Download Current pharmacological treatments for tinnitus

Review
Current pharmacological
treatments for tinnitus
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Berthold Langguth† & Ana Belén Elgoyhen
1.
Introduction
2.
Pharmacological treatment
3.
Expert opinion
4.
Conclusions
†
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University of Regensburg, Germany
Introduction: Tinnitus, the phantom perception of sound, is a highly prevalent
disorder and treatment is elusive.
Areas covered: This review focuses on clinical research regarding pharmacological treatments for tinnitus. The authors searched PubMed databases for
English language articles related to pharmacological treatment of tinnitus,
published through August 2012. The keywords "tinnitus AND pharmacological treatment” and “tinnitus AND drugs” were used. The search focused on
clinical trials, but was complemented by other articles and information from
clinical trial registries.
Expert opinion: Despite the significant unmet clinical need for a safe and
effective drug for tinnitus relief, there is currently no EMA- or FDA-approved
drug on the market. Even a drug that produces a small but significant effect
would have a huge therapeutic impact. At present, evidence-based pharmacological approaches are limited to the treatment of comorbidities such as
depression, anxiety, or insomnia. In the last few years there have been significant advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of the different
forms of tinnitus, the establishment of valid animal models, and the development of clinical trial methodology. A glimpse of hope is appearing in
the horizon as an increasing number of pharmaceutical industries now have
compounds targeting tinnitus in their pipeline.
Keywords: auditory system, hearing, meta-analysis, pharmacotherapy, randomized controlled
trial, systematic review, tinnitus, treatment
Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2012) 13(17):2495-2509
1.
Introduction
Tinnitus is a common and distressing symptom that is characterized by the perceived sensation of sound without a corresponding external stimulus. Tinnitus
can take the form of buzzing, hissing or ringing, or a combination of these or other
characteristics. It can be heard in one or both ears, but it can also be referred to the
head. Tinnitus can occur continuously, intermittently, or have a pulsatile character.
The intensity of the phantom sound can vary from a subtle noise just above hearing
threshold to high-intensity sounds, which cannot be masked by any external noise.
Tinnitus can be classified as being either objective or subjective. In the objective
form, which is rare, a real sound is generated by an internal biological source,
reaching the ear through conduction in body tissues. The source can be vascular
turbulence, pulsations, or spasm of the muscles in the middle ear, Eustachian
tube, or soft palate. Objective tinnitus can often been heard by an observer, using
a stethoscope. In contrast, subjective tinnitus refers to a phantom auditory sensation
for which no objective sound can be identified and only the person who has the
tinnitus can hear it. Subjective tinnitus is by far the most common form and its
pharmacological treatment is the subject of the present review.
Based on recent data, tinnitus occurs in 25.3% of American adults (50 million
people) with 7.9% experiencing it frequently (16 million people) [1]. Epidemiological studies reveal comparable prevalence rates for Europe [2]. In a large Norwegian
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B. Langguth & A. B. Elgoyhen
Article highlights.
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Tinnitus represents a highly prevalent disorder causing a
significant burden.
There is currently not a single FDA- or EMA-approved
drug on the market.
A wide variety of drugs with different therapeutic uses
have been tested with some effect in a limited subset
of patients.
At present, evidence-based pharmacological approaches
are limited to the treatment of comorbidities such as
depression, anxiety or insomnia.
There is a pressing need and a huge potential market
for a drug or a combination of drugs for tinnitus relief.
Big pharmaceutical companies are increasingly entering
the hearing and tinnitus field.
This box summarizes key points contained in the article.
survey of more than 50,000 adults, 21.3% of men and 16.2%
of women reported being bothered by their tinnitus, with
4.4% and 2.1%, respectively, reporting high tinnitus intensity [3]. Although most epidemiological studies are based on
data from the USA or Europe, studies investigating the extent
of tinnitus in other regions of the world are emerging, indicating that tinnitus is a significant health problem across
the world [4-6]. Most important risk factors for tinnitus are
hearing loss, increasing age and male gender. Prevalence rates
are expected to increase due to demographic development,
warfare and increasing occupational and leisure noise.
Tinnitus is clinically heterogeneous, with respect to its etiology, its perceptual characteristics and its accompanying symptoms [7]. In addition to acoustic (the unwanted sound, i.e.,
most commonly known as the perception of ‘ringing in the
ears’) and attentional (the extent to which the person is aware
of the sound) components, tinnitus also involves emotional,
cognitive, and memory components. Many patients with tinnitus report symptoms such as frustration, annoyance, insomnia,
anxiety, depression, irritation and concentration difficulties,
and these symptoms are highly relevant for the perceived
tinnitus severity [7]. Thus, tinnitus represents a highly prevalent
and potentially distressing condition that transcends the classical definition of an otological illness to encompass a range
of symptoms that are likely to place a huge burden on patients
and significantly impair quality of life. In fact, for 1 in
100 adults, tinnitus markedly affects their ability to lead a
normal day-to-day life [8] and the extent of this disability leads
many people to seek help. It has been estimated that 13 million
people suffering from tinnitus symptoms in Western Europe
and in the United States approach their doctor for medical
advice [8].
