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World War II (1939–1945)
When World War II began in 1939, there was little enthusiasm, not even a noble slogan about the glory of war.
Many saw the war as a continuation of the problems created in World War I. Dissatisfaction with the Versailles
Treaty, the War Guilt Clause, the question of protection, problems created by new nationalist states, and the
failure of collective security all contributed to the start of World War II. The Axis powers (Germany, Italy, and
later Japan; so named when, in 1936, the Italian leader Benito Mussolini gave a speech in which he referred to a
vertical line between Rome and Berlin as “an axis around which all European states” could collaborate.) pursued
aggressive actions to redress perceived inequities that arose out of World War I. This treaty of friendship between
Germany and Italy was later extended to Japan by the Tripartite Treaty of 1940. At first, democratic nations,
such as the United States, England, and France, chose to follow a policy of appeasement. But when that course
of action failed to stop Germany from invading Poland, World War II began. Unlike World War I, which was
fought primarily in Europe, World War II was truly a global war in that it was fought in all the major areas of the
world, except for the Americas. Initially, the Axis powers were victorious, but the entry of the United States and
the failure of the German invasion of the Soviet Union changed the tide in favor of the Allies—England, France,
the United States, and the Soviet Union.
The war was one of the most devastating conflicts in history. New mechanized warfare and advanced technology
made it even more destructive than World War I. Civilian populations felt the war’s full effects: Saturation
bombing, or fire bombing, was used on cities such as Dresden and Hamburg, in Germany. The use of the atomic
bomb over Hiroshima and Nagasaki in Japan (World War II ushered in the Atomic Age) demonstrated the
horrors of nuclear war and modern technology. The war brought massive devastation, as well as an enormous
loss of life and property. Over 75 million people were killed worldwide and civilian deaths reached record numbers.
Germany’s defeat also exposed the horrors of the Nazis’ policy of genocide that had led to the Holocaust and the
deaths of millions of people.
World War II accelerated the decline of Britain and France as major powers, and the United States and Russia
emerged as the two superpowers. Although allies in the war, the United States and Russia were strange bedfellows.
The fear of the spread of communism eventually led to the ideological conflict of the Cold War that dominated
international relations for the latter half of the twentieth century.
Outbreak of World War II (1939–1941)
Hitler’s Empire
Poland
On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. On September 3, Britain and France finally decided to honor
their agreement to defend Poland, and declared war on Germany. The Germans believed that they had a strategy
to end the fighting in a short time. Their method was called Blitzkrieg, or “lightning war,” and involved the use of
tanks, airplanes, and trucks. By October, Hitler’s armies had crushed Poland. Germany soon annexed western
Poland. As agreed in the Non-Aggression Pact of 1939, Russia seized the eastern half of Poland as well as the Baltic
countries. In November, Russia seized parts of Finland, which put up a valiant but unsuccessful resistance.
October 1939–March 1940
This was a time of Sitzkrieg, or “phony war.” Hitler consolidated his gains in Poland and equipped his military in
preparation for the coming attack against Europe. The French remained behind the Maginot Line and Britain
sent troops there to wait for the expected attack. The Maginot Line was a series of concrete fortifications that
extended 200 miles along the French border with Germany.
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Conquest of Denmark and Norway
In April of 1940, Blitzkreig struck again. Germany invaded Norway and Denmark in order to secure a supply of
iron ore. Both of these countries failed to withstand the German invasion and fell within days.
Defeat of France (1940)
In May, the German army invaded northern France by going through neutral Holland and Belgium. Within
weeks, Germany defeated these countries. The Germans had managed to bypass the Maginot Line (which did not
extend into the Belgian frontier), split the Franco-British forces, and trap the entire British army on the beaches
of Dunkirk. In a desperate gamble to triumph over the Germans, the British sent every available naval vessel,
even pleasure ships, across the English Channel to rescue the troops. The Miracle of Dunkirk resulted in the
ferrying of over 300,000 troops to safety.
Meanwhile, Mussolini, sensing an easy victory, declared war on France and proceeded to attack from the south
in June.
On June 22, 1940, German forces captured Paris. The Germans soon occupied all of northern France. In the
south, a puppet state called the Vichy Government was established, headed by Marshall Petain (1856–1951). Not
willing to accept defeat, French resistance forces, led by Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970), escaped to England where
they worked to liberate their homeland; throughout the remainder of the war, the Vichy Government faced many
battles with de Gaulle’s resistance forces. The swiftness of the German victories caught the world by surprise.
