Download Pseudo-cereals as a functional ingredient

International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences.
Available online at www.ijagcs.com
IJACS/2013/5-14/1574-1580
ISSN 2227-670X ©2013 IJACS Journal
Pseudo-cereals as a functional ingredient: effects
on bread nutritional and physiological propertiesReview
Mostafa Aghamirzaei 1,*,Amin Heydari-Dalfard2, Farahnaz Karami1and Milad Fathi3
1. Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz
5166616471, Islamic Republic of Iran
2. Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture,Shahr-eQods (Shahriar) Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Shahr-eQods, Islamic Republic of Iran
3. Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture,Isfahan University of Technology,
Isfahan 84156-83111, Islamic Republic of Iran
* Corresponding author email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT: Wheat bread represents the main source of carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins for
most of the people. However, white breads are considered to be nutritionally poor, as the wheat
proteins are deficient in essential amino acids such as lysine, tryptophan, and threonine. Pseudocereal can be classified as cereals, oil seeds, legumes and edible nuts. The main functional
components of pseudo-cereal are dietary fibre, protein, vitamins, minerals polyunsaturated fatty acids
and other phytochemicals.Therefore, aim of this study was to determine the effects of adding different
of pseudo-cereals on the physicochemical, nutritional and physiological properties of bread.
INTRODUCTION
Breads are defined as a fermented confectionary product produced mainly from wheat flour, water,
yeast and salt by a series of process involving mixing, kneading, proofing, shaping and baking (Dewettinck, et
al.2008). Bread is an excellent source of numerous vitamins and minerals especially phosphorus and copper.
This is considered to be nutritionally poor, as the cereal proteins are deficient in essential amino acids such as
lysine, tryptophan, and threonine (Wrigley and Bietz, 1988). Composite breads improve the nutritional quality of
bread and satisfy the increasing interest among vegetarians ton consume protein-enriched food from plant
sources, which are rich in lysine and have great potential in overcoming protein–calorie malnutrition. Composite
breads are made from blend of non-wheat or pseudo-cereals flours and wheat flour (Fang, 2008).
Pseudo-cerealsare defined as starchy food grains excluding those currently classified as cereals,
legumes, oilseeds and nuts (Fletcher, 2004). These pseudo-cereals are an ancient crop cultivated in different
countries in Africa, Asia, Central and South America, which has been rediscovered in the last thirty years
(Cadden, et al. 1983). The use of pseudo-cereals for bread making is to fortify the deficiency of nutritional value
in wheat flour. Other objective of supplementation pseudo-cereals in bread formulation is a very recent
development across the globe owing to some economic reasons because wheat imports can be reduced and
elevate the use of locally grown grains (Hugo, et al. 2003). Pseudo-cereals are being used extensively for the
development of functional foods. The components of pseudo-cereals (cereals, oilseeds, legumes and nuts),
identified to exhibit the health benefits are dietary fibre, proteins, lignans, essential amino acids, fatty acids,
dietary fibre, minerals, phenolic compounds, vitamins and etc. Previous studies have shown that the nutritional
quality of bread improved when wheat flour was supplement with oilseed/legume flours (Lazos, 1986). ElSoukkary, (2001) reported that increasing the protein content of the wheat flour by the addition of pseudocereals can improve the nutritional quality of bread, especially the lysine content. Clinical studies showed that
the higher the unsaturated fatty acids diets the lower the total cholesterol, low density lipoprotein (LDL) and
triglycerides, while maintaining beneficial high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, which is needed to
carry the “bad” cholesterol away (Nadeem, et al. 2010). On the other hand, the addition of pseudo-cereals
resulted in increasing dietary fibre. There are two reasons to add fibre to bread: the decrease of the caloric
density of baked goods and the increase of dietary fibre intake (Stauffer, 1990). Effects of dietary antioxidants
such as cereals, nuts, fruits and vegetables on cell signalling and gene expression, where effects can be
demonstrated at low concentrations, may be more important for health benefits than direct antioxidant
Intl J Agri Crop Sci. Vol., 5 (14), 1574-1580, 2013
activity(Gordon, 2012).Therefore, pseudo-cerealsdue to measurement beneficial compounds can be used for
enrichment of bread.
