Download ELECTROCHROMIC GLASS

UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI LECCE
Corso di laurea in Ingegneria dei Materiali
A.A. 2001/2002
Scienza e Tecnologia dei Materiali Ceramici
ELECTROCHROMIC
GLASS
Professore
Studente
Dott. Antonio Licciulli
Daniela Lisi
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SUMMARY
ELECTROCHROMIC WINDOWS ________________________________________________ 3
INTRODUCTION _____________________________________________________________ 3
Optical switching technology ________________________________________________ 3
ELECTROCHROMIC MATERIALS _____________________________________________ 4
How Electrochromic Windows Work __________________________________________ 4
Example of Electrochromic Windows__________________________________________ 8
Electrochromic glazings as energy source ___________________________________ 11
U.S. Tests _________________________________________________________________ 11
RESULTS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS _______________________________________ 12
The Solution - SageGlass® _________________________________________________ 14
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ELECTROCHROMIC WINDOWS
INTRODUCTION
Today it is desirable to regulate the solar radiation (300-3000 nm) through the windows.
During the winter we want to keep the heat inside the buildings, and at the same time let
as much as possible of the sun radiation through the windows. In the summer time,
however, we often prefer to shut off quite a bit of the sun radiation.
Countries with large climate and temperature variations will especially have much to gain
from such a dynamic radiation control. The expenses for heating and cooling will then be
reduced, and awnings and blinds could become superfluous. Applications of awnings and
blinds are more or less static, and are in most cases not operated efficiently. It is then
desirable to use more flexible arrangements which can regulate the energy transfer
through the windows to a much larger extend. An automatic control will often be
preferable, e.g. based on a temperature sensor inside the building and a light sensor
outside, where individual preferences may be programmed. Control of the energy transfer
through windows is important in connection with energy economizing.
Optical switching technology
Optical switching technology has a very natural place in future glazing; it is probably one of
the most exciting areas in glazing and has the potential to change the view of glazing from
a fixed element to a dynamic one.
There are various optical techniques that can be used for the regulation of incident solar
energy, daylight and glare in buildings and vehicles. Optical switching materials or devices
can be used for windows in a variety of applications where optical and thermal modulation
is required. The purpose of this material is to control the flow of light and heat into and out
of window, according to an energy management scheme. Optical switching devices could
also regulate lighting and heating levels for energy load functions. In the last few years
there has been growing interest in this technology. The basic property of an optical
switching material or smart windows is that it show a large change in optical properties
upon a change in either light intensity, spectral composition, heat, electrical field, or
injected charge.
This optical change results in a transformation from highly transmitting state to a partly
reflecting or absorbing state, either totally or partly over the solar spectrum.
The physical phenomena of interest for optical switching processes can be classified in
one of two categories:
• Discrete mass movement that includes ion and localized electron motion as seen in
photorefractive, photochromic, electrochromic and thermochromic materials
• Collective physical movement that includes dispersed and homogeneous liquid
crystals, and suspended particles, deformable membranes and adjustable
diffraction gratings.
All of these processes are classified as “chromogenic”.
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ELECTROCHROMIC MATERIALS
Electrochromic materials have a significant place in future “smart windows” for
architectural, vehicle, aircraft, spacecraft and marine glazing. Smart windows are one of
the most exciting topics in advanced glazing. Over the last decade there has been growing
interest in this technology and is expected to continue well into the next century for a wide
variety of products. One of the most significant issues of electrically switchable glazing is
the cost of the devices and the trade-off between cost, benefit, and lifetime. The cost of an
electrochromic window has been estimated to range from 100–1000 US $/m2. Some
companies have set cost goals of 100–250 US $/m2. Current electrochromic development
is aimed at long-life devices with durability similar to regular coated windows. Another
approach is the development of low-cost limited-life switching devices.
How Electrochromic Windows Work
Electrochromic windows are part of a new generation of technologies called switchable
glazing-or "smart" windows-which change the light transmittance, transparency, or shading
of windows in response to an environmental signal.
Figura 1
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Figura 2
Electrochromic windows consist of up to seven layers of materials and may be composed
by a transparent conductor (TC), an electrochromic coating (EC), an ionic conductor (IC)
and a counter electrode (CE) between two glass plates. The counter electrode may also
have electrochromic properties, which enhances the colour changes. The essential
function of the device results from the transport of hydrogen or lithium ions from an ion
storage layer and through an ion-conducting layer, injecting them into an electrochromic
layer.