Most nations expected a conflict involving trench warfare, as was the case in World War I, where the war reached
a stalemate and there were no quick victories. By 1940, Hitler ruled over all of continental Europe. Like
Napoleon, he dominated the continent, with the exception of Britain. Italy was his ally, while the Soviet Union
remained neutral.
Battle of Britain
Hitler hoped that Britain would recognize that it was standing alone and ask for peace. However, Winston
Churchill (prime minister from 1940 to 1945 and 1951 to 1955), who succeeded Neville Chamberlain as prime
minister in May 1940, refused to surrender. Churchill inspired the nation with his plea that he had nothing to
offer but “blood, toil, tears, and sweat.” When faced with this defiance, Hitler attacked.
On August 15, the German Luftwaffe (air force) began to bomb Britain in preparation for an invasion across the
English Channel. Up to 1,000 planes attacked British airfields and key factories. The British Royal Air Force
was able to defend itself and its country against these attacks with the help of radar that detected incoming
planes. Losses were heavy on both sides. Following the advice of the leader of the Luftwaffe, Hermann Goering
(1893–1946), Hitler ordered the bombing of British cities, hoping to weaken British morale. From August 1940
until June 1941, London and other cities were attacked through the night until dawn. Despite heavy British losses,
this new plan turned out to be a mistake on the part of Germany. As a result of the increased bombing of civilian
sites, Britain boosted its military production, and its anti-aircraft defense improved with the help of radar. By
June 1941, Hitler abandoned his efforts to invade England in favor of a new campaign in Eastern Europe,
specifically Russia.
Critical Turning Points in the War
Invasion of Russia
On June 22, 1941, Hitler launched a major attack against Russia called Operation Barbarossa after the German
king who had participated in the First Crusade during the eleventh century. The goal of the Russian invasion was
to gain control of the Ukraine’s vast wheat fields and the Caucasus’s oil fields. Hitler ordered a massive Blitzkrieg
with an army of three million men along a 2,000-mile border, catching Stalin by surprise. By October 1941,
German troops had surrounded Leningrad, which was within 25 miles of Moscow, and had conquered most of
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World War II (1939–1945)
the Ukraine. Hitler’s propaganda machine proclaimed the war to be over, but it was mistaken. Russia did not
collapse; instead, history repeated itself. Like Napoleon’s forces, the German invaders were not prepared for the
cold Russian winter. Germans, in summer uniform, froze to death as the temperature plunged to –20° Fahrenheit.
Their fuel and oil froze as trucks and weapons became useless. At the Siege of Leningrad, which lasted 900 days,
the Russians fought valiantly. More than 1.5 million citizens died during this siege and some inhabitants even
resorted to cannibalism to survive. Hitler’s failure to conquer Russia drained Germany’s resources and caused
him to have to fight two fronts simultaneously, which ultimately contributed to Germany’s defeat.
Entry of the United States
Although the United States had declared its neutrality in 1939, President Franklin D. Roosevelt realized that a
German victory would be a threat to the nation’s interests. He worked closely with Churchill to provide support
during the Battle of Britain. In 1940, President Roosevelt traded 50 old destroyers to Britain in exchange for
military bases in Newfoundland and the Caribbean.
In March 1941, Congress approved the Lend-Lease Act, which allowed the president to lend or sell war materials
to any country that he deemed vital to that country’s defense. Roosevelt declared that the United States would
become the arsenal of democracy. The Lend-Lease Act created a British-Soviet-U.S. economic alliance, providing
the groundwork for the establishment of the Big Three, as these countries were later known. Hitler proclaimed
the Lend-Lease Act an economic declaration of war and began attacking American merchant ships.
In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter, a broad set of peace principles, such as
freedom from fear and want, and belief in national sovereignty—the right of all people to choose their own form
of government. The Atlantic Charter was very similar to Wilson’s Fourteen Points and a permanent system of
general security, which laid the foundation for the United Nations. Meanwhile, the United States had taken
economic steps to stop Japanese aggression in Asia. When Japan advanced into French Indo-China and the
Dutch East Indies (present-day Indonesia), the United States banned the sale of oil to Japan. This move angered
the Japanese. In retaliation, on December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise attack upon the United States
military base at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Close to 2,500 Americans were killed. On December 8, 1941, the United
States and Britain declared war on Japan. Soon after, on December 11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war on
the United States. The conflict became a global war involving all the major powers. The American entry into the
war was crucial because the U.S. aid to the Allies—along with the heroic support of the British and Soviet people
and the assistance of the resistance groups in Europe—contributed eventually to an Allied victory.