Cereal grains
Cereal grains (barley, corn, maize, millet, oat, rice, rye, and sorghum) have always been the most
important plant group for the human diet. Sorghum is rich in potassium and phosphorus and has good amounts
of calcium with small amounts of iron, sodium and riboflavin (Al-Dmoor, 2012). Besides the high starch content,
cereals provide dietary fibre, protein and oils rich in essential fatty acids. On the other hand, micro nutrients
present in cereals are antioxidants, minerals, vitamins especially B vitamins, and phytochemicals
(Dewettinck,et al. 2008). Fatty acid compositions of cereal grains are available to the reader in standard
reference (Morrison, 1978).The essential fatty acids in cereal lipids are almost invariably 16:0, 16:1, 18:0, 18:1,
18:2, and 18:3. Little amounts of other fatty acids may be presented highly unsaturated fatty acids are unusual,
as are hydroxy acids (Becker, 2007).Tocopherols and tocoterienols are naturally occurring phytochemicals
present in cereal and their health benefit are well documented including prevention of demand for nutritious
cereal-based food products with minimal artificial an additive has been met with increased research and
development from the food industry (Tiwari and Cummins, 2009).The main parameters that have to be
considered are the composition and processing of the cereal grains in bakery products, the substrate
formulation, the growth capability and productivity of the starter culture, the organoleptic properties, and the
stability of the probiotic strain during storage, and the nutritional value of the bakery products. On the other
hand, cereal grains can be used as sources of non-digestible carbohydrates that besides promoting various
beneficial effects can also selectively stimulate the growth of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli in the colon human
(Charalampopoulos, et al. 2002). Previous results reported that supplementation of bread wheat flour with rice
(Sanchez, et al. 2002), corn (Alpaslan and Hayta, 2006,), pearl millet (Rathi, et al. 2004), barley (Alu’datt, et al.
2012; Knuckles, et al. 1997), sorghum (Abdelghafor, et al. 2011) and rye (Hongisto, et al. 2006) results in
alteration in rheological and sensory properties of breads. According to Khalil, et al. (2000), flours from corn,
barley are the most predominant cereal grains that have been studied in production of composite flour in
breads.
Barley is rich in minerals such as manganese, selenium, phosphorus, copper, magnesium, iron, zinc,
potassium, vitamin B6, thiamin, niacin, riboflavin and folate (Al-Dmoor, 2012). Additionally, barley and oat
contain water-soluble fibre such as - glucan. The -glucan present in barley has been shown to regulate blood
glucose levels (Bourdon, et al. 1999), minimize plasma cholesterol levels (Bourdon, et al. 1999) and also
reduce glycemic index andreduce the risk of colon cancer (Brennan and Cleary, 2005). However, previous
studies have indicated that the physiological effects of -glucan are decreased when added into the bread
(Åman, et al. 2004). On the other hand, the addition of barley flour resulted in increasing essential limiting
amino acids in bread from 1.38 to 3.10 g/100 g for lysine and from 0.86 to 1.73 g/100 g for methionine as the
ratio of fortification with barley flour and barley protein isolate increased from 0 to 15% (Alu’datt,et al. 2012).
Knuckles, Hudson, et al. (1997) showed that breads and pastas containing up to 20% dry milled/sieved glucan-enriched barley have acceptable eating quality and are potentially healthful due to reduced calories per
serving. Kilocalories in a serving of these pastas with 20% flour substitution were 11, lower than in the control
samples.
