Download Creating the body of a fighter and the mind of a pacifist

1 Creating the body of a fighter and the mind of a pacifist:
Concepts and principles behind Shaolin teachings
By Travis Joern
In the modern world, Shaolin is synonymous with orange robes and high flying kicks.
There is a fascination with Shaolin martial arts, but most people do not realize the true principles
of this training. While the monks at Shaolin Monastery did in fact practice fighting techniques,
they were not learning to become fighters. The Shaolin Monastery was a Buddhist organization,
and as such they were pacifists, they did not believe in the use of violence. The purpose of their
training regime was to learn physical methods of self-cultivation that develop the mind-body
connection using both Daoist and Buddhist concepts, with the ultimate goal being one of
enlightenment along the path of Chan Buddhism.
The goal of this paper is to identify the process through which the Shaolin order believed
physical training could further spiritual growth. We will examine historical evidence of violence
in a broad sense and how it was justified within the monastery, but the argument here is that
these accounts were deviations from the true principles, and do not serve as examples of Shaolin
beliefs. Examining set of criteria put forward by the author Terence Dukes, which analyzes how
religious schools of thought examine the mind-body relation to spirituality, we shall see how
these criteria could be applied to the Shaolin teachings. Though the sources available on the
Shaolin Monastery are in contention over their true origins, here we will examine the possible
connection to an Indian martial art called vajramukti, and how it connects with Vajrapani, a
Buddhist deity which the author Meir Shahar identified as a mythological basis of Shaolin
training.1 By the end of this paper, the reader should have a better understanding of how Shaolin
martial arts were a tool for training the mind, not a system designed for use on a battlefield.
Though the Shaolin order believed it could be possible to achieve enlightenment within
one lifetime, very few possessed the karma to achieve such a feat. While consistent effort was
the most critical aspect of Buddhist cultivation, karma was believed to be what allowed one the
opportunity to devote a life to the Buddhist path. Poor karma would present a person with
circumstances that would distract him from spiritual growth, or prevent it altogether.
This was one of the reasons that Buddhists stressed the importance of right action, not to
harm others and to strive to do good within the world. It was vital to accumulate good karma and
rid oneself of bad karma not only to allow the practitioner the opportunity for spiritual
development in the current life, but also to improve the state of reincarnation within the next life
should the practitioner fail to reach nirvana. Of course, there is the paradox wherein if a
practitioner performs an act purely due to his attachment to the concept of nirvana and his desire
to attain that state, it in itself is an act of selfishness and would not produce good karma. Nobody
said the path to enlightenment was an easy one.
1
Shahar, 2008; p. 37. 2 The history of the Shaolin Monastery demonstrates that monks at different times would
stray from these principles. As Buddhists, the Shaolin monks were supposed to be pacifists, and
yet there are documented examples of their involvement in bloodshed. Most Buddhist scriptures
punish violence and warriors to hell. They emphasized the point that “even as passive spectators
they are not permitted to enter a battlefield, for they should neither hear the sound of war nor
witness its horrors”.1 Most monks did indeed observe the prohibition of warfare. In a Chinese
text from the fifth century, the Sutra of the Buddha’s net, Fanwang Jing wrote: “A disciple of
the Buddha should not possess swords, spears, bows, arrows, pikes, axes or any other fighting
devices. Even if one’s father or mother were slain, one should not retaliate.”2 Despite this, some
monks still decided to leave the monastery of their own accord to participate in military
campaigns.
According to the five precepts, killing any sentient being is forbidden, and for a monk to
kill a human being, he could be permanently expelled from the monastic order.3 If the study of
fighting techniques led some monks astray from the true teachings, why then, did the Shaolin
continue to train them? They could have instead trained physical movements that were free from
any association to combat. In their collaborative work, Allan Bäck and Daeshik Kim put forward
a convincing argument about the relation of pacifism and the eastern martial arts that addresses
this question. Having accepted pacifism, the Buddhist is essentially concerned with situations
involving fighting, and so a system that promotes the development of self-control in violent
situations is one that would be of benefit.
If a monk was able to fight reasonably well, yet chose not to, the choice would be made
on a moral stance, and not based on the inability for him to defend himself. Furthermore, the
argument could be made that if violence was forced upon the monk, it was only with training that
he could react consciously in a manner in line with his beliefs. The monk would be able to
defend himself in a way that would not result in the death of either himself or his assailant.
Without training, most people are unable to react calmly in violent encounters. Typically their
thoughts are clouded with emotional responses, and they experience the encounter as a chaotic
blur in which their reflexes take control.