The Road to Victory (1942–1945)
Churchill convinced Roosevelt that the focus of the war should be to defeat Germany first and then concentrate
on Japan. Here are the highlights of the war following the entry of the United States:
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May 1942: In North Africa, the British, under the command of General Bernard Montgomery (1887–1976),
defeated German and Italian forces led by the brilliant General Erwin Rommel (1891–1944), known as the
Desert Fox, at El Alamein, only seventy miles from Alexandria, Egypt. Rommel’s defeat prevented the
Germans from taking control of the Suez Canal. The Suez Canal was the key for reaching the oil fields of
the Middle East. In November 1942, American General Dwight D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) took command
of joint Anglo-American forces in Morocco and Algiers. Combining with Montgomery’s forces, they
destroyed Rommel’s army.
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May–June 1942: The United States defeated the Japanese at the Battle of the Coral Sea and later Midway.
American victories stopped the Japanese advance in the Pacific and prevented another attack on Hawaii.
The Battle of Midway established American naval superiority in the Pacific.
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August 1942: Under the command of General Douglas MacArthur (1880–1964), the American marines
launched their first offensive at Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands. The attack was the beginning of an
island-hopping strategy, the goal of which was to capture strategic Japanese-held islands and bypass others.
These islands would serve as stepping-stones for a direct invasion of Japan.
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August 1942–February 1943: The Battle of Stalingrad began in August and—following a six-month struggle
that involved house-to-house fighting—the Soviet forces defeated Germany. By January 1943, the Germans
had lost over 300,000 men. The Battle of Stalingrad was the turning point in the war because the Russians
had struck a deadly blow to Hitler’s war machine and seized large quantities of German military equipment.
The Russian forces took the offensive and slowly began to drive the Germans out of the Soviet Union.
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January 1943: Roosevelt and Churchill met at Casablanca and agreed to launch an invasion of Sicily and Italy
and to fight until the Axis powers surrendered unconditionally. Roosevelt called this meeting the “Unconditional
Surrender Conference.” The reason for the announcement of unconditional surrender was to reassure Russia,
which was fearful that the Allies might sign a separate treaty with Hitler. Russia was also suspicious about the
failure of the Allies to establish a genuine second front through France. The Russians had suffered enormous
losses on the Eastern Front and claimed that a second front would divert German forces from Russia.
July 1943–August 1944: The Allies, under General Montgomery and American General George Patton
(1885–1945), invaded Sicily and then mainland Italy. Mussolini resigned and Italy surrendered. In
September, however, German troops returned Mussolini to power. The Allies faced German resistance for
the next 18 months until Germany was defeated.
November 28–December 1, 1943: The leaders of the Big Three (Churchill, Stalin, and Roosevelt) met in
Teheran, Iran, for the first time. They agreed on postwar occupation of Germany, demilitarization of
Germany, and the creation of an international peace organization. Churchill and Roosevelt promised to
open a second front of warfare through France. This decision to invade Hitler via France meant that the
American, British, and Russian troops would meet along a north-south line in Germany and that only Russia
would liberate Eastern Europe—a strategy that had a profound impact upon post–World War II Europe.
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Invasion of Normandy (D-Day), June 6, 1944: Eisenhower directed the largest amphibious assault of the
war on the beaches of Normandy in France. This established the second front; by August, Paris had been
liberated, and by the end of 1944 all of France had been liberated. The next goal was Germany. Hitler was
under attack on the Eastern and Western Fronts.
Battle of the Bulge, December 1944: Germany launched a last-grasp counterattack in Belgium through the
Argonne Forest. It slowed the Allied advance but the Allies continued to press forward toward Germany.
January 1945: The Russian forces marched westward through Poland.
February 1945: The Allied firebombing of Dresden killed over 135,000 people.
The Big Three leaders met at Yalta in southern Russia on the Black Sea from February 4 to February 11.
The Yalta Conference drew up the structure of postwar Europe. They agreed that Germany would be
divided into four zones of occupation. Stalin agreed to hold free elections in Eastern Europe and declare
war against Japan in return for land from Japan that had been lost in the Russo-Japanese War. The Big
Three leaders also agreed to the veto system of voting in the Security Council of the United Nations. The
Yalta Conference would be a source of controversy in the future because the concessions worked out over
the status of the countries in Eastern Europe eventually broke down and became a source of friction
between the United States and Russia.