Oil seeds
Oil seeds can be classified as soybean, flaxseed (linseed), safflower seed, sesame seed, , grape seed,
African breadfruit seed, poppy seed, beniseed, coconut flour, cottonseed, black seed, Malaysian rubber seed
and etc. Trade of oilseeds is substantial and involves most of the leading countries either as importers,
exporters, or both. In 1994, world imports in oilseeds amounted about $16.4 billion, according to data of the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO/WHO, 1994). Diverse bread types enriched with combinations of
oilseeds flour are being readily accepted by consumers (Baljeet and Amarjeet, 2010). This tendency in oilseeds
relates to their high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamin E, vegetable protein, niacin, iron,
magnesium, phosphorus (Skrbic and Filipcev, 2008). For instance, soybean is one of the richest and cheapest
sources of plant protein and plays a very important role in the enrichment of cereal-based baked goods
(Fukushima, 1999). It is one such protein sources, which when used partially to replace or complement wheat
flour in the production of bakery products such as breads, biscuit, pasta and other confectionery could go a
long way in improving the nutritional status of bakery products. The enhancement of the nutritional value of
breads with the addition of soybean flour could help to alleviate the problem of protein – energy malnutrition
prevalent in Iran and other developing countries of the tropics.
Oilseed flours significantly improve the quality of wheat flour because of its high contents of essential
fatty acids and essential amino acids especially lysine. This situation demands to explore the possibility of
improving the bakery products with protein sources such as oilseed flours or synthetically produced lysine. This
approach seems to be more feasible and exhibits advantages of substantial enhancement in the protein
Intl J Agri Crop Sci. Vol., 5 (14), 1574-1580, 2013
content and at the same time it helps correcting the amino acid balance deficiencies. Diets rich in an oilseeds
fatty acid may provide potential prevention of a number of health problems or diseases. For example,
unsaturated fatty acids may have physiological benefits including the prevention of cancer, heart disease,
hypertension, and autoimmune disorders (Liangli, et al. 2005).
The utilization of cottonseed and sesame flour (Abdel-Aal, et al. 1993), canola seed flour (Mansour, et
al. 1999), soybeans flour (Chu Zhang, 2004), flaxseed (Alpaslan and Hayta, 2006), beniseed (Afolabi, et
al.2002), coconut flour (Trinidad,et al. 2006), grape seed (Peng, et al. 2010) as functional ingredients in breads,
biscuits, chapatis, snacks and textured products have been successfully demonstrated to give extra protein and
changes in texture of the product.
For example, the results showed that bread with the addition of grape seed extract (GSE) had stronger
antioxidant activity than that of control bread, and increasing the level of GSE addition further enhanced the
antioxidant capacity of the bread. However, thermal processing caused antioxidant activity of GSE added to
bread to decrease by around 30–40%. Other benefits for grape seed extract (GSE) was reduction of
carboxymethyl lysine (CML) in bread (Peng, et al. 2010).
Among oilseeds, flaxseed (Linum Usitatissimum), a member from the family Linaceae is gaining
reputation as a versatile nutritional ingredient which can be easily incorporated into a number of foods as it
contains proteins, dietary fibre, polysaccharides, polyphenolics, and essential fatty acids that promote health
and may prevent certain diseases. In addition, it is contains 51-55% - linolenic acid (ALA) which inhibits
cardiovascular disease, inflammation, blood pressure, cancer, skin diseases, and immune disorders such as
renal failure, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple sclerosis (Kelley, et al. 1991). Chen, et al.(1992) reported that linolenic acid (ALA) remained stable during the processing and cooking of muffins fortified with ground
flaxseed. Clinical study has done by Cunnane,et al. (1995) on the nine women consumed 50 grams milled
flaxseed for 4 weeks two different ways. Five women ate the milled flaxseed raw, to their food of the choice,
such as soup, breakfast cereal, yogurt, or juice and four women consumed bread baked with milled flaxseed in
place of their usage bread. These show that baking process did not affect the bioavailablity of flaxseed fatty
acids because of plasma fatty acid profile were not significantly different between the two groups.
