Download Research and Development in the FY 2010 Federal Budget

U.S. Federal Budget for
Research & Development
Josh Shiode
@joshshiode
February 18, 2017
For the AAAS Annual Meeting (#AAASmtg)
AAAS Office of Government Relations
https://www.aaas.org/program/govrelations
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
1
Industry funds about 2/3 of total U.S. R&D
today, but much
D than
R by Funder
R&Dmore
as a Share
of GDP
3.5%
R&D funding
as percent of GDP
3.0%
Total
2.5%
2.0%
Federal
1.5%
Industry
1.0%
0.5%
Other
0.0%
Total
Source:Federal
NSF National Patterns Industry
of R&D Resources seriesOther
© 2015 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
Source: National Science Foundation, National Patterns of R&D Resources series. © 2015 AAAS
2/18/2017
2
Other nations are increasingly prioritizing R&D as
percent of GDP, especially to the east
Total R&D
as percent of GDP
S. Korea
Finland
Japan
Japan
Taiwan
U.S.
EU-28
Germany
U.S.
France
EU-28
China
UK
Source: OECD, Main Science and Technology Indicators, Feb. 2017. © 2017 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
3
The federal government funds the majority of
research in the
U.S.
Research as a Share of GDP by Funder
1.2%
Research funding
as percent of GDP
1.0%
Total
0.8%
0.6%
Federal
0.4%
Industry
0.2%
Other
0.0%
Total Research
Source: NSF National Patterns of R&D Resources series © 2015 AAAS
Federal Research
Industry Research
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
Other
2/18/2017
4
Science & technology budgets under President Obama
A LOOK AT THE PAST EIGHT YEARS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
5
Nondefense science agency budgets saw mixed results in
the Obama eraS&T
thanks
to larger
budget
Agency
Budgets
in thetrends
Obama Years
Percent change from FY 2008 levels, constant dollars
Percent change from FY 2008
(corrected for inflation)
60%
DOE Science
50%
DOE Technology
Programs*
40%
DOE Science
30%
20%
DOE
NSF Technology
Programs
10%
USDA R&D
NSF
0%
-10%
-20%
NASA
NASA
NIH
NIH
USDA
R&D
nuclear,
fossil,
efficiency and renewables, grid research, and ARPA-E.
*Includes nuclear, fossil, efficiency and*Includes
renewables, grid
research,
and ARPA-E.
FYFY
2009
includes
Recovery
Act
funding.
Based
on
AAAS
analyses
of
historical
data. ©of
2017
AAAS
2009 includes Recovery Act funding. Based on AAASagency
analyses
historical
agency data. © 2017 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
6
The President mostly requested large increases for R&D,
Base
Discretionary
but Congress
holds
power of Spending:
the purse Request vs Actual
percent change from prior year, nominal dollars
Percent change from prior year
8%
6%
4%
President’s
Request
2%
0%
-2%
Actual
Change
-4%
-6%
-8%
Average
Average
Nondefense
Nondefense
R&D
Request
R&D
Presidential Requests (Est.)
Actual Change
Request
Based on historical OMB budget authority tables. Average nondefense R&D request ©
2017 AAAS
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
Copyright
© 2015
Association
Advancement
of Science
Based on historical OMB budget authority tables. Average nondefense R&D request
based
onAmerican
AAAS
data.for©the2017
AAAS
2/18/2017
7
Example: The ups and downs of the National Institutes of
Health budget (NIH)
NIH Request vs. Appropriations
percent change from prior year, nominal dollars
Percent change from prior year
8%
6%
NIH Request
4%
2%
0%
Actual
Change
-2%
-4%
-6%
-8%
FY10
FY11
FY12
FY13*
FY14
FY15**
FY16
*Flat funding requested in FYNIH
2013.
**Base budget only. BasedNIH
on historical
agency budget data. © 2017 AAAS
Request
Actual Change
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
*Flat funding requested in FY 2013. **Base budget only. Based on historical agency budget data. © 2017 AAAS
2/18/2017
8
The federal
government
is “an insurance
company
Composition
of the Proposed
FY 2017 Budget
Outlays
= $4.1
trillion
with an army”Total
costing
～$4T
in FY
2017
outlays in billions of dollars
Net Interest
$303
Defense
Discretionary*
$529
[Defense R&D]*
$79
Other Mandatory
$656
Nondefense
Discretionary*
$557
Medicaid
$386
[Nondefense R&D]*
$68
Medicare
$598
Social Security
$967
*Approximately $4 billion for R&D is classified as mandatory spending. Figures are estimates.
billiondeficit
for isR&D
classified
mandatory
Source: Budget of the United States*Approximately
Government FY 2017 .$4
Projected
$503 is
billion.
