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FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL
Vol. 19, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 139–148, 2003
The Global Potential for Quinoa and Other Andean Crops
S. E. Jacobsen,1,* A. Mujica,2 and R. Ortiz2
1
Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Department of Agricultural Sciences,
Taastrup, Denmark
2
Universidad Nacional del Altiplano, Escuela del Postgrado, Puno, Peru
ABSTRACT
Crops that have been cultivated in the Andean region for thousands of years have a high
level of resistance to drought, frost, salinity, pests, and diseases, and have only been
little improved over the years. The Andean crops, which include grains, tubers, roots,
fruit trees, aromatics, and medicinal plants, have a great potential for increased use and
for transformation into a range of processed products. The challenge to enhancing use
of these crops will be to find the most adequate forms to use and improve, without
negatively altering their flavor, color, and texture characteristics. They should be
produced and processed in a sustainable way in harmony with nature, because they
present comparative and competitive advantages for the acquisition of organic
products.
There is great genetic diversity in the Andean crops, with a variability of forms,
colors, and sizes. Furthermore, there are differences in quality and quantity of primary
constituents (starches, proteins, sugars, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, glucosides) and
secondary metabolites (saponins, alkaloids, tannins, oxalates, carotenes, anthocyanins,
betalains). Agroindustrial research should search for genotypes for each specific use.
Genetic transformation must be accomplished while preserving nutritive quality. And,
these crops must be cast in the best light so that they are appropriately valued by
consumers unfamiliar with them.
*Correspondence: S. E. Jacobsen, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Department of
Agricultural Sciences, Hojbakkegaard Alle 9, DK-2630 Taastrup, Denmark; E-mail: [email protected].
139
DOI: 10.1081/FRI-120018880
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Jacobsen, Mujica, and Ortiz
INTRODUCTION
The level of poverty and nutritional deprivation in the Andean countries is high. In
Peru, 48% of schoolchildren suffer from chronic malnutrition, and in the rural areas,
malnutrition is as high as 67% (Ayala et al., 2001; Ministerio de Educación, 1994). Yet,
the Andes region is one of the Vavilov centers of diversity. For example, in Peru, there are
25,000 species of plants, which corresponds to 7 –10% of the total species existing in the
world. Of this high number, 38 species are domesticated, including tubers, roots, grains,
fruits, and vegetables, whereas a large number of medicinal and ornamental plants still
have not been domesticated. The biodiversity of the Peruvian altiplano includes living
organisms from both Titicaca lake, covering 84,000 km2 on the border between Peru and
Bolivia (3800 masl), and the surrounding land. In these environments, flora and fauna have
evolved gradually and adapted to the harsh climate, creating the diversity of species, the
genetic variability, the ecosystems, and the ethnic diversity.
Human groups that populated the Peruvian – Bolivian altiplano have domesticated
plants and animals, selecting them in order to give rise to varieties that are the basis of
Andean agriculture, livestock, fishery, and forestry. The animal and plant genetic
resources are the result of a complex and slow evolutionary process, where the farmer has
implemented the rational use and conservation of the genetic resources, creating
landraces, pure lines, and modern cultivars (Brack, 2000). The Quechua and Aymara
ethnic groups of the altiplano use the biodiversity to ensure production of sufficient food,
and to a minor extent, for economic reasons. The biodiversity of the Andean crops
provides a potential resource for South America and other regions of the developing world,
because these species have exceptional nutritional characteristics with the potential for
alleviating malnutrition.
PROCESSING OF THE ANDEAN GRAINS
Andean grains include quiuoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), cañihua (Chenopodium
pallidicaule Aellen), amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.), and the Andean lupin or tarwi
(Lupinus mutabilis Sweet). They all have high nutritional value, with an outstanding
protein quality and a capacity to be transformed into a large range of products. The Andean
grains can be used to make products of different flavor, color, and form (CIED, 1992).
Traditionally, Andean farmers utilized these crops in a variety of forms, so their
experience about how to process the crops should be taken into consideration when
developing new technologies of and uses for the genetic diversity.