Legumes
The more important legumes are fenugreek, amaranth, cassava, quinoa, pea, chickpea, cow pea,
pigeon pea, bean, faba bean, broad bean, lentil and lupin. These proteins should complement the protein in
cereal grains since the chemical and nutritional characteristics of legumes make them natural complements to
bakery products. Legume seeds provide valuable proteins, which are considered to be increasingly important in
human nutrition. In addition, legume proteins in the form of flour, concentrate or isolate, are a good supplement
for bread, since both legume and cereal proteins are complementary with regard to their essential amino acids
(Abdelrahman, et al.2012). Additionally, legumes are rich in lysine and deficient in sulphur-containing amino
acids, whereas cereal proteins are deficient in lysine, but have adequate amounts of sulphur amino
acids.Therefore, legume can be successfully used in bread, to obtain a protein-enriched product with improved
amino acid balance. The potential use of legumes as protein-enriching agents of bakery products, mainly in the
form of protein flours, has been reported by several authors. They have carried out studies on the preparation
of the composite flours comprising wheat supplemented with protein rich materials of different products of
legumes e.g fenugreek (Ibrahium and Hegazy, 2009), chickpea flour (Gomez, et al. 2008), germinated chickpea
flour (Fernandez and Berry, 1989), germinated pea flour (Sadowska, et al.2003), faba bean (Youssef and
Bushuk, 1986) and lupin flour (Dervas, et al.1999). In addition, these contain many health-promoting
components, such as dietary fibre, abundance of carbohydrates, low fat, high concentration of polyunsaturated
fatty acids, B complex vitamins, resistant starch, minerals, and numerous phytochemicals endowed with useful
biological activities (Amarowicz and Pegg, 2008). The research work, tocopherols were quantified in lentil, pea,
chickpea, common bean, broad bean, and three lupin species. Some samples of pea, chickpea and lupin
inclusive over 10 mg/100 g seeds of total tocopherols. In order to estimate the nutritional value, the vitamin E
activity was determined. Chickpea and, to a lesser extent, lupin, broad bean and pea may contribute in a
relevant way to the daily intake of vitamin E (Boschin and Arnoldi, 2011). The selection of leguminous
substrates based on their nutritional and healthy potential is also of key importance to get optimal technology,
sensory and healthy properties. For example, the supplementation of wheat flour with high- protein-content
legume flours (e.g., bean and chickpea) improves the nutritional quality of baked goods and satisfies the
consumption of vegetarian people since legume flours are rich in lysine and have the potential to overcome
protein-calorie malnutrition (Gomez, et al. 2008).
Fenugreek seed contents calcium (182 mg/100g), Iron (21 mg/100g), zinc (4.9 mg/100g) and other
ingredients (El-Shimi, et al.2003). Moreover, it also possesses hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycemic
properties (Neeraja and Rajyalakshmi, 1996). Hence, development and consumption of such therapeutic
bakery products such as bread, pasta and cookie would help to improve the nutritional status of population
(Shalini and Sudesh, 2005). Information on incorporation of fenugreek seed flour in bread is rare (Ibrahium, &
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Hegazy, 2009). Previous study showed that fenugreek seed (raw, soaked and germinated) significantly
reduced serum total cholesterol, total lipids, LDL-cholesterol while serum HDL-cholesterol and triglycerides
didn’t showed significant changes (Hussein, et al.2011). Ibrahium and Hegazy, (2009) reported that rate fed on
fenugreek seed flour biscuit diets exhibited extremely higher values in weight grain, food intake as compared to
rats fed on wheat biscuit diet. This study showed that biscuit diet containing 10% germinated fenugreek seed
flour recorded the highest values of protein efficiency ratio (PER), net protein ratio (NPR) and net protein
utilization (NPU) between all tested diets.
Amaranth is an excellent source of high quality balanced protein as it contains naturally high amounts
of lysine, methionine and cysteine apart from large amounts of dietary fibre and minerals (Marcone, 1999).