© AAAS |as
Feb.
2016
spending. Figures are estimates.
Source: Budget of the United States Government FY 2017. Projected deficit is $503 billion. © 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
9
Two kinds of spending
Essentially on
autopilot
(“formulafunded”)
Requires
act of
Congress
to change
Political
“third” rail
“Mandatory”
Mostly entitlements
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
10
The overwhelming trend in the federal budget is
growing mandatory spending
Federal Spending as a Percent of GDP, 1962 - 2021
Spending as percent of GDP
30%
25%
Net Interest
Net
Interest
20%
Mandatory
Mandatory
15%
Nondefense
Nondefense
Discretionary
Discretionary
10%
Defense
Defense
Discretionary
Discretionary
5%
0%
Source: Budget of the U.S. Government FY 2017. © 2016 AAAS
Source: Budget of
the U.S.
Government FY
2017.
© 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
11
Two kinds of spending
Requires Congress
to pass bills
to fund at all
“Discretionary”
Can make
this easy
target
for cuts
Most federal
R&D funding lives here
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
12
Recent cuts to discretionary spending began in FY
2010
Limits on Discretionary Spending Since FY 2010
Billions of constant 2016 dollars
billions of constant 2016 dollars
$1,250
$1,200
Actual base budget authority
$1,150
$1,100
$1,050
$1,000
$950
Based on past budget resolutions, the Budget Control Act, and subsequent legislation. Adjusted for inflation using
deflators from the
FY17Base
budget
request.
Excludes war funding proposals. © 2016 AAAS
Actual
Budget
Authority
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
13
The Budget Control Act capped discretionary spending
for 10 years,Limits
withon
“sequester”
for further cut
Discretionary Spending Since FY 2010
Billions of constant 2016 dollars
billions of constant 2016 dollars
$1,250
$1,200
$1,150
$1,100
$1,050
$1,000
$950
Based on
pastInitial
budgetPre-Sequestration
resolutions, the Budget
Control Act, and subsequent
legislation. Adjusted
for inflation using
BCA:
Baseline
BCA: Sequestration
Baseline
deflators from the FY17 budget request. Excludes war funding proposals. © 2016 AAAS
Actual Base Budget Authority
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
14
Bipartisan budget deals in 2013 and 2015 allowed
partial relief
from
the sequestration
caps
Limits
on Discretionary
Spendingbaseline
Since FY 2010
Billions of constant 2016 dollars
billions of constant 2016 dollars
$1,250
$1,200
$1,150
$1,100
Actual base budget authority
$1,050
$1,000
$950
Based onBCA:
past Initial
budgetPre-Sequestration
resolutions, the Budget
Control Act, and subsequent
legislation. Adjusted
for inflation using
Baseline
BCA: Sequestration
Baseline
deflators from the FY17 budget request. Excludes war funding proposals. © 2016 AAAS
Actual Base Budget Authority
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
15
Absent another deal, set to return to the
sequestration
for FY 2018Spending
and beyond
Limitscaps
on Discretionary
Since FY 2010
Billions of constant 2016 dollars
billions of constant 2016 dollars
$1,250
$1,200
$1,150
$1,100
$1,050
$1,000
$950
Based on
pastInitial
budgetPre-Sequestration
resolutions, the Budget
Control Act, and subsequent
legislation. Adjusted
for inflation using
BCA:
Baseline
BCA: Sequestration
Baseline
deflators from the FY17 budget request. Excludes war funding proposals. © 2016 AAAS
Actual Base Budget Authority
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
Current Law Beyond FY17
2/18/2017
16
Federal R&D budgets follow the discretionary
budget overall
Federal Spending Since FY 2010
Percent change from FY10 levels, constant dollars, excluding new mandatory proposals in FY 2017
Base discretionary
Base Discretionary
capsCaps
Percent change from FY 2010
(corrected for inflation)
5%
0%
DOE Applied
Programs*
DOE Applied
Programs
NSF
-5%
-10%
NSFDOE Science
-15%
DOENIH
Science
NIHNASA
-20%
NASA
USDA R&D
-25%
USDA
DODR&D
S&T
-30%
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
DOD S&T
2017
Request
*Includes EERE, OE, Fossil, Nuclear; excludes ARPA-E (regular appropriations began in FY 2011).