Pathophysiology of tinnitus
Although often arising from peripheral hearing loss, tinnitus
persists after auditory nerve transsection, suggesting the
critical involvement of central mechanisms. In recent years,
animal studies and neuroimaging data have contributed to a
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more detailed identification of tinnitus-related neuronal
alterations in the central nervous system [9]. Governed by mechanisms of homeostatic plasticity [10], reduced auditory input
is compensated at various structures along the central auditory
pathway by reduced inhibitory and increased excitatory function. This in turn leads to increased neuronal firing rates,
increased neuronal synchrony, and tonotopic reorganization [11]. These activity changes in the central auditory
pathways are mediated by alterations in GABAergic, glycinergic, and glutamatergic neurotransmission [12-14]. Serotonergic
axons may also modulate tinnitus-related activity in auditory
pathways via the thalamic reticular nucleus [15] or other mechanisms [16,17]. In addition to deprived auditory input, abnormal
somatosensory afferent input from the neck and face region
(e.g., in patients with temporomandibular joint disorder) can
influence activity in the central auditory pathways [18] and
can be responsible for tinnitus generation [19].
Magnetoencephalographic (MEG) studies have shown that
tinnitus is related to gamma band activity in the auditory
cortex, along with decreased alpha and increased theta activity [20,21]. However, these changes of synchronized oscillatory
activity in the auditory pathways are probably necessary but
not sufficient for the conscious perception of the phantom
sound. It is assumed that tinnitus is only perceived if the
abnormal activity in the auditory cortex is functionally connected to a network of higher order brain ‘neuronal global
workspace’ areas [22]. In accordance, MEG studies have
demonstrated a global tinnitus network of long-range cortical
connections involving auditory and non-auditory regions and
including the right parietal cortex, the right frontal lobe
and the anterior cingulate cortex [23]. Moreover, tinnitus has
an affective component, since in some patients it is accompanied by stress, depression and anxiety. Therefore, in addition
to the perceptual network, a distress network is activated
which comprises the medial temporal lobe (amygdala and
hippocampus), parahippocampal areas, insula and the anterior cingulate cortex [24]. Salience and mnemonic networks
are also activated, evidenced by enhanced activity of the
amygdala in positron emission tomography imaging, by
changes in the hippocampal area and by transient tinnitus
diminution after suppression of the amygdalo-hippocampal
complex by amytal [25]. Thus, there is compelling evidence
for a distributed tinnitus brain network, which includes
sensory auditory areas together with cortical regions involved
in perceptual, emotional, mnemonic, attentional and salience
functions [22].
Animal models of tinnitus
Several tinnitus animal models have been established. In most
animal models, salicylate and noise trauma are used for
tinnitus induction. Conditioned response methods and gapstartle reflex methods are used to assess behavioral correlates
of tinnitus. Even if the development of animal models
has already provided important insight into the neuronal
mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of tinnitus [9],
1.2
Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2012) 13(17)
Current pharmacological treatments for tinnitus
their validity for the different aspects of tinnitus is still a
matter of debate [26].
Since the behavioral validation is currently still restricted
to the perceptual aspects of acute tinnitus, the available
models probably reflect tinnitus-related alterations in central
auditory pathways leading to the phantom percept. It remains
to be determined whether the transition from acute into
chronic tinnitus and its emotional and cognitive aspects are
also reflected.
Tinnitus measurement
For the development and the evaluation of therapeutic interventions of tinnitus, valid and reliable measurement of tinnitus is critical. This is complicated by the fact that tinnitus is a
purely subjective phenomenon and that psychoacoustic measurements of tinnitus (e.g., loudness matching) do not explain
the subjectively perceived severity of the symptom. Therefore,
a comprehensive evaluation has to include the assessment of
both perceptual aspects of tinnitus (e.g., loudness, pitch),
and of subjective tinnitus severity (e.g., tinnitus related functional impairment or tinnitus handicap). Tinnitus loudness
can be assessed by psychoacoustic methods and by subjective
rating scales (e.g., visual analogue scales (VAS) or numeric
rating scales) [27]. Several validated questionnaires are available
for assessment of tinnitus severity [28-30]. The different measurements provide complementary information and should
be used in parallel for a comprehensive evaluation of
treatment-induced changes [31,32].
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1.3
Heterogeneity of tinnitus
A further challenge in the development of effective therapeutics
is the heterogeneity of tinnitus. Different triggering events can
lead to tinnitus, such as noise exposure or administration of
specific pharmacological agents, ear or head injuries, some
diseases of the ear and ear infections. Moreover, the manifestation of tinnitus can vary, ranging from intermittent tinnitus
perception with little impact on daily life to a very bothersome
tinnitus that occurs 24 h a day preventing sleep, leading to the
inability to perform intellectual work and to social isolation.
Tinnitus is also often associated with other symptoms, such as
hyperacusis and distortion of sounds and several affective disorders, such as anxiety, phonophobia and depression [7]. With
such differences in etiology and symptoms, it is expected
that different subtypes of tinnitus exist that differ in their
pathophysiology and in the response to specific treatments.
Specific underlying pathophysiological mechanisms have
already been identified for specific clinical factors such as
the perceived localization, the duration or the frequency composition [33]. Differential diagnosis of triggering events [19] and
temporal onset [23,34] should allow for a more rational and
effective pharmacological approach. The fact that a subgroup
of patients who have intermittent tinnitus that sounds like a
typewriter receive significant relief from the use of carbamazepine [35] indicates that stratifying tinnitus patients benefits
treatment. Efforts toward establishing tinnitus subgroups are
1.4
under way [36-38], and will most likely aid the identification
of responders to specific drugs and the selection of patients
in future clinical trials. Thus, the most probable future
scenario is that there will be different treatment approaches
for the different forms of tinnitus.