However, a negative correlation among phytate and Fe availability was found in high concentration of
amaranth. Higher proportion of amaranth flour increased Fe concentration although there was not detected any
increase in Fe uptake. A suitable crop to supplement wheat, significant for its nutritional factors and suitability to
survive in the most wasteland is amaranth. In addition, this is good source of important minerals. AlvarezJubete, et al.(2010) reported that the amount of calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc in wheat grain are 5.2-, 2.9, 2.8- and 1.3-fold lower than in amaranth seed, respectively. The lipids of amaranth are rich in squalene and
tocotrienols, which are natural materials positively involved in lowering low-density lipoprotein blood cholesterol
(Bodroza-Solarov, et al.2008). Several studies have shown that the nutritional quality of bakery product
improved when wheat flour was supplement with amaranth (Alvarez-Jubete, et al.2010; Bodroza-Solarov, et
al.2008).
Recent study showed that cowpea/plantain flour mixtures had some functional properties which would
lend them to use in bakery product. The report showed that cowpea flour could be substituted for 80%of the
wheat flour in biscuits without any adverse effecton product quality. It was shown that cowpea and plantain
flours can be combined to produce acceptable cookies with good physical and sensory qualities and improved
nutritional quality with respect to wheat flour cookies (Akubor, et al.2003). The protein contents of the cowpea
flour /wheat flour ranged between 15.2 and 18.9%; values increased with increased levels of cowpea flour in
the blend (Akubor, 2003).
Edible nut
Nuts are dry edible fruits or seeds which usually contain high amount of fat. Edible nuts have been
segment of the human diet since prehistoric times (Salas-Salvado, et al.2011). These are probably the earliest
foods consumed by humans and are considered to be important due to their nutritional attributes (Sharma, et
al.2010). Nuts have also been used by several civilizations as drugs to prevent or treat various diseases
(Salas-Salvado, et al.2011). Often consumed as snack foods in variously processed forms, edible nut seeds
are also incorporated in a variety of foods to impart the desirable quality properties that include flavour and
texture. The type of edible nut used in a food partly depends on the nut species and the final product quality
attributes. For instance, almond, cashew nut, pistachio and peanut are widely used in dry or oil roasted, salted,
or unsalted forms as snack food. Lipid and protein in edible nut account for the major portion, typically 50-90 %
(dry basis) (Venkatachalam and Sathe, 2006), of seed weight and are therefore thought to significantly
influence their properties. However, types of proteins present are dependent on the seed type, and typically
these proteins are rich in acidic amino acids aspartic acid (Asx) and glutamine and glutamic acid (Glx) and the
basic amino acids (Venkatachalam and Sathe, 2006). With the increased information of tree nut-induced
allergies, tree nut proteins have received increased scrutiny in last years (Breiteneder, et al.2007).
Information on incorporation of edible nut seeds flour in bakery products is scanty. The interest in fortification
using whole oilseeds relates to their high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, vegetable protein, phosphorus,
iron, magnesium, vitamin E, niacin, folate and phytoestrogens. For instance, sunflower seed is a complex
containing approximately 20% protein, high levels of potassium (710 mg/ 100 g) and magnesium (390 mg/100
g) and are especially rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids (approximately 31.0%) in comparison with other
oilseeds: soy (3.5%), peanut (13.1%), cottonseed (18.1%), flaxseed (22.4%), sesame seed (25.5%), and
sa ower seed (28.2%) (Skrbic and Filipcev, 2008).
The utilization of peanut (Rao and Vakil, 1980), groundnuts (Akubor, 2003), sunflower (Nadeem, et al.
2010; Skrbic and Filipcev, 2008), pumpkin (El-Soukkary, 2001; Mansour, et al. 1999; Yang, et al.2007) and
breadnut flour (Malomo, et al.2011) as functional ingredients in bakery products has been successfully
demonstrated to give extra protein and changes in texture of the product.
Pumpkin seed is good sources of carotene, vitamins, minerals, pectin and dietary fibre (Djutin, 1991).