In the text they published in 2004, the representatives of the Shaolin order themselves
discussed the relevance of being skilled in combat so that one would not unwillingly harm
others. They claim that when they practice self defence within the realm of actual combat, it is
always on the basis of disarming an opponent and trying to stop their attacks thereby inflicting
only minimal damage.4 The objective of Buddhism was to eliminate suffering, not to cause it.
Nevertheless, there are examples throughout the long history of the monastery where
military generals enlisted the help of these well trained monks, and some of the monks were even
involved in rebel uprisings. Such examples do not point to some underlying principle in Shaolin
teachings that promotes warfare or any other form of violence. They were simply examples of
1
Shahar, 2008; p. 20. Shahar, 2008: p. 101. 3
Shahar, 2008; p. 50. 4
Shaolin order, 2004; p. 79. 2
3 people who had studied at the monastery and had strayed from the true principles of the Shaolin
order. While some of the monks may have left due to personal attachments, others left out of
some sense of patriotism. Despite efforts to remain detached from the real world, the monastery
did in fact exist within it, and consequently was subject to the chaos and violence which is
inherent to human history.
The Shaolin Monastery itself was located on the Song mountain near the city of Luoyang
in the Dengfeng county of central Hunan. It was supposedly built by Emperor Xiaowen of the
Northern Wei in 477, shortly before he moved the capital from Pingcheng (modern Datong,
Shanxi) to Luoyang in 494 (Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Luoyang 547 CE, and the
Ming Yitongzhi 1461 CE). 1 This location near one of the imperial capitals was a large factor in
the involvement of Shaolin monks in some of the violent political struggles of the empire.
We find historical examples of the involvement of Shaolin monks in warfare in epigraphy
on the stone steles found within their own monastery. One such example is the Stele that records
the events concerning Li Shi Min’s conflicts with Wang Shicong. The stele represented a letter
of thanks for the Shaolin monasteries help in the conflicts, and granted them a sanction by the
political authorities. 2 The involvement of the Shaolin monks would have been one of necessity
rather than political ambition. The war was raging right on the footsteps of the monastery as
Wang Shicong pushed towards the capital, and neither side would have easily accepted the
notion of neutrality. The monks were forced to make a decision, and they acted in a manner they
felt most appropriate to preserve the monastery.
Within Buddhism, one of the greatest acts of compassion a monk could perform was
protecting the teachings of the dharma, and contributing to their proliferation. It was seen as
maintaining the path to liberation for all sentient beings. The monks that involved themselves in
warfare would have knowingly broken their vows, accepting that they may be reincarnated in
some Buddhist hell, out of a sense of duty that they had to protect the monastery. It would have
felt to them like a selfless act in a time of chaos, where they would hope to preserve the dharma
so that others, perhaps even a future reincarnation of themselves, could continue along the path
to enlightenment.
However, involvement with the politics of the court was not a mark of pride for the
Shaolin Monastery. They were called upon to use their martial skills for the defence of the
imperial court, and often there were monks that volunteered to participate out of some sense of
compassion or patriotism. The Shaolin Monastery itself tried to maintain an official position of
peace, not wanting to participate in violence, particularly that which stemmed from political
ambitions. According to the Shaolin order, in 915 CE, there was a “Decree of the guardian”
which stated:
“Enlightenment is the uppermost reason for walking the path of the Buddha. This
path leads us away from birth, death, rebirth and worldliness, and must include renouncing
the ties and fealty to the secular world. From this date forward the Shaolin order shall live
1
2
Shahar, 2008; p. 10. Shahar, 2008; p. 198. 4 and act separate from imperial law, shall not partake in government or civil administration,
and shall abstain from any act of war.”1
The historical authenticity of this decree, like many aspects of the Shaolin Monastery, is
uncertain. It is claimed to have originated from the southern Fukien Temple of the Shaolin order,
and carried over to the Hunan Monastery at Mount Song.2 Of course the Hunan Monastery’s
proximity to the court made it harder to maintain this decree. The existence of the Fukien
Temple, supposedly built by 683 CE, is a controversial issue due to how the Shaolin order is
notorious for its poor historical records. This was because the historical documents were either
destroyed in one of the attacks on the order, or how the monks viewed history as a transient
concept and found record keeping unimportant.3 While maintaining the teachings of the dharma
was essential, documenting the history of the order may not have been. There is however, some
evidence for the historical authenticity of the decree of the guardian. Straight through the Song
Dynasty (960-1279) and well into the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), there are virtually no
historical records of Shaolin involvement in military affairs. If this decree was made, they
remained faithful to it for centuries.
The point is simply that principles of Shaolin teachings were pacifistic. While some tried
to use sutras and explanations to justify the use of violence, they were criticised for trying to
circumvent the principle that Buddhist monks should abstain from inflicting harm. Even when
these monks used violence only to protect others, it would still result in the accumulation of
karmic debt. These sutras were best used to minimize this accumulation.