Tinnitus: a clinically unmet need
The available treatments for the management of the tinnitus
patient are diverse. The most widely established treatment
methods are counseling (providing information about tinnitus
and giving recommendations how to cope with it), cognitive
behavioral therapy (CBT), and various forms of sound therapies (environmental sound, hearing aids, noise generators).
Frequently, these approaches are applied in combination [39].
Whereas beneficial effects of CBT on subjective tinnitus
severity (but not on tinnitus loudness) have been clearly demonstrated in randomized controlled trials [40], the efficacy of
sound therapy [41] and hearing aids [42] remains to be determined. A similar situation applies for the Tinnitus Retraining
Therapy, a specific combination of directive counseling and
sound therapy [43]. In addition, pharmacological treatments
are widely used, even if there is no approved tinnitus drug
on the market. Over 4 million prescriptions are written each
year for tinnitus relief in Europe and the United States, but
these are all off-label prescriptions from a wide variety of
therapeutic drugs (Table 1) [8].
Based on a more detailed understanding of the pathophysiological mechanisms of tinnitus, various new therapeutic
approaches have been developed. These new approaches,
which are all still at an early development stage, aim at direct
interference with the neuronal correlates of tinnitus by neurobiofeedback, specific individualized auditory stimulation,
cochlear implants (for unilateral deaf patients with tinnitus),
and electrical stimulation of brain structures either through
implanted electrodes or with transcranial magnetic
stimulation.
Although most patients benefit from the currently available
therapies to some degree, a big fraction of them are left
untreated and in despair with the notion that “they have to
learn to live with their tinnitus.” Thus, tinnitus is still today
a clinically unmet need and most patients would welcome a
drug, which abolishes or reduces their phantom sound [44].
In a recent survey in the United States, more than 20% of
the patients were willing to pay US$ 25,000 for complete
reduction of their tinnitus [44]. Most clinicians who treat
tinnitus patients would welcome a more effective drug therapy
as well [45]. Since in some individuals, tinnitus causes irritability, agitation, stress, depression, insomnia and interferes
with normal life, leading to suicidal attempts in severe cases,
even a drug that produces a small but significant effect would
have a huge therapeutic impact. However, disappearance of
tinnitus should be the ultimate goal [46].
The hearing field is being increasingly recognized by big
pharma companies as a huge and still untapped market. The
“Action on Hearing Loss” in the UK estimated in 2005 that
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Table 1. Off-label drugs used in the treatment of
tinnitus.
.
Antiarrythmics
Lidocaine
Tocainide
Flecainide
Mexiletine
.
.
Anticonvulsants
Carbamazepine
Gabapentine
Lamotrigine
Pregabaline
Valproic Acid
Anxiolytics
Clonazepam
Alprazolam
Diazepam
Glutamate receptor antagonists
Acamprosate
Caroverine
Memantine
.
.
.
.
Antidepressants
Amitriptyline
Trimipramine
Nortriptyline
Paroxetine
Sertraline
Fluoxetine
Muscle relaxants
Baclofen
Cyclobenzaprine
Others
Misoprostol
Atorvastatin
Nimodipine
Furosemide
Cyclandelate
Sulpiride
Naltrexon
Vardenafil
Melatonin
Herbal products
Vitamins
Minerals
a novel tinnitus drug could have a product value of US
$689 million in its first year of launch [8]. The market value
of hearing loss, which is closely related to tinnitus is even estimated at US $ 2 billion [47]. However, there is no FDA- or
EMA-approved drug on the market which targets tinnitus or
hearing loss. This may soon change, since the big pharma
companies have recently started to enter the hearing field [47].
Methodological quality of clinical trials in
tinnitus
1.6
Many of the clinical trials in tinnitus have critical methodological limitations including: inappropriate outcome measures
and statistical methods, insufficient sample sizes, poorly defined
interventions, problems with study blinding and randomization and insufficient reporting of study details [48-50]. The
heterogeneous quality of pharmacological tinnitus treatment
studies is echoed by all Cochrane Review analyses [51-54] and
has to be considered in the interpretation of the results, particularly in elder studies. Very recently efforts have been made
to improve the methodological quality of clinical trials in
tinnitus by describing basic methodological recommendations
for trial design, performance and reporting [31,32].
2.
Pharmacological treatment
Tinnitus can be pharmacologically treated
Current pathophysiological models assume that tinnitus results
from alterations of neuronal activity in the central nervous
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system. Since neuronal excitability can be modulated by different neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and compounds
acting on voltage-gated channels, there is no a priori reason to
believe that tinnitus cannot be pharmacologically treated. The
best proof is the transient dose-dependent reduction of tinnitus
in up to 70% of patients after intravenous application of the
voltage-gated sodium channel blocker lidocaine [55,56].
Unfortunately, because of poor bioavailability after oral
intake, lidocaine is only effective when applied intravenously.
Moreover, the effect is short-lasting and side effects are
considerable [57]. Oral antiarrhythmic drugs like tocainide,
flecainide, and mexiletine have been investigated for tinnitus,
however without much success [49,58]. Novel local anesthetics
like tonicaine and sameridine with longer duration of action
have been discussed for the treatment of tinnitus [56].
A preliminary report has shown some positive results in tinnitus patients with an intradermal lidocaine injection [59]. The
pharmaceutical company Epicept has a lidocaine patch
formulation currently at Phase II for tinnitus. However, the
challenge of the transdermal approach will be to achieve the
systemic concentrations needed to suppress tinnitus.