Based on AAAS analyses of historical OMB , agency, and appropriations data and the President's FY 2017 request. © 2016 AAAS
*Includes EERE, OE, Fossil, Nuclear; excludes ARPA-E (regular appropriations began in FY 2011). Based on AAAS analyses of historical OMB,
agency, and appropriations data and the President’s FY 2017 request. © 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
17
Nondefense discretionary spending ultimately a lower priority
for all in Obama years and thus R&D gains largely unrealized
 While the President’s requests were
regularly unfulfilled, appropriators
often funded research…when there
was fiscal room
 “All politics is local”
 Competitiveness, health, energy
independence, national security
 However, still disagreement, i.e.:
 Climate science
 Social science
 Applied tech: energy,
manufacturing
 Duplication, role of government,
waste, accountability, transparency
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
18
What do we know, and when will we know it?
WHAT LIES AHEAD?
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
19
The federal budget process is complex,
overlapping, but follows a process…
FY 2017 CR
FY 2019
Formulate and
Introduce
President’s
Budget Request
CR? Omnibus?
Budget and
Appropriations Process
in House and Senate
Execute Fiscal Year Budget
Negotiate and
• Budget
Write, pass, and
finalize
Resolution
conference twelve
• 302(a) &
budget proposal
appropriations
(b) alloc.
w/OMB via
bills
• Hearings
passbacks
Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Agency Planning
Start of
Calendar
Year 2017
We are
here.
Budget
Release
FY 2018
CR
Start of
Calendar
Year 2018
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
20
White House
OSTP
OMB
NSF
NASA
Department of Defense
(1/2 scale)
Department
of Energy
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
21
Back and
forth results
in aProposed
President’s
Request in
Composition
of the
FYBudget
2017 Budget
Feb (Apr/May in
transition
covering
Total
Outlaysyears)
= $4.1
trillion all spending
outlays in billions of dollars
Net Interest
$303
Defense
Discretionary*
$529
[Defense R&D]*
$79
Other Mandatory
$656
Nondefense
Discretionary*
$557
Medicaid
$386
[Nondefense R&D]*
$68
Medicare
$598
Social Security
$967
*Approximately $4 billion for R&D is classified as mandatory spending. Figures are estimates.
billiondeficit
for isR&D
classified
mandatory
Source: Budget of the United States*Approximately
Government FY 2017 .$4
Projected
$503 is
billion.
© AAAS |as
Feb.
2016
spending. Figures are estimates.
Source: Budget of the United States Government FY 2017. Projected deficit is $503 billion. © 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
22
So what about the FY 2018 budget? Largely
unanswered questions at this point.

Defense/Nondefense mix?
 “Penny Plan”

Based on prior proposals, possible (but not
certain) targets might include:





Climate science (NASA, DOE, elsewhere?)
Energy science and technology
Advanced Manufacturing
EPA
Other applied research?


Discovery science relatively safe?
Rhetoric vs. reality?

If the Administration seeks to blow a hole
in the nondefense discretionary budget –
how does Congress react?
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
23
Severely austere budgets have been reported as
potential influences on Trump White House
Billions of constant 2016 dollars
for Nondefense spending
Nondefense Discretionary Spending Through FY26
billions of constant 2016 dollars
$600
$550
$500
$450
$400
$350
$300
Actual
Basecaps
Budget
Authority
Sequester
*Current
extend
to FY 2021. Spending BCA:
level beyond
thatBaseline
based on CBO projections.
Based onCaps
past/budget
proposals,
Budget Control Act,
andHouse
subsequent
Baseline
Beyondthe
FY17*
FY17
Budgetlegislation. © 2016 AAAS
FY17 RSC Budget
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
24
Reported influences would cut largely applied research &
development in energy, climate, environment
 Note: these are potential influences not certainties
 Not mentioned at all:
 NIH, NASA, NSF, USDA research programs
 Targeted for cuts/elimination:
 DOE applied technology programs & climate/bio
research
 DOD non-combat research
 Commerce technology development programs
 EPA research
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
25
White House
Transmit PBR
House
OSTP
to Congress
OMB
NSF
NASA
Senate
DepartmentofofDefense
Defense
Department
(1/2scale)
scale)
(1/2
Department
of Energy
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
26
The President proposes
and Congress disposes.