One sutra tells of how the Buddha in a previous life killed several Brahmins who were
slandering Mahayana teachings because they were Icchantika (one incapable of saving).4
Bodhisattva Manjusri was said to have lifted his spear against the Buddha to demonstrate the
illusory nature of all things, since everything is emptiness, all are equally unreal, and neither
crime, nor perpetrator, nor victim could exist. Some Chan teachings even carried a shocking
message that if you should ever meet the Buddha, you should kill him, as all is an illusion and
nothing truly exists. These were mostly, however, tales used to illustrate some point in the main
teachings. In the case of the Chan teachings, they would use such sutras with the objective of
trying to shock the student into the sudden awakening that Chan promoted.
More pragmatically, there is the notion of “compassionate killing.” When no other way to
prevent a crime is available, it is permissible to kill the would-be criminal, to stop the bandit
from creating bad karma. The catch is that a monk would be taking this bad karma upon himself.
Despite good intentions, the monk would have broken the precepts and would have to overcome
the karmic debt.5 Some would have believed this to be the action of a bodhisattva, one who
delays their own enlightenment with the goal of helping others to reach nirvana. Nevertheless,
those that were focused solely on spiritual enlightenment did not condone any form of violence,
1
Shaolin order, 2004; p. 30. Shaolin order, 2004; p. 29 3
Shaolin order, 2004; p. 36. 4
Shahar, 2008; p. 91. 5
Shahar, 2008; p. 92. 2
5 no matter the purpose. The ultimate goal was the renunciation of all attachments, and the
realization that any particular act is a transitory piece of history.
One Buddhist renunciation that the Shaolin monks were notorious for breaking was the
consumption of dead flesh. The monks who indulged in such behaviour fell back on two
justifications, the first being so long as the Buddha was in your heart, meat and wine are
nothing.1 The second relates to a mythical story of one monk who had studied at the Shaolin
Monastery. It was written in the Tang Dynasty by Zhang Zuo, and was based on a monk named
Sengchou, who is claimed to have lived from 480 to 550 CE. At the time some of the monks
enjoyed practicing wrestling for entertainment. Sengchou was a weakly student, and was being
bullied by some of the other monks.
Sengchou was ashamed of this, and prayed to Vajrapani. He beseeched the deity to grant
him strength, and prayed for 7 days. On the sixth night, just before dawn, Vajrapani was revealed
to him, and presented him with a bowl of sinews and flesh. Sengchou resisted, believing that
monks were meant to renounce meat. Vajrapani threatened Sengchou and he became so terrified
that he ate. The deity then said to him “Now, you are already extremely strong. However, you
should fully uphold the [Buddhist] teachings, beware!”2 Sengchou went out to confront the other
monks, who at once recognized the Buddha’s power within him, and bowed before him.
Vajrapani (also known as Jingang shou pusa, or Jinnauluo) was one of the 3 protective
deities sometimes depicted surrounding the Buddha. Each symbolized one of the Buddha’s
virtues, and therefore a part of the Buddha himself. Manjusri was a manifestation of all the
Buddha’s wisdom, Avolokitesvara was a manifestation of all the Buddha’s compassion, and
Vajrapani a manifestation of the Buddha’s power. Vajrapani is commonly portrayed in the
posture of the active warrior pose (pratayalidha) with his right hand holding a vajra (a short
metal weapon that has the symbolic nature of a diamond, and that of a thunderbolt). In Shaolin
practice he was seen as an image of Buddha’s power and deemed as a granter of strength.
To venerate the deity Vajrapani and to cultivate his strength and power, some of the
Shaolin monks ate meat. Therefore they claimed to eat the flesh not out of personal attachment to
the pleasure of eating meats, but out of a sense of devotion. This practice remained an argued
point, with some monks refusing to eat meat, while others accepting fish as a suitable substitute.
Realistically, it was logical that some practitioners of such a physically demanding regime would
find that a diet rich in protein had a dramatic impact on their energy and strength, and would try
to find some loophole through the dogmatic beliefs that went against it.
Such depictions of military deities in the Buddhist Pantheon demonstrated how even
Buddha needed protection from harm from time to time. Some feel that their personal example
vindicates Buddhist military action.3 Protection of the Buddhist faith could be construed as an act
of compassion, and the monks would contribute to the propagation of the Buddhist message
through heroic contribution. While this may justify the use of violence to protect the path
1
Shahar, 2008; p. 45. Shahar, 2008; pg 36. 3
Shahar, 2008; p. 90. 2
6 towards greater spiritual development it does not, however, justify the use of violence when
following the path. There is an important distinction here.