Treatment of acute tinnitus
There is a consensus among clinicians and researchers that
different neuronal mechanisms are involved in the onset of
tinnitus and in the transition from acute to chronic tinnitus.
Therefore, treatment approaches will probably vary with the
duration of the disease. There is no pathophysiologically
founded border between “acute” and “chronic” tinnitus.
The currently used distinction is arbitrary and varies between
3 and 6 months.
In the majority of cases, acute tinnitus resolves spontaneously. Thus therapeutic strategies could aim to provide an
environment that facilitates tinnitus recovery. For example,
in the case of acute tinnitus associated with sudden hearing
loss or noise trauma, treatment strategies which restore
hearing function are expected to have beneficial effects on
tinnitus. In sudden sensorineural hearing loss up to 65% of
patients experience spontaneous recovery of pre-loss hearing,
others experience no recovery at all. The high variability suggests that there are different forms of sudden sensorineural
hearing loss with different etiologies. Among others, vascular,
inflammatory, and infectious mechanisms are probably
involved. Accordingly, proposed treatments include systemic
or intratympanic steroids [60-62], vasodilators [63], and antiviral
agents [64,65]. Good evidence is only available for steroids [66],
with intratympanic steroids being equivalent to high-dose oral
prednisone therapy as primary therapy. As salvage therapy,
intratympanic steroids may offer the potential for some degree
of additional hearing recovery, although it remains uncertain
if this improvement is clinically significant [67].
Another specific form of acute tinnitus is that associated
with noise-induced hearing loss produced by exposure to
loud sounds (levels of 85 dBA and higher [68]), e.g., after a
blast or a rock concert. Single, repeated, or continuous
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Current pharmacological treatments for tinnitus
exposure to high levels of noise can cause noiseinduced hearing loss and tinnitus. Excessive noise can cause
immediate and direct irreversible structural damage to the
hair cell bundles and can generate in a second phase potentially reversible or preventable excitotoxic effects on the sensory nerve terminals [69]. Hair cells die by apoptosis and
cannot be replaced. Loss of hair cells leads to loss of spiral ganglion neurons, which depend on hair cells for the production
of survival factors such as the neurotrophin NT-3 and brainderived neurotrophic factor. Accumulation of free radicals,
excitotoxicity mediated by glutamate receptors, and activation
of apoptosis are predictable players in the loss of cells [70]. Animal experiments suggest that various growth factors and drugs
directed against apoptosis, excitotoxicity and oxidative stress
can provide valuable protection from hearing loss and tinnitus
if applied during exposure [71] and also probably immediately
after exposure. Several of these otoprotectants are currently in
clinical development for preventing noise-induced hearing
loss and associated tinnitus, with mixed results. Daily supplements of 4 g of oral Mg granulate (6.7 mmol Mg aspartate)
significantly reduced hearing loss post noise as compared
to placebo in a double-blind placebo-controlled study
involving 300 young and healthy military recruits [72]. In a
placebo-controlled crossover study 2 weeks treatment with
1200 mg/day of the glutathione prodrug N-acetylcysteine
(NAC) protected male workers from noise-induced temporary threshold shift [73]. In contrast, 900 mg NAC 30 min
before exposure to 2 h of loud music (mean noise level of
98.1 dB) had no beneficial effects on temporary threshold
shifts as compared to placebo [74]. Results of several further
still-unpublished studies in humans [75] suggest that NAC
has at best very small effects on hearing protection in
humans [47]. The combination of NAC with alpha-phenyltert-butyl nitrone (HPN-07), a compound that reacts with
free radicals, has shown synergistic effects preclinically [76]
and is currently tested in a Phase I trial [47]. SPI-1005
(ebselen), an antioxidant, developed by Sound Pharmaceuticals is currently tested in Phase II trials in college
students listening to music with their iPods [77] and in
chemotherapy-induced hearing loss [78].
AM-101, a NMDA antagonist, has been developed by
Auris Medical for the treatment of acute tinnitus and shown
to be safe [79]. In a recent double-blind, randomized,
placebo-controlled Phase II trial, 248 subjects with persistent
tinnitus no older than 3 months from acute noise trauma,
otitis media or sudden deafness received three intratympanic
injections of AM-101 at a high dose, a low dose or placebo
over three consecutive days. AM-101 failed to significantly
reduce minimal masking levels, but the higher dose of
AM-101 (810 µg/mL) showed substantial and statistically
significantly better reduction than placebo in tinnitus
loudness, sleep impact and tinnitus impairment in patients
suffering from acute tinnitus with established cochlear origin.
In contrast, the subgroup of sudden deafness-related tinnitus
did not show conclusive results [80].
Summarizing, there is consensus among clinicians that
acute tinnitus, especially if it co-occurs with acute hearing
loss, deserves specific attention and that there might be a short
therapeutic window for specific pharmacological interventions. The most widely used treatment strategies are intratympanic or high-dose oral steroid administration. Apart from
steroids, there are yet no treatments available which have
shown repeated efficacy in controlled trials. This might be
due to etiological heterogeneity of acute hearing loss and a
high rate of spontaneous recovery. Further clinical trials to
validate treatments of acute tinnitus are urgently needed.
Treatment of chronic tinnitus
There is no specific pharmacological compound which has
been approved for the treatment of chronic tinnitus. But a
large variety of drugs approved for other indications are
used for the treatment of tinnitus in clinical practice
(see Table 1). Some of these compounds have also been investigated in clinical trials. Here we will discuss the most relevant
results, sorted by the type of drug tested.