Moreover, Pumpkin proteins exhibit good functional properties (high water and fat absorption as well as good
emulsification properties) and high lysine content. Hence, incorporation of pumpkin flour would improve the
nutritional quality of bread (El-Soukkary, 2001). Fluted pumpkin seed flour has been used as a protein
supplement in a variety of native foods (Giami and Bekebain, 1992). Previous studies showed that in-vitro
protein digestibility of bread improved with addition of pumpkin seed proteins (El-Soukkary, 2001). From the
results it can be concluded that it is suitable to produce bread with good nutritional value and sensory
Intl J Agri Crop Sci. Vol., 5 (14), 1574-1580, 2013
properties from wheat flour supplemented pumpkin flour. When wheat flour was incorporated with 10%
pumpkin seed flour, there was an increase of 80.8% in crude protein, 43.9% in calcium, 71.9% in potassium
and 63.0% in phosphorus contents of composite breads. Diets fortified with 5% and 10% fluted pumpkin–
substituted breads showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher values for weight gain, protein efficiency ratio,
apparent and true digestibility than diets formulated with 100% wheat flour bread, suggesting an improvement
of the nutritional quality of fluted pumpkin–substituted composite breads (Giami, et al.2003). However, sensory
evaluation also indicated that 5% pumpkin seed flour bread was the most acceptable bread (See, et al.2007).
Clinical studies showed that a pumpkin-rich diet could reduce the blood glucose. The active polysaccharides
from the pumpkin could obviously increase the levels of serum insulin and thus decrease the blood glucose
levels which improve tolerance of glucose, and therefore could be extended as a novel antidiabetic agent
(Yang, et al.2007).
Sunflower polyphenols including caffeic, chlorogenic and ferulic acids exert a high antioxidative
potential, which might be useful both from technological and bio functional point of views (Maier, et al.2009).
Fatty acid composition of sunflower seed oil strongly depends on where the crop is grown. Warmer climates
produce higher amounts of the monounsaturated acid (MUFA) oleic acid compared with cooler climates, where
the n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) linoleic acid are more dominant (Morrison, et al.1995). However,
near 90% of the oil in sunflower seeds is good unsaturated oil. Due to the role of tocopherols as natural
antioxidant, it is believed that tocopherols decrease several human diseases especially caused by oxidative
stress including coronary heart diseases, cancer and cardiovascular (Adams and Best, 2002). The
antioxidant potential of oil sunflower seed is of great concern with ever increasing use of this oils seed in
various food products. Bread is used as main supplementation vehicle for nutrition purposes. The obtained data
were used to estimate the intakes of sunflower seeds and compare them to the dietary reference intakes
(DRIs). The breads incorporated with sunflower seeds were sensorially acceptable, containing significantly
more tocopherols, fat, essential fatty acids, crude fibre, copper and zinc. On the other hand, the addition of
sunflower seed resulted in increasing chemical composition (crude fat, crude fibre and crude protein) of breads.
In addition, there was a significant increase in total phenolics, antioxidant activity and total and individual
tocopherol contents after dehulling (Nadeem, et al.2010).
CONCLUSION
Bread is the main diet in the most of countries all over the world. It is an excellent source of minerals,
especially phosphorus and copper, numerous vitamins, and carbohydrates. However, lysine and tryptophan are
first and second limiting amino acids in the bread. Various sources of pseudo-cereal flour are use in bread
making include oil seeds, cereals, legumes and edible nuts. These ingredients which are good sources of
proteins, carbohydrates, dietary fibres, minerals and also rich in lysine, leucine and arginine can fulfil the amino
acids requirement and provide beneficial physiological effects to consumers and also a lowering of bread
making cost in countries wherever wheat is not a major domestic crop. Thus fortifying wheat flour with the
pseudo-cereals is considered as one of the most effective and inexpensive ways of improving diet, while more
researches are need to characterize features of fortified products.
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