It is not clear whether the monks that chose to participate in warfare actually trained for
combat at the monastery itself. While there were records of Shaolin monks helping fight bandits
as far back as the Sui Dynasty, the Shaolin Monastery was not known for its fighting arts until
much later. Their staff work was not famous until the 13th century, and their hand to hand
fighting was only popularized the Ming-Qing transition.1
Some of generals and martial arts enthusiasts who studied at the Shaolin Monastery
criticized the efficacy of their training on the battlefield, deeming it impractical and many of the
forms too ‘flowery’. It was commonly stated that while one could mimic animals or perform
elaborate forms and demonstrations in training, real combat was simple, dirty and to the point. Qi
Jiguang, a general around 1562 CE, stated, “Without obvious postures or techniques, you will be
effective with one move; if you do make the mistake of posturing and posing, you will be
ineffective with ten moves.”2 Another criticism of Shaolin concerned their poor skill with a
spear, which was seen as the “lord of all weapons” in war.3 Some felt that they simply applied
their staff training to the spear which did not cohere with the common battlefield strategies for
spearmen.
Historians such as Stanley E. Henning put forward the argument that while Chinese
martial arts were linked to Daoist physical exercises, this was only an attachment put upon later
on due to the dance-link phenomenon. He believes that martial arts were originally a combat
skill, and not a sport. This may very well be the truth for many styles of martial arts in China that
were intended for fighting, but it does not apply to the Shaolin principles. Henning’s argument
reinforces the notion that Shaolin martial training was not intended for real combat. This is
evident in how the Shaolin emphasis on the Buddhist teachings and Daoist practices lowered the
efficacy of their fighting skills compared to those who trained at a similar intensity purely for
military application.
The skill that the monks did have in battle may have reflected the fact that few armies
were composed of full time, professional soldiers that had the luxury of being able to train year
round like the monks did. Of the soldiers that did have this opportunity, many of them may not
have had the discipline to perform more than the mandatory training. The Shaolin Monastery
was grounded on the notion of continual self-cultivation and the acceptance of death and
reincarnation. On the battlefield, they would have been in excellent physical condition, possessed
years of training, and fought with a confidence inspired by the acceptance of the impermanence
of the material world. In certain situations, they would have served as excellent shock troops, and
their spiritual connections would have influenced the moral of other soldiers.
While much of the Shaolin training was useful for mental awareness, courage, physical
ability and understanding the fundamentals of warfare, the training by itself would not turn a
man into a killing force on the battlefield. Hand fighting was also lauded only as being an
1
Shahar, 2008; p. 127. Shahar, 2008; p. 130. 3
Shahar, 2008; p. 64. 2
7 advantage to understanding later training in weaponry, and staves were used by the monks
precisely because of their non-lethal nature. It is possible that Shaolin monks who involved
themselves in warfare were trained in special techniques at the monastery, had previous
knowledge or experience in the fighting arts before becoming a monk, or even left the monastery
to receive training elsewhere before engaging in the military campaigns.
Though many styles of martial arts use the name of Shaolin in some way to legitimize
their practice, they rarely incorporate the spiritual purpose of Shaolin training. Shaolin training
that retains its original concepts and principles was not based on the goal of training a fighter, but
rather on the idea of using the associative tendencies of the mind and its interplay with the
physical body. The Shaolin Monastery was one of the Buddhist monasteries that adopted
ritualized movement practices which contained the principles of health preservation, self-defence
and meditative insight. Terms used within Buddhist teachings relating to concepts such as
“mindfulness of breathing” (Anupassanasti) and the “contemplation of the five ways of moving”
(iryaptha) as well as other examples serve to demonstrate an aspect of the mind-body
relationship within different schools of Indian Buddhism as it was carried over to China.1
Through the use of martial arts, the Shaolin monks could study their relation to their bodies in
order to understand, modify and enhance the quality of this mind-body connection.
According to Terence Dukes, many traditional schools of thought that examine the mindbody relation view the body in what can be broken down to three distinct ways; the body as a
source of experience, the body as a metaphysical representation, and the body as a penultimate
enlightenment.2 By looking at these in a step by step fashion, we can gain a much clearer idea of
how the Shaolin used martial arts as a path towards spiritual awakening.
When looking to the body as a source of experience, the goal is to examine the everyday
intercommunication between the mind and the body, whereby the consciousness is made aware
of sensations such as temperature, pain, balance and so forth. It also deals with the bodilykinaesthetic intelligence of the person, which relates to how well they are able to move and
coordinate their bodies. The practice of any physical movement works first upon enhancing this
level, improving the conscious awareness of the body. This is reflected in the Shaolin teachings
where a young monk is unable to repeat the forms demonstrated by the older masters. Through a
series of exercises the young monk can begin the process of the body awareness and
coordination training that is needed to later perform an advance Shaolin form.