2.3
Antidepressants
Antidepressants are frequently proposed for the management
of chronic tinnitus [81]. The main reason for the large use of
antidepressants is the frequent co-occurrence of depressive
disorders and tinnitus as well as the overlap in symptomatology and pathophysiology of tinnitus and depression [82].
Moreover, antidepressants are among the most effective drugs
for the treatment of chronic neuropathic pain syndromes,
which in turn resemble tinnitus in many aspects [22,83].
Among all antidepressants that have been investigated for
tinnitus, a particular interest has been paid to tricyclic antidepressants, mainly because of their beneficial effects on chronic
pain syndromes [84]. In two placebo-controlled studies, one
single-blind [85] and one double-blind [86] study involving subjects with severe tinnitus and depressive symptoms, nortriptyline significantly reduced depression scores, tinnitus disability
scores, and tinnitus loudness relative to placebo. There was a
significant correlation between the reduction in tinnitus
disability scores and depression scores, suggesting that nortriptyline is especially effective in severely depressed tinnitus
patients, but has less benefit in non-depressed individuals
with tinnitus [87]. One study has compared amitriptyline
with placebo and found after 6 weeks of 100 mg amitriptyline
a significant reduction of tinnitus complaints and tinnitus
loudness compared to the placebo group [88]. In another
study, where amitriptyline was compared with biofeedback,
27.5% of patients reported improvement. However, this was
less effective than biofeedback per se [89]. A small double-blind
placebo crossover study did not demonstrate a difference
between trimipramine and placebo treatment [90]. It should
also be noted that the induction and worsening of tinnitus
has been reported in relation to tricyclics [91-94] but also to
other antidepressants [95] as side effect of both treatment
and discontinuation.
2.3.1
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The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) paroxetine and sertraline have been also tested in tinnitus. In a
randomized double-blind placebo controlled study of patients
without severe hearing loss, but with depression, anxiety, and
a high risk for developing severe tinnitus, sertraline was significantly more effective than placebo in reducing tinnitus
loudness and tinnitus severity [96]. In a double-blind, placebocontrolled study involving chronic tinnitus patients, few of
whom suffered from depression, the paroxetine group showed
little difference from placebo on tinnitus loudness matching,
Tinnitus Handicap Questionnaire (THQ) scores, and other
measures; however the paroxetine group showed a significant
improvement on tinnitus aggravation compared to the control
group [97].
Very recently a combination of paroxetine and vestipitant, a
neurokinin-1 receptor antagonist with anxiolytic properties
was investigated in a crossover trial. Neither the combination
nor vestipitant alone had a potential effect against chronic tinnitus [98]. No data are available for the serotonin reuptake enhancer
tianeptin, the serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors
(SNRI) duloxetine and venlafaxine, the norepinephrindopamine reuptake inhibitor bupropion, the dual acting drug
mirtazapine or the melatonin agonist agomelatin.
In the interpretation of the effect of antidepressants on
tinnitus, it has to be considered that the scales used for the
measurement of tinnitus correlate highly with depression
scales [99]. Thus, the observed reduction of tinnitus severity
under antidepressant treatment might -- at least partially-- be
a pure consequence of the antidepressant effect of the investigated drugs. Nevertheless, available data provide converging
evidence that tinnitus patients with depression and anxiety
may gain benefit from antidepressant treatment and clearly
suggest that the use of an antidepressant in this patient group
is highly indicated. However, available results do not allow for
determining whether one specific compound is superior to
others [81]. Therefore, in clinical practice, selection of the
antidepressant drug should be guided by the patient’s
comorbidities and the side-effect profile of the specific drug.
alprazolam/day resulted in a significant improvement in the
VAS score (0 representing “no tinnitus” and 100 representing
“the worst imaginable tinnitus”) as compared to placebo, but
not in the tinnitus handicap inventory (THI) score and tinnitus loudness [101]. Diazepam, evaluated in a double-blind
triple crossover trial involving 21 tinnitus patients, had no
effect on tinnitus loudness [102]. In a prospective, randomized,
single-blind clinical trial involving 10 patients per group,
clonazepam significantly reduced tinnitus loudness and
annoyance (VAS) relative to the control group [103]. A
potential beneficial effect of clonazepam is further suggested
by a retrospective study analyzing medical records from
over 3000 patients taking clonazepam (0.5 -- 1 mg/day,
60 -- 180 days) for vestibular or cochleovestibular disorders,
where 32% reported an improvement in their tinnitus [104].
In a recent open-label, randomized, crossover study effects
of 3 weeks treatment with clonazepam and Ginkgo biloba
were compared in 38 patients with chronic tinnitus (tinnitus
duration more than 2 months). Starting with one tablet daily
(clonazepam 0.5 mg; Ginkgo biloba 40 mg), subjects were
instructed to increase the dose by one tablet every 3 days to
a maximum of four tablets daily until they perceived a satisfactory decrease in tinnitus loudness or intolerable side effects.
During clonazepam patients reported significant improvements in tinnitus loudness, annoyance and THI score,
whereas Ginkgo biloba showed no significant differences
on any of these measures [105]. The non-benzodiazepine
hypnotics zopiclon, eszopiclon, zaleplon and zolpidem
(Z-substances) have not yet been systematically investigated
for the treatment of tinnitus.
Summarizing, there are some hints for a potential shortterm benefit of benzodiazepines in tinnitus treatment. However given the side-effect profile of benzodiazepines, especially
the risk of drug dependency, the available data are by far not
sufficient to recommend the use of benzodiazepines for the
treatment of tinnitus. Moreover, caution is warranted since
protracted tinnitus has been reported after discontinuation
of benzodiazepines [106,107].