March 1945: The American firebombing of Tokyo killed more than 80,000 Japanese. The Battle of Iwo
Jima ended after a vicious struggle, leaving 26,000 Americans dead.
April 1945: Japan was defeated at the Battle of Okinawa. The Allies moved closer to Japan.
Mussolini attempted to escape Italy but was caught and killed on April 28, and on April 30, Hitler and his
mistress Eva Braun (1912–1945), whom he had married the day before on April 29, committed suicide in a
Berlin bunker.
May 8, 1945 (VE Day): The war in Europe ended.
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July/August 1945: Churchill (after July 28, Clement Attlee, the new British prime minister, took his place),
Stalin, and President Harry Truman (1884–1972) attended the Potsdam Conference in Germany. The conference
addressed the issues of postwar Germany and free elections in Eastern Europe. Truman demanded that
Stalin carry out free elections in the countries of Eastern Europe. Stalin refused and the sown seeds of distrust
would severely hamper the friendship between the United States and Russia as the war drew to an end.
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August 6, 1945: The United States dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima and over 130,000 people were
killed and 90 percent of the city was destroyed.
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World War II (1939–1945)
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August 8, 1945: The United States dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki, resulting in the deaths of 75,000
people. Russia declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria.
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September 2, 1945 (VJ Day): Japan surrendered.
The Holocaust
The efforts of Hitler and the Nazis to destroy all the Jews of Europe are known as the Holocaust. In his policy of
anti-Semitism, Hitler set out to drive Jews from Germany. In 1935, the Nuremberg Laws placed severe restrictions
on the Jewish people. They were prohibited from marrying non-Jews, denied citizenship, forced to wear a yellow
Star of David, and prohibited from attending or teaching at German schools or universities.
On November 9, 1938, the Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) riots took place. Nazi-led mobs attacked Jewish
synagogues, businesses, and homes. The night of violence initiated a period of intense persecution for the Jews in
which over 91 Jews were killed and 30,000 Jews were rounded up and later sent to concentration camps.
By 1939, German Jews had lost all their civil rights, and after the fall of Warsaw, the Nazis began deporting them
to Poland. Jews from all over Europe were moved into ghettos surrounded by barbed wire, forced to wear the Star
of David, and used as slave labor. In January 1942, German leaders met at Wannsee, a suburb of Berlin to carry
out the Final Solution of the Jewish Question—the murder of every Jew. Jews in all parts of Hitler’s empire were
systematically arrested and shipped like cattle to concentration camps or death camps. A death camp was a
concentration camp with special apparatus for systematic murder. All of them were located in Poland. Victims
were sent to “shower” rooms that were really gas chambers. Special camp workers stripped victims of their gold
teeth or hair. Bodies were cremated while bones were crushed for fertilizer. The most infamous of these death
camps was at Auschwitz in Poland, where 12,000 Jews were killed each day, close to 1 million in total.
When the war finally came to an end, over 6 million Jews had been killed, as well as millions of homosexuals,
gypsies, communists, and Slavs. The ultimate monstrosity of the Nazi policy of genocide had contributed to the
death of millions of people. Although they were aware of the Nazi concentration and death camps during the
war, when the Allies discovered the full extent of these atrocities, they agreed that Axis leaders should be tried for
“crimes against humanity.” On November 21, 1945, the Nuremberg Trials began and lasted until October 1, 1946.
An international military tribunal put Nazi war criminals on trial. A total of 177 Germans and Austrians were
tried and 142 were found guilty. Some top Nazis received death sentences. Similar war crime trials were held in
Japan and Italy. These trials showed that political and military leaders had to be held responsible and accountable
for their actions in wartime.
Impact of World War II
The human losses in World War II were staggering. The Soviet Union alone lost 28 million people. Throughout
Europe and Asia, parts of many cities were in ruins. Heavy bombings had destroyed major cities such as Hamburg
and Dresden in Germany, and both European and Asian nations faced the difficult problems of economic recovery.
Britain and France’s colonial powers declined and they were forced to gradually relinquish their empires. Their
colonies in the Americas, Asia, and Africa, embraced nationalism and rejected the remnants of European
imperialism.
Building on the foundation of the League of Nations, the Allies established the United Nations as an international
organization to secure peace. In April 1945, representatives from 50 nations met in San Francisco to draft the
charter for the United Nations. Unlike 1920 when the United States rejected the League of Nations, the United
States became a member of the United Nations and the headquarters were set up in New York. The United States
and Russia emerged as the two superpowers. The two countries had cooperated with each other to defeat Nazi
Germany but by 1945, the alliance was slowly disintegrating. Conflicting ideologies (democracy and communism)
and mutual distrust between the Allies and Russians eventually led to the Cold War. The Cold War became the
driving force that determined events for over 45 years afterwards.