Examining the body as a metaphysical representation is the manner by which
practitioners study the body as “a patterned matrix and symbol of fluctuating energies and forces
which, if understood correctly, can transform or transcendentalize one’s being.”3 Within the
Shaolin Monastery we find the mixed application of Daoist and Buddhist concepts of the body as
an interconnected energetic system where the objective is to study these energies in order to
create harmony within them. These teachings apply to concepts such as qi, within Daoism, and
its rough equivalent in Hindu yoga teaching, prana. Through study of both physical and mental
1
Dukes, 1994; p. 197. Dukes, 1994; p. 95. 3
Dukes, 1994; p. 96. 2
8 patterning, the monks learn of their own natures. From this understanding they would be able to
similarly understand the pattern of life in which they exist.
Finally, in studying the body as a penultimate enlightenment, practitioners acknowledge
the body as being secondary to a greater aspect of the self. Having attained a complete
understanding of the body and its place within nature, the practitioner focuses on spiritual
cultivation, and works to rise above the metaphysical representation of the self to attain a state of
higher existence. Within the Shaolin Monastery, this would be the goal of the Buddhist state of
nirvana; a perfect state of peace and freedom from attachment.
In his studies on the meditative-religious traditions of the fighting, the psychologist Dr.
Michael Maliszewksi noted the phenomenological changes in awareness emerging from the
practice of meditation could be applied to ritualized practice of martial arts.1 While he found that
few fighting arts pursue a radical psychological transformation associated with the cultivation of
a spiritual discipline as explained above, he was able to identify their ability to be used as such.
“The effects of martial-based movements upon the mind can range in intensity
across several categories, including as an ASC [Alternate States of Consciousness] “inducer”
as a means to develop concentration, to cultivate mindfulness and insight, or to empty the
mind of conscious thoughts, as a direct method to attain enlightenment, or the symbolic
representation of a goal associated with the culmination of a meditative path.”2
So we have not only a theoretical basis through which martial arts could be used by the
Shaolin for spiritual enlightenment, but also a clinical examination into this possibility. What
needs to be understood now is how these practices arrived at the Hunan Monastery in the first
place.
The true origins of these practices as they were conducted at the Shaolin Monastery are
unclear. The most common opinion is that Bodhidharma (Damo, in Chinese), an Indian monk,
arrived in China around 480 CE and propagated the Dharma in the Luoyang region until 520
CE.3 At the time Bodhidharma was in China, the monks at the Shaolin Monastery were charged
with the task of transcribing Buddhist books and commentaries from the Sanskrit language into
Chinese. They spent most of their time stooped over the texts and apparently lacked the basic
stamina to undergo a session of meditation following Bodhidharma’s methods.4 He taught these
monks a series of exercises in order to cultivate the physical health necessary to pursue true
spiritual development.
The nature of these practices remains a topic of great debate. Many martial arts
enthusiasts claim that Bodhidharma taught the Shaolin monks the martial arts as they were
practiced centuries later. Others claimed that he either created or transmitted the SinewsTransformation Classic and the Marrow-Cleansing Classic, two exercise systems celebrated
amongst today’s practitioners of Chinese martial arts. Still others attribute to him the teachings
1
Maliszewski, 1992; p. 38. Maliszewski, 1992; p. 40. 3
Shahar, 2008; p. 13. 4
Shaolin order, 2004; p. 25. 2
9 of a series of exercises called the 18 lohan,1 a set of exercises derived from yoga. Those that
believe Bodhidharma existed and did in fact visit the Shaolin Monastery in Hunan generally
accept that he taught the Shaolin monks some physical component of health maintenance, and
certainly had some impact on how they practiced Chan meditation.
But then, if these practices were taught by Bodhidharma, what would they have
originated from, and how did Bodhidharma himself known them? While it is beyond the scope of
this paper to do a complete examination into Indian culture and Buddhist teachings, there is one
note of particular interest in Indian culture as it relates to the Buddhist practice of the Shaolin
Temple. There was a warrior caste known as the Ksatreya (also Kshatriya) which predated the
Shakyamuni Buddha, described as an elite force typically of royal descent or nobility, who
trained from infancy in a wide variety of military and martial arts, both armed and unarmed.
Their training was not simply concerned with developing physical prowess, they also focused on
the cultivation of body awareness and the development of a high moral character.