Benzodiazepines
Since benzodiazepines are positive allosteric modulators of the
GABAA receptor and since reduced inhibitory neurotransmission is thought to be critical for the development of tinnitus [12],
benzodiazepines would be expected to have a positive effect on
tinnitus by increasing inhibitory neurotransmission. Furthermore, due to their anxioloytic and sleep-inducing properties,
benzodiazepines should have beneficial effects on comorbid
anxiety and insomnia.
In a small double-blind placebo-controlled study, 12 weeks
of alprazolam administration at an individually adjusted dosage reduced tinnitus loudness in 76% of subjects -- measured
with a tinnitus synthesizer and a visual analog scale -- whereas
only 5% showed a reduction in tinnitus loudness in the
control group [100]. In a further trial (crossover, randomized, triple-blind, placebo-controlled, 30 patients), 1.5 mg
Non-benzodiazepine anticonvulsants
Anticonvulsants are increasingly used in the treatment of
several non-epileptic conditions, including various psychiatric
disorders and pain syndromes. Some of them have also been
investigated for the treatment of tinnitus. Diverse pharmacological mechanisms of action are responsible for the therapeutic effects of antiepileptics; among them, effects on
voltage-gated sodium and calcium channels, and on synaptic
transmission -- mainly mediated by gamma amino butyric
acid type A (GABAA) receptors. Since antiepileptics reduce
neuronal excitability, they represent potential candidates for
the treatment of tinnitus as well [108].
Carbamazepine reduces neural firing by binding to voltagegated sodium channels and stabilizes the sodium inactivation
state. Based on the assumption that carbamazepine resembles
lidocaine in its mechanism of action, several studies have
2.3.2
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2.3.3
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Current pharmacological treatments for tinnitus
investigated the effect of carbamazepine in tinnitus patients who
previously had responded to intravenous lidocaine [109-111].
A positive response to carbamazepine has been reported at a
dosage of 600 -- 1000 mg daily in about half of the patients.
However, these effects could not be confirmed in placebocontrolled studies [112,113]. A significant benefit from carbamazepine has been reported for a rare group of patients who have
intermittent tinnitus that sounds like a typewriter, or ear
clicking [35,114].
Gabapentin is an anticonvulsant which acts on voltagegated calcium channels and is used for the treatment of
seizures, neuropathic pain, and migraine. One controlled trial
has shown a significant improvement in tinnitus annoyance
and loudness for a subgroup of participants with tinnitus
related to acoustic trauma [115]. A second study did not detect
improvement in tinnitus handicap, but did report a significant improvement in tinnitus annoyance when compared to
placebo [116]. However, further controlled trials did not report
any benefit of the compound on tinnitus annoyance or
loudness [117,118]. In a very recent study gabapentine was not
superior to placebo on the group level, but beneficial effects
were reported in a subgroup of tinnitus patients with
comorbid hypertension, diabetes and dyslipidemia [119].
However, potential beneficial effects in post-hoc defined
subpopulations have to be interpreted with caution till they
are replicated by prospective studies. Accordingly, systematic
reviews conclude that there is insufficient evidence for the
effect of gabapentin on tinnitus [54,120].
Pregabalin resembles gabapentin in its mechanisms of
action and is approved for the treatment of partial seizures,
neuropathic pain, and generalized anxiety disorder [121,122].
Beneficial effects on sleep have also been reported [123]. There
are no data available for the use of this compound in tinnitus
patients. However, based on its clinical profile, pregabalin
could potentially be considered for the treatment of
tinnitus-related anxiety and insomnia.
Lamotrigine inhibits voltage-sensitive sodium channels and
is a membrane stabilizer. It has been investigated in a doubleblind placebo-controlled crossover clinical trial on 33 tinnitus
patients and failed to demonstrate a beneficial effect [124].
Valproic acid is one of the most frequently prescribed antiepileptic drugs and acts by multiple mechanisms. It has not
been systematically investigated for tinnitus and has only
been reported as useful in case reports [125,126].
The use of anticonvulsants for tinnitus treatment has also
been reviewed recently in a Cochrane metaanalysis, which
comes to the conclusion that studies performed so far only
show small effects of doubtful clinical significance and that
there is no evidence for a large positive effect of anticonvulsants
in the treatment of tinnitus [54].
Antiglutamatergic compounds
Glutamate receptor antagonists have been tried in tinnitus
sufferers with the goal to reduce excitatory neurotransmission.
Increased glutamatergic neurotransmission may play a role in
2.3.4
the periphery in acute tinnitus, but also in the central auditory
pathways in chronic tinnitus. Blocking glutamatergic neurotransmission after noise overexposure is thought to prevent
noise-induced excitotoxic injury of hair cells [127]. Caroverine,
an antagonist of non-NMDA and NMDA receptors, has been
applied both systemically and topically, with contradictory
results [128-130].
Oral treatment with the putative non-selective NMDA
receptor antagonist acamprosate, which is approved for the
treatment of alcohol dependency, has been tried in a
double-blind study [131]. Acamprosate had no beneficial
effects after 30 days of treatment, a modest benefit at
60 days, and a significant effect at 90 days. Approximately
87% of the subjects in the acamprosate group showed some
improvement, including three subjects in which tinnitus
disappeared, compared to 44% in the placebo group. These
results were confirmed in a recent randomized double-blind
placebo-controlled crossover trial in which 6 weeks of acamprosate treatment resulted in a significant improvement of a
tinnitus severity score as compared to placebo treatment [132].
