscicida, a single-celled organism that lives in estuaries, has been found near large quantities of dead fish. Scientists do not yet know whether P. piscicida affects human health. However, reports about symptoms such as headache, confusion, skin rash, and eye irritation in humans exposed to water containing high concentrations. cancer cluster : defined as a greater-than-expected number of cancer cases that occurs within a group of people in a geographic area over a period of time. Cancer in general is common. In the U.S., 1 in 3 people will develop cancer in his or her lifetime. is caused by both external factors (e.g., tobacco, chemicals, radiation, and infectious organisms) and internal factors (e.g., inherited mutations, hormones, immune conditions). Nutrition, physical inactivity, obesity, and other lifestyle factors also play a role in cancer risk and outcomes. These factors may act together or in sequence to initiate or promote cancer. Ten or more years often pass between exposures or mutations and detectable cancer. A confirmed cancer cluster could be the result of any of the following: (1) chance; (2) miscalculation of the expected number of cancer cases (e.g., not considering a risk factor within the population at risk);(3) differences in the case definition between observed cases and expected cases; (4) known causes of cancer (e.g., smoking); (5) unknown cause(s) of cancer. Indoor air quality and health Sick Building Syndrome • Causes: 1. inadequate ventilation: in early and mid 1900s, building ventilation standards called fro approximately 15 cubic feet per minute (cfm) of outside air fro each building occupant, primarily to dilute and remove body odors. As a result of 1973 oil emargo, national energy conservation called for 5 cfm per occupant. • The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) recently revised its ventilation standard to provide a minimum of 15 cfm of outdoor air per person (20 cfm/person in office spaces). Up to 60 cfm/person may be required in some spaces (such as smoking lounges) depending on the activities that normally occur in that space 2. Chemical contaminants from indoor sources: Most indoor air pollution comes from sources inside the building. For example, adhesives, carpeting, upholstery, manufactured wood products, copy machines, pesticides, and cleaning agents may emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs), including formaldehyde. Environmental tobacco smoke contributes high levels of VOCs, other toxic compounds, and respirable particulate matter. Some VOCs can cause chronic and acute health effects at high concentrations, and some are known carcinogens. Low to moderate levels of multiple VOCs may also produce acute reactions. Combustion products such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, as well as respirable particles, can come from unvented kerosene and gas space heaters, woodstoves, fireplaces and gas stoves. (Carbon Monoxide; Formaldehyde; Nitrogen Dioxide; Respirable Particles). 3. Chemical contaminants from outdoor sources: The outdoor air that enters a building can be a source of indoor air pollution. For example, pollutants from motor vehicle exhausts; plumbing vents, and building exhausts (e.g., bathrooms and kitchens) can enter the building through poorly located air intake vents, windows, and other openings. In addition, combustion products can enter a building from a nearby garage. 4. Biological contaminants: Bacteria, molds, pollen, and viruses are types of biological contaminants. These contaminants may breed in stagnant water that has accumulated in ducts, humidifiers and drain pans, or where water has collected on ceiling tiles, carpeting, or insulation. Sometimes insects or bird droppings can be a source of biological contaminants. Physical symptoms related to biological contamination include cough, chest tightness, fever, chills, muscle aches, and allergic responses such as mucous membrane irritation and upper respiratory congestion. These elements may act in combination, and may supplement other complaints such as inadequate temperature, humidity, or lighting. Even after a building investigation, however, the specific causes of the complaints may remain unknown. Synergism: when 2 or more factors or processes combine to have a greater effect than the sum of their separate effects. Molds: are simple, microscopic organisms, present virtually everywhere, indoors and outdoors. (Molds, along with mushrooms and yeasts, are fungi and are needed to break down dead material and recycle nutrients in the environment.) Impact: through inflammation, allergy, or infection. Allergic reactions (often referred to as hay fever) are most common following mold exposure. Typical symptoms include: (1) Respiratory problems, such as wheezing, difficulty breathing, and shortness of breath (2) Nasal and sinus congestion (3) Eye irritation (burning, watery, or reddened eyes) (4) Dry, hacking