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
27
Congress is organized into committees
Senate
Commerce, Science,
& Transpo Cmte
Budget
Committee
House of Representatives
Science, Space, &
Technology Cmte
Budget
Committee
Appropriations
Committee
Appropriations
Committee
+ Many other committees
+ Many other committees
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
28
From Budget to Appropriations to 12 subcommittees
Budget
Committees
Total Discretionary
Allocation
Appropriations
Committees
Subcommittee allocations
Commerce, Justice,
Science, and Related
Agencies (CJS)
NASA
NSF
Commerce
DOJ
Energy & Water
Development, and Related
Agencies
(E&W)
DOE
Army Corps
of Engineers
Labor, Health and Human
Services, Education, and
Related Agencies (Labor-H)
FDA
NIH
Others…
Dept. of
Education (Ed)
Dept. of
Labor
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
29
The Energy & Water Subcommittee faces major questions
around R&D in their jurisdiction
House
Senate
Chair
Mike Simpson (ID)
Lamar Alexander (TN)
Ranking Member
Marcy Kaptur (OH)
Dianne Feinstein (CA)
 ~$40 billion
 Challenge: balancing basic
research, DOE tech portfolio,
NNSA; also Army Corps, Bureau
of Reclamation
 Questions:
 What happens to applied
tech?
 Does support for science
programs (physics, bio, others)
continue?
R&D: Senate Energy & Water Subcommittee
AAAS estimates in millions of dollars
Bureau of
Reclamatio
n, $126.0
TVA, $17.0
NRC, $87.1
DOE
Science,
$5,352.1
Army
Corps,
$16.4
NNSA,
$6,978.2
DOE
Energy,
$3,426.7
R&D includes conduct of R&D and R&D facilities. © 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
31
The Labor, HHS, Education Subcommittee is one of the
most controversial, but NIH is very popular
House
Senate
Chair
Tom Cole (OK)
Roy Blount (MO)
Ranking Member
Rosa DeLauro (CT)
Patty Murray (WA)
 >$150 billion
 Deep divisions over public
health programs, education,
DOL
 Usually one of the hardest to
pass, thus usually one of the
last out of the gate
 Everybody likes NIH lately
 Especially Alzheimer’s
research
 Cancer moonshot?
R&D: Senate Labor-H Subcommittee
AAAS estimates in millions of dollars
Education,
$222.7
Social
Security
Admin,
$58.0
HHS,
$34,014.2
R&D includes conduct of R&D and R&D facilities. © 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
32
The Commerce, Justice, Science Subcommittee faces questions
about future of NASA, Commerce technology programs
House
Senate
Chair
John Culberson (TX)
Richard Shelby (AL)
Ranking Member
Jose Serrano (NY)
Jeanne Shaheen (NH)



~$55 billion
Challenge: balancing Depts. of Justice
and Commerce, NASA, NSF
Questions:
 NSF: social and geo science funding?
Facilities?
 NASA: what happens to earth
science? Human spaceflight? (and
where do we go?)
 Commerce: What happens to NOAA
climate research and NIST
commercial technology programs?
R&D: House CJS Subcommittee
AAAS estimates in millions of dollars
NSF,
$5,929.0
Justice,
$48.6
NASA,
$13,368.1
DOC,
$1,668.6
R&D includes conduct of R&D and R&D facilities. © 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
33
The Agriculture Subcommittee has recently been growing
its competitive research portfolio, will that continue?
House
Senate
Chair
Robert Aderholt (AL)
John Hoeven (ND)
Ranking Member
Sanford Bishop (GA)
Jeff Merkley (OR)
 ~$20 billion
 Funds most USDA (but not
Forest Service); also FDA
 Balancing between conservation,
public assistance, food safety
 Questions:
 Does growth for competitive
grants continue?
 Do formula funds remain
lower priority?
R&D: Senate Agriculture Subcommittee
AAAS estimates in millions of dollars
FDA, $412.6
USDA,
$2,283.5
R&D includes conduct of R&D and R&D facilities. © 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
34
FY 2017 appropriations in holding pattern and
FY 2018 very unclear
 FY 2017
 Appropriations stuck since fall
 Trump Admin budget amendment
coming in…March?