A further large clinical trial has been completed [133], but
results are not yet published.
The non-selective NMDA antagonist memantine was no
more effective than placebo in a prospective randomized
double-blind crossover 90-day treatment study using the
THI to assess efficacy [134]. The memantine analog neramexane, which blocks both NMDA and a9a10 nicotinic cholinergic receptors [135], has been tested in a Phase II study [136].
Neramexane failed to demonstrate a significant difference to
placebo at the predefined study endpoint after 16 weeks of
treatment. However, 4 weeks after the end of treatment,
THI-12 scores in the group receiving 50 mg neramexane/
day were significantly better improved than those of the
placebo control group. Based on this finding several
Phase III clinical trials [137] have been performed. Results are
not yet published, but have been reported to be not sufficient
for approval of the drug.
Dopaminergic--antidopaminergic drugs
Dopaminergic pathways in limbic and prefrontal areas may be
involved in mediating salience and emotional aspects of tinnitus. Dopamine has also an inhibitory function in the cochlea
suggesting a potential role in the early phase of tinnitus. Thus,
both dopaminergic and antidopaminergic drugs have been
proposed for the treatment of tinnitus. In one double-blind
placebo-controlled study, the dopamine antagonist sulpiride
significantly reduced subjective ratings of tinnitus and tinnitus
visual analog scores. Effects were more pronounced when sulpiride was combined with either hydroxyzine (an antihistamine,
and anxiolytic) or melatonin [138,139]. The dopamine agonist
piribedil was investigated in a double-blind placebo-controlled
crossover study, where it was not superior to placebo [140].
Pramipexole, an agonist of D2/D3 receptors, has been investigated in presbyacusis patients with tinnitus in a randomized,
prospective, placebo-controlled double-blind trial at a dose
2.3.5
Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2012) 13(17)
2501
B. Langguth & A. B. Elgoyhen
schedule accepted for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. Four
weeks of pramipexole treatment reduced both the tinnitus
handicap inventory score and tinnitus loudness significantly
more than placebo treatment [141].
Muscle relaxants
Baclofen, a GABAB agonist with muscle relaxant effects, has
been shown to reduce tone exposure-induced hyperexcitability
in the inferior colliculus of rats [142]. Based on these findings,
baclofen was investigated in a double-blind randomized placebo
controlled trial [143]. In this trial 3 weeks of baclofen at increasing
dosage (up to 60 mg/day) was not more effective than placebo in
improving tinnitus symptoms, but caused more frequently side
effects. Very recent animal data showed a reduction of behavioral signs of tinnitus after application of L-baclofen [144] and
suggest that L-baclofen should be reconsidered as a potential
drug treatment for tinnitus [145].
In a recent open-label exploratory study, the effect of various muscle relaxants on tinnitus has been assessed. Whereas
treatment with orphenadrine (100 mg/day), tizanidine
(24 mg/day), eperisone (50 mg/day) and cyclobenzaprine at
a dose of 10 mg/day were not effective, cyclobenzaprine at a
dosage of 30 mg/day resulted in a significant reduction of
the THI score [146]. These results were confirmed in a further
open-label trial, in which 25% of the 65 investigated patients
reported a clear response to cyclobenzaprine [147].
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2.3.6
Other
Some other drugs have been tested with either limited efficacy
or needing further controlled trials. These include the
HMG-CoA reductase atorvastatin [148], the vasodilator cyclandelate [149,150], the loop diuretic furosemide [151], some herbal
products like gingko biloba [152,153], melatonin [154], the prostaglandin E1 analog misoprostol [155], the L-type calcium blocker
nimodipine [156], the phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitor
vardenafil [157], and minerals including zinc [158,159].
2.3.7
3.
Expert opinion
Why are there no approved tinnitus drugs in spite of the
existence of such a huge market for a clinically unmet need?
One reason is probably that the lack of serendipitous discoveries of effective treatments has severely limited insight into
tinnitus pathology. Nevertheless, the empirical approach
that has been used for most central nervous system disorders
should not be precluded in the case of tinnitus. Most innovative
central nervous system-acting drugs were discovered serendipitously [160]. Advances in the understanding of tinnitus pathophysiology reveal a large number of similarities with other
disorders of the central nervous system, such as neuropathic
pain, epilepsy, headache, anxiety and depression. Thus, any
new compound under development for any of these conditions
should also be tested in the case of tinnitus patients.
The high variability in treatment outcome encountered in
most clinical trials may be attributed to the heterogeneity of
2502
tinnitus. Thus, a challenge for future tinnitus research consists
in the identification of meaningful criteria for differentiating
pathophysiological distinct subtypes of tinnitus. Clinical
characteristics [37], etiological factors [19,80], and imaging
data [33,38] have been proposed as useful strategies for subtyping. Moreover, standardized assessment of patients in
clinical trials and pooling of these longitudinal data in large
databases has been suggested as a strategy for identifying
clinically meaningful subtypes [36].
Large-scale screening of compounds for their potential use
in tinnitus is limited by the lack of in vitro bioassays and
by the still-limited validity of the currently available animal
models [26]. Different animal models have been developed
and validated for the perceptual aspects of acute
tinnitus [161-166], but not for its emotional and cognitive
impairments. Moreover, their validity for predicting effectiveness of a drug on severity of chronic tinnitus in humans
remains to be determined. However, animal models may
prove useful for discovery validation even if they do not recapitulate all disease aspects. In the research of more complex
central nervous diseases such as depression or schizophrenia,
animal models have proven useful, even if they can serve
only as models of disease mechanisms but not of the disease
itself. Thus, the search for drugs to treat tinnitus should not
wait for a complete understanding of the neural correlates of
tinnitus nor the refinement of the animal models.