The electrochromic layer is typically tungsten oxide (WO3). The presence of the ions in the
electrochromic layer changes its optical properties, causing it to absorb visible light. The
large-scale result is that the window darkens.
The central three layers are sandwiched between two layers of a transparent conducting
oxide material. A major issue for all electrically activated devices is the quality ad cost of
transparent conductors. Examples are In2O3: Sn (also known as ITO) and SnO2: F. The
transparent conductors are a significant cost of the switchable glazing, and necessary for
all device types. There is considerable development effort on low-resistivity ITO or ZnO
transparent conductors deposited onto plastic substrates at low temperatures. Fairly new
coated glass products for Low-c surfaces, e.g., Tech Glass (LOF Glass, Toledo, OH), KGlass (Pilkington Glass, UK), can be used a substrates for electrochromic windows. The
cost in quantity is about 15 US $/m2 which is considerably less than the electronic grade
ITO/glass. It consists of a low resistivity coating of doped tin oxide produced by thermal
pyrolysis directly on the glass float line. Pilkington uses this material for their prototype
electrochromic windows. Asahi glass (Yokohama, Japan) has shown a very large area ITO
glass, over 2 m2 with 1 ohm/square and low haze. Unfortunately it is expensive. To protect
the five layers of materials, they are further sandwiched between two layers of glass. All of
the layers, of course, are transparent to visible light. Electrochromic windows are made by
sandwiching several layers of materials between two panes of glass. Here are the basic
materials inside an electrochromic window and the order you will find them in:
•
•
•
•
Glass or plastic panel
Conducting oxide
Electrochromic, such as tungsten oxide
Ion conductor/electrolyte
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•
•
•
Ion storage
A second layer of conducting oxide
A second glass or plastic panel
Ions in the sandwiched electrochromic layer are what allow it to change from opaque to
transparent. It's these ions that allow it to absorb light. A power source is wired to the two
conducting oxide layers, and a voltage drives the ions from the ion storage layer, through
the ion conducting layer and into the electrochromic layer. This makes the glass opaque.
By shutting off the voltage, the ions are driven out of the electrochromic layers and into the
ion storage layer. When the ions leave the electrochromic layer, the window regains its
transparency.
We're surrounded by windows everyday, but we probably don't stop to think about them
very often. With advances in smart window technologies, we could soon begin to see
windows in a whole new light.
Figura 3
A cross-section of an electrochromic window. A voltage applied across the transparent
conducting oxide layers causes hydrogen or lithium anions (A+) to be injected into the
electrochromic layers. The currently used electrochromic devices belong to two categories.
In the first type of system, the electrodes made of conducting glass are covered with an
organic or inorganic polymer which colour is different in the reduced and in the oxidized
state. Preferably, the two materials must display complementary electrochromism: the
colour change that occurs by oxidation on the first electrode must be the same that occurs
by reduction on the second electrode. This type of assembly is used for instance in
electrochromic windows. It is bistable, which means that once the colour has been
switched, the state of the device remains even if in absence of applied voltage. Limitations
of these types of systems are the slowness of the colour change, due to the low migration
rate of the counterions in the bulk polymer. Also, it is difficult to obtain strong colour
changes or bright colours.
In the second type of system, two complementary electrochromic molecules are dissolved
in a solvent. One becomes coloured by oxidation and the second one, by reduction. This
type of system is very simple to build, reacts very fast and allows to produce dark or bright
colours. However it has the strong drawback that an electrical current is needed to
maintain the coloured state, because the two types of coloured molecules diffuse through
the system and react with each other to restore the bleached states. Therefore, it cannot
be used for large area devices or for battery-powered displays.
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In this assembly, we combine the advantage of immobility of the electrochromic material
with the rapidity and coloration efficiency of molecular systems. Of course, however, a
single molecular monolayer does not absorb a perceptible amount of light and only the use
of a highly porous supporting semiconductor allows the elaboration of efficient devices.
Essential electrochromic material performance objectives for broad building applications
have been reported:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
continuous range in solar and optical transmittance, reflectance, and absorptance
between bleached and coloured states,
contrast ratio (CR) of at least 5 a 1,
colouring and bleaching times (switching speed) of a few minutes,
operating glass surface temperatures of –20°C –80°C,
switching with applied voltages of 1–5 V,
open circuit memory of a few hours (maintains a fixed state of transmission
without corrective voltage pulses),
acceptable neutral colour,
large area with excellent optical clarity,
sustained performance over 20–30 yr,
acceptable cost ($100/m2)
Switching speed is affected by environmental conditions and glazing area. Switching
speed decreases with increased glazing area as a function of total window resistance and
the distance between bus bars. Colouring typically takes longer than bleaching. Some
studies indicate that switching speed decreases exponentially with temperature for some
types of devices. WO3 devices slow down below room temperature, while iridium oxide
devices have a superior response (1 s) at –10°C.