Quinoa is one of the oldest crops of the Andes, being cultivated for at least 7000 years
(Pearsall, 1992). The pre-Inca cultures recognized from very early times the high
nutritional value of quinoa. Consumption of quinoa replaccd animal proteins, and in many
areas, it continues to be one of the principal protein sources (Jacobsen and Mujica, 2002;
Mujica et al., 2001). The protein quality of quinoa is very high, with a balanced amino acid
composition similar to casein, the protein of milk (Repo-Carrasco et al., 2001). Biological
value has been found to be higher in quinoa than casein, Quinoa oil is high in essential
fatty acids, with 48% oleic acid, 50.7% linoleic acid, 0.8% linoleuic acid, and only 0.4%
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Global Potential for Quinoa
141
Table 1.
Name
Description
Jiquira
Jacku
Pitu
Toasted quinoa
Quinoa bun
Quispifio
Tactte
Quinoa tamal
Pesqhe
Kcatawi
Quinoa
Quinoa
Tecte
Quinoa
Quinoa
Quinoa
Processed quinoa products.
soup
pop
with apple
flakes
flour
Colored quinoa flour
Toasted quinoa flour
Precooked quinoa flour
Precooked quinoa flour
with chocolate
Fresh leaves
Freeze-dried leaves
Young panicles
Quinoa milk
Protein concentrate
Germinated quinoa
Quinoa stains
Pearl quinoa
Toasted quinoa seeds
Quinoa seed
Broken quinoa seed
Saponin
Cellulose from the stem
Pellets of stems and leaves
(jipi and kiri)
Llipta
Semolina of quinoa
Raw flour of quinoa
Cooked flour of quinoa
Quinoa toasted, broken, and swelled as rice (doubles volume)
Round bun of quinoa flour, cv. Real, cooked, eventually to be filled
with meat
Quinoa bread made from raw flour and animal fat, cooked
Small cake made from quinoa flour, fried in animal fat, of crunchy
consistency
Mass of quinoa flour with egg and oil, packed in corn leaves and
cooked on steam
Salted porridge of whole, sweet quinoa seeds
Quinoa porridge of raw, bitter seeds, ground with lime, of liquid
consistency
White soup with native cultivar Chullpi
Quinoa toasted, broken, and expanded, of popping cv. Pasankalla
White fermented drink of quinoa
Cooked quinoa with apple or other flavors
Flakes made from quinoa of large seed size and high fat content
Milling of sweet quinoa seeds, used for the preparation of noodles,
tamales, biscuits, etc.
Colored flour is used to prepare purple, yellow, or white porridge
For pies, milkshakes, and cocktails
For instant soups
For instant breakfast
Green salad
Soups
Gratin
Vegetable milk
Utilizing the embryo for concentrate of protein
Quinoa germs
Natural colorants
Quinoa seeds selected for direct use
Toasted seeds added to bread, as a substitute for sesame and other
species
Bird feed
Ingredient of muesli
Varied uses (medicinal, cosmetic, industrial, etc.)
For industrial uses
For animal use
Ash of the quinoa stem to prepare a mass, used when chewing
coca leaves
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Jacobsen, Mujica, and Ortiz
saturated acids (De Bruin, 1964). In addition, quinoa has a high content of calcium,
magnesium, iron, copper, and zinc (Repo-Carrasco et al., 2001).
Before consumption, quinoa must be processed to remove saponins in the seed hull.
The amount of saponin varies with genotype, which may range from sweet (without
saponins) to bitter (Jacobsen et al., 2000). As a result, processing methods should be
related to the genotype in question. The traditional technology for the elimination of
saponins is dry polishing by using a stone or a combination of polishing and washing, often
following toasting to facilitate removal of the seed hull (Supo, 1996). Several methods for
removing saponins in the agroindustry exist, among them washing, abrasive dehulling, and
the mixed method of polishing followed by washing (Nieto and Soria, 1990). In the future,
it may be possible to apply an enzymatic method utilizing enzymes of Eurysacca quinoae
Povolny. However, this method is not yet commercial.