cough (5) Nose or throat irritation (6) Skin rashes or irritation (7) Headaches, memory problems, mood swings, nosebleeds, body aches and pains, and fevers are occasionally reported in mold cases, but their cause is not understood. Asbestos (carcinogen) is the common name for a group of naturally occurring fibrous silicate minerals that can separate into thin but strong and durable fibers. They tend to have a thin, needle-like appearance. When asbestos fibers become airborne, they can be inhaled deep into the lung. Many fibers deposited in the lung are retained there for long periods of time, others may be translocated to other parts of the body (e.g., the lining of the lung and abdomen), and others are completely cleared, albeit slowly. The fibers can cause chronic local inflammation and disrupt orderly cell division, both of which can facilitate the development of asbestosis and cancer. Thus, inhalation of asbestos fibers can initiate a chain of events resulting in cancer or other asbestos-related illness, which may not become apparent for years, even long after the exposure has ended. Radon • Radon-222 is a radioactive gas released during the natural decay of thorium and uranium, which are common, naturally occurring elements found in varying amounts in rock and soil. • Odorless, invisible, and without taste, radon cannot be detected with the human senses. • Impact: Lung cancer Indoor ozone Ozone-generating devices are being marketed to the public as a solution to indoor quality problems. Ozone generators are available in three forms: in-duct units for central air systems, portable indoor units, and personal units that are worn on the body. Independent studies have shown that ozone generators do not effectively destroy microbes, remove odor sources, or reduce indoor pollutants enough to provide any health benefits. More alarming, these devices can generate excessive levels of ozone and may contribute to eye and nose irritation or other respiratory health problems for users. Impact: Moderate levels can irritate the eyes, nose, throat, and lungs. Organic Gases (Volatile Organic Compounds - VOCs): Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are emitted as gases from certain solids or liquids. Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently higher indoors (up to ten times higher) than outdoors. VOCs are emitted by a wide array of products numbering in the thousands. Examples include: paints and lacquers, paint strippers, cleaning supplies, pesticides, building materials and furnishings, office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and carbonless copy paper, graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent markers, and photographic solutions. Household products including: paints, paint strippers, and other solvents; wood preservatives; aerosol sprays; cleansers and disinfectants; moth repellents and air fresheners; stored fuels and automotive products; hobby supplies; dry-cleaned clothing. Health Effects Eye, nose, and throat irritation; Allergic skin reaction headaches, fatigue, drizziness, loss of coordination, nausea; damage to liver, kidney, and central nervous system; Some organics can cause cancer in animals; some are suspected or known to cause cancer in humans. Benzene:(Benziol), is an organic chemical compound and a known carcinogen with the molecular formula C6H6. It is sometimes abbreviated Ph–H. Benzene is a colorless and highly flammable liquid with a sweet smell and a relatively high melting point. The main indoor sources of this chemical are environmental tobacco smoke, stored fuels and paint supplies, and automobile emissions in attached garages. Actions that will reduce benzene exposure include eliminating smoking within the home, providing for maximum ventilation during painting, and discarding paint supplies and special fuels that will not be used immediately Formaldehyde (H2CO) is released into the air by burning wood, kerosene, or natural gas; automobiles; cigarettes and other tobacco products. It is found in the air at home, at work, and outdoors, especially in smog. It is also found in some foods. is used as a tissue preservative in medical laboratories, and as an embalming fluid in mortuaries. It is also used as a preservative in some foods, and as an antibacterial ingredient in cosmetics, household antiseptics, medicines, dishwashing liquids, fabric softeners, carpet cleaners, lacquers, and wood products. It is used as a preservative in some paints, paper coatings, and cosmetics; in the permanent press coating on fabrics; in carpets; and in some foam insulation materials. Exposure: by breathing or absorbing it through your skin; by breathing indoor or outdoor air that contains it, especially smog; by smoking cigarettes or other tobacco products; breathing cigarette and other tobacco smoke; or breathing smoke from gas cookers and open fireplaces. You can be exposed to formaldehyde at home if you use