Liquid electrolyte devices switch faster than solid state due to increased ionic mobility.
Switching speed can also vary with the number of cycles. Noticeable increases in
switching time can be an indicator of degradation. More costly transparent conductor (TC)
materials are used in some material studies to increase speed, but most scientists realize
that these devices will not be practical for building applications.
Operating temperatures for long-term durability vary between devices. For some devices,
switching is not permitted if the maximum design temperature is exceeded, but the device
can be allowed to remain at the maximum coloured state with no coating damage.
Switching below 0°C may cause device degradation due to ice in WO3 pores. Thermal
shock or stress can occur when there are abrupt changes in temperature within a short
period (rain or hail storm), centre-to-edge temperature differentials, or significant
differences in isolation across the glazing (e.g., shaded versus unshaded areas of a
window). Most report switching with an applied voltage of 1–5 V. The switching profile or
current (I)–voltage (V) waveform determines the rate of ion insertion, intercalation or
diffusion in the electrode material. Too rapid of a transfer process can cause accelerated
degradation, transient heating, and irreversible degradation of the electrodes. For longterm durability, pause times may be needed to allow relaxation between cycles. Open
circuit memory, or the ability of the electrochromic device to maintain a stable level of T
without applied voltage, is determined by the type of electrochromic device. Rauh defines
three configurations, where battery-like configurations with polymer/gel electrolytes or all
thin film coatings have extended open circuit memories, while solution and hybrid selferasing electrochromics with liquid or gel electrolytes require continuous current to
maintain the device in the coloured state.
The WO3 device switches from a clear to deep Prussian blue. The clear state may yellow
over time (e.g., due to hydrated polymers). Other colours are possible but may not be
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neutral. Most developers are contending with the difficulty of creating uniform workable
electrochromic coatings over large-areas without pinholes, inactive areas, or other
aberrations. Transition cosmetics (during switching) are deemed to be less important than
permanent non-uniformity in appearance. The degree of optical homogeneity can be
dictated by the application. Some non-uniformity may be tolerated for glazings that will be
viewed only from a distance (e.g., skylights). Cycling, or repeated charging and
discharging, defines the sustained performance of an electrochromic device over its
expected 20–30 year life. Performance goals for typical building applications differ
between scientists: from 25.000 cycles, assuming an average of three cycles per day for
20 years, to 50.000 cycles for durability testing.
Example of Electrochromic Windows
Solid-state electrochromic devices contain cathodic and anodic electrochromic materials
that are separated by a solid state hydrated electrolyte selected from a group of Ta2O5,
Sb2O5, LiNbO3, etc. This structure is sandwiched between indium tin oxide (ITO)
electrodes.
To darken (or "colour") the windows, a voltage is applied across the two transparent
conducting oxide layers. This voltage drives the ions from the ion storage layer, through
the ion-conducting layer and into the electrochromic layer. To reverse the process, the
voltage is reversed, driving the ions in the opposite direction, out of the electrochromic
layer, through the ion-conducting layer, and into the ion storage layer. As the ions migrate
out of the electrochromic layer, it lightens (or "bleaches"), and the window becomes
transparent again.
This system comprises of multilayer represented as Glass/ITO/NiO/Inorganic Electrolyte
(Ta2O5, etc.)/WO3/ITO/ Adhesive Film/ Glass.
Figura 4 Shematic structure of all-solid-state electrochromic device
The device shows light modulation by applying DC potential between the two ITO films.
Coloration is achieved by applying +1,5 V to the ITO of NiO side and reversal of potential
shows bleaching. When a potential is applied across the two ITOs, electron transport
occurs to the WO3. Simultaneously, a cation M+ is injected from the electrolyte. This
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defines WO3 as a cathodic electrochromic material. Consequently, reduction of the WO3
occurs and the colour changes from clear to deep blue as depicted by Eq. (1):
WO3 (clear)+ xe- + xM+ ⇒ Mx WO3 (deep blue)
(M = H,Li )
(1)
whereas the counter electrode NiO is oxidized due to the insertion of OH- and extraction of
an electron as depicted in Eq. (2) into the other ITO to compensate for the electrons
injected into the WO3. In this case NiO is the anodic electrochromic material.