There are specific and characteristic uses for each genotype of quinoa. For instance,
genotypes adequate for toasting cannot be utilized with the same advantages and
characteristics for the preparation of noodles. Varieties that make good flour cannot be
used efficiently for soups. However, cultivars are often used for any product, resulting in
reduced quality characteristics. Traditional uses of quinoa are as whole seeds in soups,
quispiño, tactte, and pesqhe (Table 1). Quispiño is a cooked quinoa bread made from raw
flour and animal fat. It is to be used on long trips and may be preserved at least 6 months
without cooling, maintaining its consistency. Different types of quispiño exist; classical
quispiño, uja thaja, pala, and muttu. Tactte is a small cake made from quinoa flour and
fried in animal fat. It has a crunchy consistency and maintains its flavor for a long time.
Pesqhe is a salted porridge of whole, sweet quinoa seeds. Quinoa flour is used for biscuits,
noodles, tamales, and bread.
Quinoa milk, which may have potential for consumption directly as milk or in milky
products, may in the near future be of significant consumption. It is a high-quality,
nutritive, and healthy product, easily digested by the schoolchildren of the high Andean
region, who suffer from malnutrition. It will be necessary to extend the production areas of
quinoa cultivars for milk production, and to build processing plants for milk in areas of
quinoa production, for the benefit of farmers, consumers, and rural agroindustries (Mujica
et al., 2000a). An aspect of great importance will be the dissemination of the use of this
highly nutritive and tasty product among consumers, who may be people unable to ingest
animal lactose or casein. Quinoa milk might be an alternative to the most common
vegetable milk, from soybean.
Currently, there is a need for obtaining high-quality protein concentrates to solve
problems of chronic malnutrition affecting rural and urban populations of the Andean
region. Quinoa, in addition to having a high protein content (from 10 to 22% depending on
genotype), has an adequate balance of the essential amino acids. The protein is mainly
found in the embryo of the seed, which contains up to 45% protein. The embryo can be
separated from the rest of the seed through processes of pregermination or abrasive
dehulling, which is also used for removal of saponins. The concentrated embryo can then
be utilized directly in food for children, for instance, to obtain a quick recovery of the
nutritional level of children suffering from malnutrition, and adults, such as pregnant and
breast-feeding women, in a diversity of dishes.
Quinoa genotypes with higher protein content and with a larger proportion of embryo
in its seeds should be selected from the wide genetic diversity, including wild species,
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Global Potential for Quinoa
143
already existing. A processing plant should be built in the rural area in order to facilitate
the use of available labor and to secure that the added value remains by the producers,
whose level of income and access to new markets will improve (Jacobsen and Mujica,
2000).
The pigments found in plants play important roles in the metabolism and visual
attraction in nature. Major plant pigments include carotenoids, anthocyanins, other
flavonoids, betalains, and chlorophylls. Quinoa contains betalains, a natural colorant used
traditionally for cloth dyeing and food preparation. Betalains only occur in about 10 plant
families (Clement et al., 1994). It is difficult to assign a specific function within the plants,
but the presence of betalains in flowers and fruits could indicate a function as attracting
pollinators or seed dispersors (Piattelli, 1981). However, their appearance elsewhere in the
plant, such as in stems and roots, may also indicate other functions. A defense mechanism
against viral infections was suggested (Sosnova, 1970). Colored quinoa (red, purple,
yellow, pink, and pale) are present in genotypes that still remain in the gene banks but are
in the process of genetic erosion due to reduced use and substitution by synthetic dyes. The
natural colorants present in the quinoa plant can be utilized in foods (Von Elbe et al.,
1974), similar for instance to, those that are currently extracted from cochinilla, a larvae
obtained from Opuntia ficus. It is necessary to select quinoa cultivars for this character and
to optimize the extraction techniques.
Amaranth, cañihua, and tarwi are plant species that have multiple and varied uses. If
proper advantage is taken of product development, their present subutilized situation can
change radically. Amaranth is a highly nutritious grain crop (Repo-Carrasco et al., 2001)
that is consumed similarly to quinoa. Amaranth was an important crop, especially among
the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru. It was probably domesticated earlier than the
earliest dating, which is 6000 years old (Sauer, 1993). For the last 500 years, it has been of
less importance. The potential is obvious, especially if the crop can be improved according
to the demands from agriculture. Amaranth and cañihua do not require treatment prior to
use of the seed, but often, quality is reduced by the presence of impurities such as soil,
mouse excrements, and small stones, which should be avoided at the time of harvest.