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World War II (1939–1945)
Chronology of World War II
September 1, 1939
World War II begins; Germany invades Poland
1940
Germany conquers Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and France
Battle of Britain
1941
United States adopts Lend-Lease Act
Germany invades Russia
Soviet Union signs a non-aggression pact with Japan
Japan bombs Pearl Harbor
1942
Battle of Midway
Battle of Stalingrad—German offensive stopped
1943
Casablanca Conference
Allied forces take Sicily
Teheran Conference—First meeting of Big Three
1944
D-Day, June 6, at Normandy
1945
Yalta Conference
VE Day, May 8, Germany surrenders
Potsdam Conference—First meeting of Stalin and Truman
August 6—Atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima; August 8—Nagasaki
September 2—VJ Day—Japanese surrender
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World War II (1939–1945)
Sample Multiple-Choice Questions
1. The Atlantic Charter of 1941 was important to
colonial people because
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Great Britain promised to end its colonial
rule in Asia and Africa.
they believed it gave them the right to
govern themselves.
all European countries promised economic
aid to their former colonies.
the United States pledged to support the
colonial struggle for freedom.
it allowed all colonial governments to
become part of the United Nations.
2. The turning point of the war in North Africa
was the British victory over German forces at
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
the Coral Sea.
Midway.
Stalingrad.
El Alamein.
Leningrad.
3. One of the main reasons for Hitler’s invasion of
Russia was
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
to prevent the Japanese from taking
territory from Russia in Asia.
to gain control of the wheat fields in the
Ukraine, which could provide additional
food for the German war effort.
because he feared a Russian invasion of
Germany.
to establish military bases in Russia.
to liberate the Russian people from
Bolshevism.
5. Prior to June 1944, what country carried the
bulk of the land war against Germany?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
6. All of the following were a result of the Teheran
Conference EXCEPT
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
a phony war from October 1939 to March
1940.
the defeat of Poland.
a German counter-attack at Battle of the
Bulge.
a German invasion of Russia.
the Battle of Britain.
a second front through France.
postwar occupation of Germany.
the demilitarization of Germany.
the first meeting of the Big Three.
a demand for unconditional surrender of
the Axis powers.
7. Which is considered the turning point of the
war on the Eastern Front?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
The Battle of Leningrad
The Battle of Stalingrad
Brest-Litovsk
The Battle of El Alamein
The bombing of Dresden
8. Why did the wartime cooperation between the
Soviet Union and the Western powers break
down at Potsdam?
A.
B.
C.
4. Sitzkrieg refers to
Britain
The United States
The Soviet Union
France
The French Resistance Movement
D.
E.
The Western powers refused to
acknowledge the division of Germany.
Stalin demanded more territory from
Japan.
Stalin refused to carry out free elections in
Eastern Europe.
Churchill insisted that Germany be blamed
solely for the war.
The Soviet Union refused to join the
United Nations.
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9. At the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union
agreed to
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
the creation of the United Nations.
free elections in Eastern Europe.
share atomic secrets with other nations.
the joint invasion of Japan.
no separate peace treaties with the Axis
powers.
10. The Nuremberg Trials of 1945/1946 established
the principle of
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
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collective guilt.
war crimes being justified under extreme
circumstances.
national leaders being held personally
responsible for crimes against humanity.
individuals who followed the orders of
their superiors not being held accountable.
genocide.
World War II (1939–1945)
Multiple-Choice Questions: Answers and Explanations
1. B. The Atlantic Charter was signed on August 14, 1941, and outlined the principles of freedom and
economic development to ensure peace. Churchill was reluctant to sign the Atlantic Charter because it
contained the provision that people could choose their own government. Churchill believed that Roosevelt
was trying to do away with the British Empire. At the signing, Roosevelt became a hero to oppressed people
all over the world for his opposition to the imperialist policies of the British, French, and Dutch. Colonial
people believed that the Atlantic Charter gave them the right to self-government. It was reported that
within a few days of the signing of the Atlantic Charter, Churchill received reports that the Burmese people
would call for independence from Britain after the war. This same spirit was expressed by other colonial
people living in Egypt and other parts of Africa. The Atlantic Charter did not provide for economic aid to
former colonial countries nor would the United States promise to support the struggle for freedom or allow
former colonial governments to become part of the United Nations.