The Ksatreya trained a form of unarmed fighting which utilized wrestling, throws and
hand strikes, which also incorporated mental cultivation through the study of literature, history,
religion, esoterica and philosophy in all their forms.2 This martial art was called vajramukti, a
name meaning “thunderbolt grasped hand,” referring to the concept of having the power of a
thunderbolt within the fist.3 The inner teachings were highly secretive and only passed orally
from a master (acarya) to disciple (sisya), where the disciple had to be judged as possessing high
moral character. It is possible that vajramukti holds a correlation to Shaolin martial practices due
to the Shaolin identification with Vajrapani whose name, interestingly enough, translates into
“thunderbolt wielder”4 Surely there was some link between an Indian martial art and an Indian
martial deity that were so similar in name. It is curious that Meir Shahar goes into such detail
about the nature of Vajrapani and his connection to the Shaolin Temple, but neglected to either
confirm or deny any connection to vajramukti.
While vajramukti was not a Buddhist practice, it did offer excellent instruction in the
level of body as experience. Indian martial arts include a conscious observation of the personal
changes that occur throughout training, which may develop to a degree which would constitute a
spiritual path.5 Terence claims that Siddhartha himself, as a son and heir to the reigning monarch,
would have been instructed in this art from childhood, and started his spiritual pursuit already
“body aware”. It could be argued that such training would have granted him some of the
discipline and perseverance necessary to endure the physical mortifications of his ascetic
learning, as well as his later work towards enlightenment.
It is possible that Bodhidharma, also a noble-born citizen of South India, would have
been instructed in the ways of the Ksatreya in his youth. His accomplishments within the
spiritual domain are an obvious indication of his high moral character, which would have made
him privy to the inner teachings of the art of vajramukti, should he have chosen to pursue them
1
Zi, 1981; p. 53. Dukes, 1994; p. 158. 3
Dukes, 1994; p. 169. 4
Shahar, 2008; p. 37. 5
Maliszekski, 1992; p. 12. 2
10 before his transition to Buddhism. Such martial abilities would have helped explain how a monk
would have survived the long and difficult journey from India into China, with all the challenges
and dangers he would have had to face. When Bodhidharma decided that it was important for the
monks of the Shaolin Monastery to practice physical movements in their spiritual cultivation, he
understood that they had some level of significance towards the goal of spiritual enlightenment.
It would not have taken long for the Shaolin Monastery to shift away from the Indian
origin of its practices. One trait the Chinese dynasties have been known for is their disdain for
overly foreign concepts which they typically deemed barbaric. Buddhism, already a teaching
from outside the borders of the Chinese empire, had to connect with more familiar Chinese
philosophies for it to be widely accepted. An aspect of this transition could have been the
replacement of the Indian concepts from vajramukti with Daoist concepts of daoyin and qigong.
This would have offered not only a way to strengthen Buddhism’s stance within China but also
helped it to compete with the Daoist religion.
The Daoist practices themselves were not only consistent with many of the core teachings
of vajramukti, but also added knowledge of the body with new ways in which to study it as a
metaphysical representation. Daoist cultivation exercises such as daoyin and nourishing life
(yangsheng) practices were forms of physical movements designed for therapeutic concerns.
They believed the body constituted a system of harmony between the union of various
manifestations of qi,1 and over time theories of yin yang, 5 phases (wuxing), and 8 trigrams
(bagua) were correlated together to create a microcosmic reflection of the myriad of things found
in nature.2
The available Daoist cannon and manuals of gymnastics and breathing do not presume to
enhance military skills. They focused on health and spiritual liberation. The most important
element of study for the gymnastic practices was the areas where qi enters and leaves the body,
and where it tends to stagnate,3 not the development of fantastic striking ability for combat.
While in the early Qing Dynasty, qigong became popular among fighters as a means to cultivate
special techniques, the primary intent of the daoyin was to eliminate blockages and coagulations
of the energies of the body, opening the barriers to permit a smooth circulation of the body
fluids.
Through the process of learning of these dynamic forces which constitute the human
body, the practitioner can learn to attune his mind to a state in which he could possess conscious
control of them. In his studies on the Chinese perspectives of the body and mind, Hidemi Ishida
makes note of how these concepts can be used to develop a conscious awareness of the
government of the body, where the state of mind in which one practices is a critical aspect.
“When, therefore, the whole body is filled with energies, the mind must be present in every place
at the same time. This in turn means that every tiny and remote part of the body is filled with
awareness, and the movements and actions of the body are coordinated to perfection.”4 They
create a harmony within the body by employing the mind-body connection, cultivating not only
1
Schipper, 1993; p. 156. Schipper, 1993; p. 100. 3
Despeux, 1989; p. 255. 4
Ishida, 1989; p. 57. 2
11 the mental refinement of the movements of the body, but also learning to use the conscious mind
to influence the circulation of qi.