NiO(clear)+ xOH −⇒ NiO(OH)x(gray) + xe -
(2)
The device bleaches by changing the polarity of the applied potential. Ion transport occurs
between the two electrochromic materials via the electrolyte.
Figura 5 Observation of the cross cut section by FIB.
Figura 6 Coloring and bleaching transmittance of SG WO3 films. The electrolyte was 0,1 MH2SO4.
The film colored and bleached at 0,8 and o,4 V (vs. saturated calomel electrode, SCE), respectively.
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An other example is shown in the fig.7, where we are applying the three electrochromic
materials polyaniline (PANI), Prussian blue (PB) and tungsten oxide (WO3). Indium-tin
oxide (ITO) is used as a transparent conductor, and as an ionic conductor we have made
use of the solid state polymer proton conducting electrolyte poly (2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane-sulphonic acid) (PAMPS). The total electrochromic glass sandwich may then be
written as Glass/ITO/PANI/PB/PAMPS/WO3/ITO/Glass, which is typically able to regulate
as much as 50% of the total solar energy. The transmission regulation of a window based
on PANI, PB and WO3 is also depicted in the fig.8.
Figura 7
Figura 8
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Electrochromic glazings as energy source
Electrochromic glazings promise to be the next major advance in energy-efficient window
technology, helping to achieve the goal of transforming windows and skylights from an
energy liability in buildings to an energy source for the nation's building stock. The glazing
can be reversibly switched from clear to a transparent, coloured state by applying a low
voltage, resulting in dynamically controllable thermal and optical properties ("smart
windows"). Incorporating electrochromic glazings could reduce peak electric loads by 20 to
30% in many commercial buildings and increase day lighting benefits throughout the U.S.,
as well as improve comfort and potentially enhance productivity in our homes and offices.
These technologies will provide maximum flexibility in aggressively managing energy use
in buildings in the emerging deregulated utility environment and will move the building
community toward the goal of producing advanced buildings with minimal impact on the
nation's energy resources. Customer choice and options will be enhanced further if the
customers have the flexibility to dynamically control envelope-driven cooling loads and
lighting loads.
U.S. Tests
Large-area electrochromic windows have recently become available in limited quantities.
These windows have been installed in two side-by-side private office test rooms, enabling
researchers to conduct full-scale monitored tests (figures 9 and 10). Full-scale tests bring
laboratory devices one step closer to commercialisation by solving key design problems in
a short test-evaluate-test iterative cycle of development within a realistic building
environment. At this time, large-area windows (90 x 200 cm) are technically viable but can
be produced only in small quantities and at substantial cost (~$1,000/m2). Volume
production facilities are under development and several glazing developers expect new
electrochromic window products to emerge in the marketplace by 2001-2002. With
volume, glazing costs are expected to drop to about $100/m2. Material performance,
optical characterization, coloration efficiency, durability, and fabrication research remain
major foci of the electrochromic R&D community.
Figura 9 Before direct sun enters the windows, the electrochromic glazings are fully bleached at their
most transparent state.
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Figura 10 After direct sun enters the window, the electrochromic glazing switch to their fully colored,
darkest transparent state and the fluorescent lighting dims accordingly.
Large-area electrochromic windows were installed in two side-by-side test rooms in the
Federal Building, Oakland, California, and operated from November 1999 through
February 2000. Test objectives included developing control systems, monitoring energy
use, and evaluating visual comfort. Each test room was 3.71 m wide by 4.57 m deep by
2.68 m high and furnished with nearly identical building materials, furniture, and
mechanical systems to imitate a commercial office-like environment. The southeast-facing
windows in each room were simultaneously exposed to approximately the same interior
and exterior environment so that measurements between the two rooms could be
compared.
A laminated electrochromic glazing was combined with a low-E glazing to form a doublepane window with a visible transmittance (Tv) range of 0.14 to 0.51. Each electrochromic
double-pane window was then mounted on the interior side of the building's existing
monolithic green-tinted glazing (Tv=0.75). The overall composite Tv range was therefore
0.11 to 0.38. Electrochromic windows were placed in an array of five upper and five lower
windows to cover the full area of the window opening (3.71 m wide by 2.29 m high) as
shown in fig.9.