unvented gas or kerosene heaters indoors. You can be exposed by using household products such as construction materials, latex paints, fingernail polish, cosmetics, disinfectants, glues, lacquers, manufactured pressed wood products, fiberglass, new carpets, permanent press fabrics, paper products, and some cleaners. Impacts Is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogenic. • Exposure to high levels of formaldehyde can cause a build-up of fluid in the lungs, severe shortness of breath, bronchitis, and rapid heart rate. Continued exposure can also cause severe allergic reactions of the skin and eyes, skin allergies and rashes, and asthma-like allergies with coughing, wheezing, chest tightness, and a drop in body temperature. • Exposure to low levels of formaldehyde can irritate and burn the eyes, nose, throat, and skin. In women, exposure can cause menstrual disorders. People with asthma may be more sensitive to exposure to formaldehyde. Drinking large amounts of formaldehyde can cause coma and death due to respiratory failure. Drinking formaldehyde can also cause convulsions, intense pain in the mouth and stomach, nausea, vomiting, signs of shock, vertigo, stupor, and diarrhea. Direct contact of the eyes with formaldehyde can cause permanent eye damage or loss of vision. Noise pollution Urban noise: any unwanted, disturbing, or harmful sound that impair or interferes with hearing, causes stress, hampers concentration and work efficiency, or cause accident. America’s urban environment may be hearing far less than they realize, many may develop hearing loss. Sources: aircrafts, railroads, motor vehicles, etc. Decibels (dB): a logarithmic scale of the pressure exercised by sound waves. A sound pf 60dB is considered as the beginning of intrusive noise level. An ear-piercing motorcycle noise is 90dB. Distinct diurnal and weekly variations: midnight to 4am weekdays have lowest noise; increase to rush-hour level by 9am and stay constant into the evening hours Traffic noise decreases rapidly with elevation above ground. Shopping center has higher noise levels than woodland (20dB higher). Sound pressure units associated with different human activities • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Normal breathing: 10 dbA Whisper: 20 dbA Quiet rural area: 30 dbA Quit room: 40 dbA Rainfall: 50 dbA Normal coversation: 60dbA Vacuum cleaner: 70dbA Average factory: 80dbA Lawn mower: 90dbA Chain saw: 100dbA Rock music: 110dbA Thunderclap (near by) 120dbA Earphones at loud level: 130dbA Air raid siren: 140dbA Boom cars: 140dbA Military rifle: 150dbA 3 Major Sets of Sources for Indoor Sources and 5 for Outdoor Sources Indoor: apartments & houses office & factory disco(?), entertainment Outdoor: transportation construction, industrial operations humans-shouting, boombox miscellaneous (pets, air conditioners, sirens, garbage can lids, lawn mowers, AUDIBLE RANGE The ear can hear sounds ranging from 20Hz to 20kHz. It is most sensitive to frequencies between 500Hz and 4000Hz, which corresponds almost exactly to the speech band. Note that this threshold increases significantly with lower frequencies Noise not only affects hearing. It affects other parts of the body and body systems. It is now known that noise: Increases blood pressure Has negative cardiovascular effects such as changing the way the heart beats Increases breathing rate Disturbs digestion Can cause an upset stomach or ulcer Can negatively impact a developing fetus, perhaps contributing to premature birth Makes it difficult to sleep, even after the noise stops Intensifies the effects of factors like drugs, alcohol, aging and carbon monoxide Noise controls, hearing protection Changes in machinery, equipment; Enclosures of sources; Damping with absorption; soundproofing Sound insulation, separation, barriers • Protection from noise • A distance of at least 25 meter from the center of a roadway to residence; • One or two rows of dense evergreen trees should be planted as close to the road curb as possible • Then a solid barrier and then further trees or shrubbery. Artificial light created by city • Hinders astronomers from conducting research and for casual observers to enjoy the night sky • Affect some species, endangered sea turtle (depends on the dark to lay eggs on beach), migrating birds are lured off course by the lights of high-rise building and fatally collide with them. Electromagnetic fields • Produced by: electric motors, electric transmission lines for utilities, and electrical appliances (toasters, electric blankets, and computers). • The electriomagnetic fields drops off quickly with distance from the source, and strength is relatively week (about 1% of the earth’s magnetic field). • Impact: controversial and difficult to quantify. It was believed that increased risk for leukemia, lymphomas, and nervous-system cancers (children is 1.5 to 3 times more likely to develop cancer when exposed to them).