Even in Daoism, there is the idea of how the practice of ritualized physical movements
was only a preliminary stage that was intended to be surpassed. The daoyin gymnastics were
intended to facilitate and cultivate the flow of qi, and as such they were secondary to the actual
manipulation of qi itself.1 There was a progressive goal of learning the metaphysical patterns of
the body so that one could refine the seminal essence of the body (jing) into qi with the
combination of daoyin and meditative practice. This transformation continues with the
refinement of qi into the more spiritual aspect of shen.
At the culmination of this process, the Daoist practitioner would apply the patterns of the
self onto the patterns of life, which would then allow one to work towards returning the essence
of the self to the primordial void (xu). It is here in particular that the Shaolin teachings strayed
from Daoist belief. The Shaolin did not work towards union with the Dao and the attainment of
immortality, but towards nirvana and the cessation of attachment.
Looking back to the concept of the body as penultimate enlightenment, it is at this stage
where the Shaolin monk has learned of the experiential body and the metaphysical representation
of the self that he must continue along the path towards nirvana. The monk must awaken his
spiritual self to the illusions of preconceived notions of one’s role within nature, and liberate
himself from all attachments. Meditation was an essential vehicle for freeing the self from its
attachment to the worldly concerns that would inevitably induce suffering. Perfection of the body
as a metaphysical representation of the cosmos was secondary to reaching the state of nirvana.
The greatest danger of the cultivation of the body and mind is the attachment one could
develop for the newfound abilities. The realization of either the body as a source of experience or
the body as a metaphysical representation would have signified the cultivation of a vast degree of
practice and dedication. They would have encompassed an inspiring level of ability and
knowledge, and it would be easy for any person to become attached to such accomplishments.
As was stated before, the ultimate goal of the Shaolin monks was enlightenment, which
for them represented a destruction of the ego. The physical training was a medium through which
they strived to exist fully in the present without planning for the future or reflecting upon the
past. It is with this belief that the training provides an effective form of meditation and an
excellent means for practicing right mindfulness, as well as the other methods of the eightfold
path. The eightfold path is a series of Buddhist tenets which consisted of right understanding,
right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right
meditation.
Stepping back for a moment, it is also important to look at the people who actually
formed the population of the monastery. Concepts and principles cannot be properly surveyed
without their human constituents. There are several groups which can be identified in relation
with the Shaolin Monastery. The first group would be the ‘fans’ of the Shaolin Monastery, who
1
Holcombe, 1993; p. 15. 12 simply idealized and romanticized Shaolin training from afar, supporting the fantastic imagery
created by works of fiction with only a superficial understanding of its purposes. Next would be
those who were accepted only as students, allowed to stay and train at the monastery though not
yet seen as representatives of the order, nor permitted to learn the inner teachings. The third
group were monks that had been accepted into the monastery. They included the disciples as well
as the masters they strove to emulate. Both were given access to the inner teachings and were
expected to embody them though, of course, the disciples did not have the access or
understanding of these teachings that the masters possessed. The fourth and final group would be
the abbots. They remain in a group of their own as they were the authority over how the
monastery operated.
The development of magical qigong abilities was a misperception of Shaolin training
which was perpetuated by fans who had probably never studied at the monasteries themselves.
Unfortunate were those who were taken in by charlatans who fed off these beliefs by teaching
publicly for personal profit. It was not very difficult to be accepted as a student of the Shaolin
Monastery, and while most were sincere in their pursuit of self growth, others would try and
learn the techniques for material gain.
Throughout its history, the monastery often offered shelter to those who had a transient
livelihood, and at times people stayed at the monastery for years, learning martial arts but never
fully subscribed to live the life of a monk.1 Students were only expected to obey the seniors,
perform their chores, and promise to honour and study the path to enlightenment. It was due in
part to this openness that the monastery was sometimes criticised for harbouring bandits and
rebels.
Only those that demonstrated integrity, intellect, and compassion would be accepted as
disciples. The masters knew that knowledge, once imparted, could not be taken back. They had
to be careful with whom they would entrust the inner teachings of the order. A disciple would
have to adopt a series of vows, such as avoiding conflicts, treating all with courtesy, and
maintain a sense of unity with the order. There are many tales of the lengths monks would have
to go to in order to demonstrate their ability to receive and understand the dharma so that a
master would accept them as a disciple. One of more extreme examples was the monk Huike. In
order to become a disciple of Bodhidharma, Huike is said to have severed his own arm to
demonstrate his acceptance of the corporal body as illusion.2
The most relevant to the definition of the principles, were the abbots. They were
grandmasters of the monastery, having instructed other monks up to the level of a master, and
distinguished themselves not only of the ways of the monastery, but having mastered the art of
teaching and transmitting these ways. While not all abbots were seen as having attained true
enlightenment, they would have had a profound understanding of the teachings. They would
have mastered all knowledge that was conveyed in the monastery, and could be consulted for
advice on any domain.3 Being in charge of the monastery, the abbot was expected to represent
the pinnacle of self development through the Shaolin path. This does not, however, mean that all
1
Shahar, 2008; p. 76. Shahar, 2008; p. 13. 3
Shaolin order, 2004; p. 109. 2
13 those who were believed to have attained enlightenment were made abbot of the monastery.