An additional challenge in the design of drugs for the treatment of tinnitus derives from the fact that modern drug
discovery mainly focuses on the identification of new chemical entities interacting with discrete molecular targets. This
is a reductionist approach which requires the knowledge of
defined sites of drug action with a known clinical relevance.
This is not the scenario we are facing in the case of tinnitus.
Tinnitus cannot be seen solely as a pathology of increased
excitation or decreased inhibition at different relays along
the auditory pathway. We are rather dealing with dynamic
overlapping brain networks as the neuronal correlate of tinnitus [22,167]. Further complexity is added by recent findings of
state dependency of receptor effects: thus, for example, it
has been shown that GABAA receptors, which are targeted
in tinnitus patients with the aim to increase inhibitory
GABAergic pathways, can be excitatory in the mature cortex
depending on the excitability of the network the neuron is
embedded in [168].
Thus it seems rather unlikely that all forms of tinnitus will
be cured by one single drug acting selectively at a single
molecular target [169]. Considering that tinnitus is a complex
network pathology, one might expect that -- similar to other
complex CNS-pathologies [170] -- a combination of different
drugs may be more effective than a single drug alone [171].
Such a combination treatment could consist of different
drugs, even if each one in isolation has shown only some
limited benefit for tinnitus suppression. This notion is supported by a recent report in which deanxit, the combination
of the antidepressant melitracen and the antipsychotic
Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2012) 13(17)
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Current pharmacological treatments for tinnitus
flupentixol, has proven superior to placebo in a crossover trial
as add-on medication to clonazepam [172].
Given that promiscuous or dirty drugs are probably more
efficient than highly selective ones, can they be designed rationally? Drug combinations have been used with compounds
already known to be effective in the disease of interest, or
where there is a clear rationale for the combination [170].
However, such limited combination testing samples only a
tiny fraction of the combinatorial pharmacological space and
is unlikely to result in the selection of optimal combinations
among the very large number of possibilities. The complexity
imposed by finding the right combination of targets to aim,
exploring dosage ranging, considering drug interactions,
and finally ensuring safety seems to exclude the rational
development of combination therapies.
The use of network science has recently been proposed to
deal with this high degree of complexity. Following network
biology principles, drug discovery approaches may involve
the rational identification of combinations of small molecules
that perturb networks in a desired fashion [173]. Network
concepts have already been applied in drug discovery studies
in anti-cancer drugs [174]. Moreover, drug-target networks
linking approved or experimental drugs to their protein
targets have helped to organize and visualize the considerable
knowledge that exists concerning the interplay between
diseases, drug targets, and drugs [175]. Finally, large-scale
network analysis of side-effect databases has been proven
successful for predicting new molecular targets for known
drugs based on their side-effect profile [176].
Finally, because the first tinnitus drugs are yet to be
approved, regulatory agencies such as the Food and Drug
Administration or the European Medicines Agency lack
standardized protocols for their approval process. Therefore,
the first pharmaceutical industry to develop a tinnitus drug
will have to lead the way. This will be most successful as
a collaborative effort with tinnitus researchers providing
informed direction to drug companies and developing better
lines of communication. A recent initiative to develop international methodological standards for clinical trials in tinnitus
represents a first step in this direction [32].
4.
Conclusions
Despite the significant unmet clinical need for a safe and
effective drug targeting tinnitus relief, there is currently not
a single FDA- or EMA-approved drug on the market.
A wide variety of drugs with different therapeutic uses have
been used off-label with some effect in a limited subset
of patients. At present, evidence-based pharmacological
approaches are limited to the treatment of comorbidities
such as depression, anxiety or insomnia. Most patients and
clinicians are waiting for a drug than can suppress or significantly reduce tinnitus. Thus, there is a pressing need to
develop a drug or a combination of drugs for tinnitus relief.
With the big pharmaceutical companies increasingly entering
the hearing and tinnitus field, this scenario will most likely
change in the near future.
Acknowledgements
B Langguth is supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, the American Tinnitus Association and the Tinnitus
Research Initiative. He received consultancy and speaker
honoraria from Autifony, ANM, Astra Zeneca, Merz,
Novartis, Pfizer, Lundbeck and Servier. AB Elgoyhen is supported by the Tinnitus Research Initiative and a Howard
Hughes International Scholar Grant.
Declaration of interest
The authors state no conflict of interest and have received no
payment in preparation of this manuscript.
Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2012) 13(17)
2503
B. Langguth & A. B. Elgoyhen
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Affiliation
Berthold Langguth†1,2 & Ana Belén Elgoyhen3,4
†
Author for correspondence
1
University of Regensburg,
Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy,
Regensburg, Germany
2
University of Regensburg,
Interdisciplinary Tinnitus Clinic,
Regensburg, Germany
Tel: +49 941 941 2099;
Fax: +49 941 941 2025;
E-mail: [email protected]
3
Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingenierı́a
Genética y Biologı́a Molecular Dr Héctor
N Torres Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones
Cientı́ficas y Técnicas
4
University of Buenos Aires,
School of Medicine,
Department of Pharmacology,
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Expert Opin. Pharmacother. (2012) 13(17)
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