 SecDef: 30-day readiness review
 Will result in a tweak of the final Obama
budget, with defense spending increase
 Current CR runs out April 28
FY 2017 R&D Appropriations by Character
estimated percent change from FY 2016, nominal dollars
5%
4%
3%
2%
1%
0%
 FY 2018
 February (?): budget outline
 Late April (?): full request
 Appropriations: typically late
spring/summer, into fall…and beyond
-1%
-2%
-3%
Basic Research
Request
Applied Research
House
Development
Senate
President's request excludes manadatory proposals. Inflation is 1.8 percent. © 2016
 Also: debt ceiling deadline in March
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
35
Total discretionary spending is capped at least
through FYLimits
2021on Discretionary Spending Since FY 2010
Billions of constant 2016 dollars
billions of constant 2016 dollars
$1,250
$1,200
$1,150
$1,100
$1,050
$1,000
$950
Based on
pastInitial
budgetPre-Sequestration
resolutions, the Budget
Control Act, and subsequent
legislation. Adjusted
for inflation using
BCA:
Baseline
BCA: Sequestration
Baseline
deflators from the FY17 budget request. Excludes war funding proposals. © 2016 AAAS
Actual Base Budget Authority
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
Current Law Beyond FY17
2/18/2017
36
But remember, Congress “disposes” & has been
able to craft
bipartisan
deals to
provide
relief
Limits
on Discretionary
Spending
Since
FY 2010
Billions of constant 2016 dollars
billions of constant 2016 dollars
$1,250
$1,200
Bipartisan
Deals
$1,150
$1,100
??
$1,050
$1,000
$950
Based on
pastInitial
budgetPre-Sequestration
resolutions, the Budget
Control Act, and subsequent
legislation. Adjusted
for inflation using
BCA:
Baseline
BCA: Sequestration
Baseline
deflators from the FY17 budget request. Excludes war funding proposals. © 2016 AAAS
Actual Base Budget Authority
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
Current Law Beyond FY17
2/18/2017
37
The AAAS R&D Budget and Policy Program
OUR RESOURCES
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2/18/2017
38
We aim to provide timely, independent analyses of both
federal and non-federal R&D budget information
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
39
Recently created interactive data dashboard empowers
you to create and export your own charts and tables
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
40
And not only that, but…
 We have an email list for regular updates
 Deep historical data charts and tables
 Yearly comprehensive reports on the President’s budget
requests and congressional appropriations
 Presentation slides for downloading and use (with
attribution please!)
 And…
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
41
Experts you can contact!
Matt Hourihan
Director, R&D Budget and Policy Program
[email protected] /
@MattHourihan
http://www.aaas.org/program/rd-budget-and-policyprogram
Josh Shiode
Senior Government Relations Officer, AAAS
[email protected] /
@JoshShiode
Office of Government Relations
http://www.aaas.org/program/govrelations
@AAAS_GR
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
42
EXTRA SLIDES
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
43
But, Federal R&D funding at historically low levels
as fraction of the sizeTrends
of our
is
in economy
Federal R&D
As a percent of GDP
R&D as percent of GDP
1.4%
1.2%
1.0%
0.8%
Total
Total
Defense
0.6%
Defense
0.4%
Nondefense
Nondefense
0.2%
0.0%
Source: AAAS analyses of historical budget and agency data and the FY 2017 request. GDP figures from OMB. R&D
includes
conduct
facilities.
© AAAS
Source: AAAS analyses of historical budget and agency data and the FY 2017 request. GDP figures from OMB.
R&D includes
conductand
and facilities.
© AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
44
Two Spending Categories: Discretionary vs. Mandatory
 Mandatory Spending (aka Direct Spending)
 Mostly entitlements, mostly on “autopilot”
 Potential for high political sensitivity = “third rail”
 New spending requires new legislation from the
authorizing committees
 Discretionary Spending:
 Adjusted annually through appropriations bills via the
appropriations committees
 Easy (nondefense) targets?
 i.e. Sequestration
 Vast majority of federal R&D is discretionary
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
45
Federal Spending as a Percent of GDP, 1962 - 2021
30%
25%
Net Interest
20%
Mandatory
15%
Nondefense
Discretionary
10%
Defense
Discretionary
5%
0%
Source: Budget of the U.S. Government FY 2017. © 2016 AAAS
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
46
Trends in Federal R&D, FY 1977-2016
in billions of constant FY 2015 dollars
$200
$180
$160
Total R&D
$140
Defense
$120
$100
$80
Nondefense
ARRA Total
$60
ARRA Defense
$40
$20
ARRA Nondefense
$0
Source: AAAS analyses of historical budget and appropriations data. Pre-1994 figures are NSF obligations data from the Federal Funds survey. FY
Copyright © 2015 American Association for the Advancement of Science
2/18/2017
2016 is the President's request. R&D includes conduct and facilities. © 2015 AAAS
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Recent example: discussion of S&T impacts in budgets
reportedly influencing Trump budget team
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2/18/2017
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Celebrating silly, odd, or obscure-sounding
federally funded research that has
returned serious benefits to society.
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2/18/2017
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