RESULTS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
Recent material advances have resulted in large-area electrochromic devices with good
performance properties. The electrochromic window system tested had excellent optical
clarity, no coating aberrations (holes, dark spots, etc.); uniform density of colour across the
entire surface during and after switching, smooth, gradual transitions when switched; and
excellent synchronization (or colour-matching) between a group of windows during and
after switching. The windows had a very slight yellow tint when fully bleached and a deep
prussian to ultramarine blue when fully coloured. The glazings were not reflective. To all
outward appearances, the electrochromic windows looked exactly like conventional tinted
windows with the exception that one can change their coloration. Architecturally, the
windows impart a high-tech, spare appearance without the usual intervening window
shades.
Electrochromic glazings save energy by reducing cooling loads and reducing electric
lighting energy consumption when dimmable lighting systems are used. In tests conducted
during the winter, the focus was on the lighting energy impacts. Ceiling-mounted
photosensor controls were used to modulate the glass transmittance and maintain a light
level of 510 lux at the work surface. When insufficient daylight was available, the electric
lights provided the additional required illuminance. When comparing the electrochromic
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glazings to a static dark glass (Tv = 11%) on sunny and overcast days, the daily lighting
energy consumption for the room with the electrochromic windows was on the order of 6 to
24% lower. Whenever direct sun enters the room, the electrochromic window switches to
its darkest state (11%), so there are no savings relative to the static glazing. But much of
the time in the afternoon, there is no direct sun on these facades, and under most overcast
conditions the electrochromic window switches to a clearer state, allowing the lights to be
dimmed, saving energy (fig.10). However, when the electrochromic glass is compared to a
higher transmittance glass (Tv=38%), the lighting energy use is actually 0 to 13% greater.
This is because the static glazing always transmits as much light as or more light than the
electrochromic, which will often be switched to control direct sunlight, thus requiring some
added electric light. Overall, however, the high-transmittance static glass is likely to have
higher cooling loads and result in more glare problems. And in an occupied space, people
would likely have added blinds or shades to control glare, further reducing the apparent
advantage of the clearer static glazing.
Two strategies can improve lighting energy savings with electrochromic glazings: increase
the upper Tv limit and decrease the lower Tv limit for glare control. For this test, the upper
Tv limit could have been increased if the existing building glazing had been removed. This
work also suggests that it may be advantageous for electrochromic devices to have a
larger contrast ratio and higher transmission in the bleached state; for example, a device
that can switch between Tv = 0.06-0.85 will have greater daylight efficacy and control over
intense sunlight than the device tested in-situ. Additional field tests will be conducted to
better understand electrochromic glazing properties, the relationships between these
properties and lighting savings, cooling savings, and occupant satisfaction and methods to
integrate dynamic control of the window system with whole building energy management
systems.
Figura 11
Figura 12
An electrochromic window in its lightened An electrochromic window
or "bleached" state.
darkened or "coloured" state.
in
its
The challenges in fabricating electrochromic windows lie in achieving low costs, high
durability, and practical sizes.
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The Solution - SageGlass®
Figura 13
With SageGlass® windows, it will be possible to save energy in your home, office, or car
and yet enjoy more comfort than previously possible -- all without losing your view through
the window. In automobiles, EC windows will possibly make it safer to drive at night and
when it's cloudy because they can be "lightened up" unlike today's non-variable tinted
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windows. On hot, sunny days, SageGlass® windows will block 95% of the sunlight and
virtually all of the damaging UV rays.
SAGE Electrochomics, Inc., has developed and patented a durable, manufacturability
"switchable" window called SageGlass® — electronically tintable glass. SageGlass®
darkens or lightens with the push of a button, which allows you to control the amount of
sunlight and solar heat that come in to your home, office or vehicle. The level of tinting is
up to you: dark, light, or anywhere in between.
Figura 14
SageGlass® is fabricated into a dual pane or insulating glass unit (IGU) -- the most
common structure for building windows today. It can also take the form of laminated safety
glass for buildings and automobile windows where safety is required (for instance
laminated "hurricane" glass is used in buildings along the coast). SageGlass® IGUs differ
from traditional IGUs in that they have two wires extending from one edge; these wires
connect into a building's electrical system (SageGlass® uses low voltage DC power).
Once installed, the window or skylight can be operated using a dimmer switch, remote
control, or central energy management system. In addition, EC windows will be used in
applications with wireless powering options
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Figura 15
Figura 16
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