There could only ever be a single abbot at any one time, and it did entail administrative duties
which some may have seen as detrimental to true spiritual pursuit.
Shaolin teachings were known to rely on an oral tradition to emphasize the direct mind to
mind transmission which was characteristic in Chan Buddhism. This transmission was based on
the concept that the Dharma could only be taught from a master to a capable disciple through
direct interaction. It was no surprise then, that with such standards that there were many tales
relating to Shaolin training where people were refused permission to learn the inner teachings. In
such tales, these rejected students would either leave the monastery with the knowledge they had
learned up to that point, or find some way to spy on the monks and learn their techniques.1
Though this contributed to the propagation of the Shaolin martial techniques, it would have also
contributed to the misinterpretation of the spiritual aspects of these techniques. These rejected
students would often go on to create “new” systems of their own, many of which were often
bereft of any spiritual or religious cultivation.
The modern People’s Liberation Army training even incorporates martial arts
conditioning they call Shaolin, but this is simply one of many examples where the name Shaolin
is used to represent a high quality form of martial arts. It features neither the Buddhist morality,
nor the spiritual cultivation that the Shaolin Monastery tried to instruct.
The goal here is not to claim that all Chinese martial arts were inherently connected to a
religious context. It is only to an attempt to penetrate the true principles and concepts of Shaolin
practices which were focused on the attainment of Buddhist enlightenment. As the true
techniques of this path were safeguarded secrets, many areas within this argument are simply an
attempt to draw together the information available. The Indian origins of the Shaolin Monastery
could have been deliberately set aside in order to establish it as an icon of Chinese culture. While
the veneration of the Buddhist deity Vajrapani is still recognized as a mythological source of the
physical training of Shaolin monks, there is little mention of the martial art vajramukti, which
was examined here as possibly being the physical component of the Buddhist teachings brought
over by Indian monks such as Bodhidharma. Many sources that discuss the Shaolin order have
their own agendas, trying to either idealize or condemn the role of Shaolin martial arts in China’s
history. Other sources use the Shaolin Monastery as a basis to promote their own teachings, thus
making it difficult to differentiate authentic claims from the misconceptions.
Shaolin training has left an undeniable impression on the development of martial arts of
China. As a center for martial arts training during the Ming-Qing period, which many interpret as
the golden age of the art, many different teachers legitimatized their style with some Shaolin
connection. Within the modern world we still see the continued wonder over the Shaolin
Monastery with many references in films and fiction relating to martial arts. The tourism
generated by the monastery is a cornerstone of the economy of the surrounding county, and
modern Shaolin monks can live a comfortable lifestyle by opening a martial arts school to teach
eager western students.
1
Dukes, 1991; p 216. 14 This does not validate the concept that Shaolin training was originally intended to create
actual fighters. It was the by-product of techniques that were intended for spiritual purposes.
When Shaolin training began to be recognized as a fighting art, they were only famous for staff
work and bare handed fighting, both of which were not seen as being very useful in the field of
battle. A general would want archers, spearmen and swordsmen, not staff fighters or boxers. The
Shaolin Monastery itself has not been documented as having launched its own military
campaign. The monks that involved themselves in violence did so of their own volition, not as
some force sent out by the abbots.
The present day Shaolin Monastery in Hunan serves as a cultural icon rather than a true
Buddhist monastery. There was a deliberate effort on behalf of the Communist government in
1949 to eliminate any religious or martial training that occurred up Mount Song. It was only after
1984that the monastery was repaired and reopened due to its cultural importance. 1 While
thousands of people now train at Mount Song, most become soldiers, bodyguards, police officers
or film stars. Few stay on at the mountain to teach martial arts and even fewer try to pick up the
religious concepts of Shaolin teachings and become monks. It was only in 1999 that a new abbot
was instated at the monastery, and this was one selected not by any religious authority, but by the
Chinese Communist Party, a devoutly atheistic organization.
Historically, Shaolin has been a long continuum of nameless monks. “Every once in a
while, a particular Shaolin monk becomes famous (or infamous) and this typically marks the end
of spiritual development for that individual. Better luck next incarnation.”2 Though the physical
cultivation of Shaolin training created the body of a fighter, this was only the study of the body
as a source of experience. The true purpose was to cultivate the mind of a pacifist, the Buddha.
This entailed the acceptance of our humanity and position within nature, awakening to the four
noble truths, and following the eightfold path.
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