2. D. The British army defeated the German army at El Alamein, which is 70 miles from Alexandria, Egypt.
This battle protected Britain’s Suez Canal, the lifeline of the British Empire. The Coral Sea and Midway
were naval battles fought by the United States Navy against Japan. Stalingrad and Leningrad were the sites
of battles on the Russian front.
3. B. Hitler embarked on Operation Barbarossa because he realized that the potential wealth of the raw
materials in the Ural Mountains, the vast forests of Siberia, and the tremendous wheat fields in the Ukraine
would enable Germany to dominate Europe and carry out the war against England and other countries.
Hitler did not fear Japanese expansion in Asia nor did he fear a Russian invasion. Russia was surprised by
the German invasion; Stalin had refused to believe that Hitler would violate the non-aggression pact. Hitler
wanted to destroy Stalin but never intended to liberate the Russian people from the yoke of communism.
4. A. Sitzkrieg refers to the phony war from October 1939 to March 1940 where there was little fighting after
the German invasion of Poland. The defeat of Poland in four weeks demonstrated the effectiveness of
Blitzkrieg (Lightning War). In June 1941, the Germans invaded Russia with over 3 million men and
expected that their invasion would be over by the winter. German forces were repelled at the Battle of the
Bulge. The Battle of Britain resulted in the failure of German air power to defeat the British.
5. C. The Soviet Union carried the bulk of the land war against Germany. France was knocked out of the war
in 1940 and Britain was never a land power. The Soviet Union bore the brunt of the war effort until the
establishment of the second front in June 1944. The United States did not bear the brunt until D-Day. The
French Resistance Movement had very little impact on the war effort against Germany.
6. E. The Teheran Conference did not demand the unconditional surrender of the Axis powers. Churchill and
Roosevelt had met in January 1943 at Casablanca and agreed upon a policy of unconditional surrender.
The Teheran Conference addressed the issue of the second front, demilitarization of Germany, and postwar
occupation of Germany. It was also the first time that Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt met.
7. B. The Battle of Stalingrad marked the turning point of the war on the Eastern Front. The Battle of
Stalingrad stopped the German advances in the south and turned the tide of the battle. Leningrad was
besieged for 900 days. It is a heroic tale but did not represent a turning point on the Eastern Front.
Brest-Litovsk was the site of the peace negotiations between Germany and the Bolsheviks that ended
Russia’s participation in World War I. The Battle of El Alamein marked the turning point in North Africa.
The bombing of Dresden in Germany dealt with Allied efforts in 1945 to defeat Germany. It was not an
area of conflict on the Eastern Front.
8. C. Stalin’s refusal to carry out free elections in Eastern Europe led to a breakdown of wartime cooperation
between the Soviet Union and the Western powers at Potsdam. President Truman, who had succeeded
Franklin D. Roosevelt, insisted that Stalin carry out his pledge of free elections that he had agreed to at the
Yalta Conference. Stalin’s refusal laid the groundwork for the beginning of the Cold War. The Allied powers
had agreed to the postwar occupation of Germany. Stalin did not demand more territory from Japan nor
did he refuse to join the United Nations. None of the Allied nations wanted to blame Germany solely for
the war. They wanted to avoid the mistakes of the Versailles Treaty.
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9. B. At Yalta, the Soviet Union agreed to free elections in Eastern Europe. Stalin was determined to create a
buffer zone against Germany and wanted to decide the fate of Eastern Europe himself. Churchill and
Roosevelt agreed to the compromise because they could not really stop Stalin and were unwilling to go to
war over Eastern Europe. The Allied nations had pledged to create a United Nations in 1941. The Soviet
Union agreed to declare war on Japan but there was no discussion of a joint invasion. The Allied nations
did not share atomic secrets with each other. Stalin was never informed that the United States was
developing the atomic bomb. The Casablanca Conference declared that there would be no separate treaties
with the Axis powers.
10. C. The Nuremberg Trials established the principle that Axis leaders should be tried for crimes against
humanity. At the end of World War I, nothing was done to punish those leaders who were responsible for
the war. At the Nuremberg Trials, Nazi war criminals were put on trial and 142 were found guilty. These
trials were held for leading industrialists, military commanders, and others involved in the Final Solution.
The Nuremberg Trials did not deal with genocide or collective war guilt. The Nuremberg tribunal rejected
the idea that war crimes can be justified or that soldiers must blindly follow the orders of their leaders when
they realize those orders are immoral.
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