Cañihua provides exceptional nutritional qualities with high iron content in leaves and
seeds. It has a high quantity and quality of fiber and numerous forage uses. Its flour can,
like quinoa, be used by people with celiac disease, who cannot eat the gluten present in
wheat, rye, barley, and oat. Cañihua cultivation is presently limited to the harshest and
coldest areas of the Andes, above 3800 masl.
Recent research on tarwi, called chocho in Ecuador, includes studies on oil extraction
(Bocanegra et al., 1980; Lucisano et al., 1980), flour production (FAO, 1982), physical
barriers to protect other crops from pests (Alcázar and Cisneros, 2001; González and
Franco, 2001), and improved debittering processes (Hatzold et al., 1990).
Tarwi requires technology for processing in order to remove the alkaloids, which must
be washed out of the seeds due to their bitter flavor. In the traditional areas of cultivation,
tarwi is boiled and then left in a jute sack in the river for a week. This procedure cannot be
recommended, because it contaminates the waters and causes damage to the fish. Even
though processing of tarwi is rarely done in larger quantities, another technique should be
sought to remove the alkaloids. The washed seeds may be peeled, such as in Ancash, or
not, as in Puno, both Peru. The utilization of tarwi is far from optimized in the modern
agroindustry, but its great potential is due to a high content of protein and oil in its seeds,
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Jacobsen, Mujica, and Ortiz
(it is sometimes called the Andean soya). The alkaloids may be removed for potential
medicinal or biocide use.
TRANSFORMATION OF THE ANDEAN TUBERS AND ROOTS
Potato, the most well-known Andean species, is a tuber crop of worldwide
importance, discovered by the Europeans 500 years ago. It is today the fourth most
important food crop, providing 300 million t/year (Bowen, 2002).
Among the subutilized Andean tubers are oca (Oxalis tuberosus Mol.), olluco (Ullucus
tuberosus Loz.), and mashua or izaño (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz et Pav.). Only oca
requires processing for its utilization. In sunny weather, the starch is transformed to sugar,
making the tuber sweet. Oca can be milled to flour, to achieve oxalates, and to make
marmalades (Alfaro et al., 1999) (Table 2). It can be conserved for a long time through
drying in the sun, which is called “kcaya,” of dark color. Another way of conserving is
through washing and drying in the shade, creating “umakcaya,” of white color.
Olluco is traditionally processed by washing and rubbing, removing the mucosa. It
can be conserved for a long time through semi-cooking, freezing, and drying in the shade,
conserving even the color of its skin, being called “lingly” or mallullo. The natural
colorants of some genotypes, called “añil,” whose pigments are natural and stable, are
used traditionally, but not commercially, in food preparation and for staining cloth. Olluco
may be used in freeze-dried products, such as instant soups. Another possibility is to use its
leaves for feed, fresh and dry. Great potential exists in the use of the mucosa, which
contain progesterone. The acquisition of flour is so far only used for the dish olluquito with
charqui, which is widespread in the region.
The high yield potential of mashua, up to 70 t/ha, associated with a high content of
glucosinolates, makes it interesting for utilization in agroindustry. It may be preserved as
tayacha, which is the cooked tuber exposed to frost. In this form, it is consumed in desserts
such as ice cream, and it also has potential to be made into flour (Cortez et al., 1982). In
some genotypes, a high protein content, up to 14%, is found.
Maca (Lepidium meyenii) is used for a hot energy cocktail of cooked maca hypocotyls
with condiments (Table 3). Maca is believed to have the medicinal effect of improving
fertility, which recently has led to commercial exploitation in a capsule called Maca
Andina (Mujica et al., 2000b). Both maca and another root, cuchucho (Xanthoxylaceae)
with an unknown taxonomy (Gallegos et al., 2002), have properties that influence the
longevity and fertility of males and females. P’irka and wachanq’ha are little-known
Table 2.
Andean tubers.
Crop
Oca (Oxalis tuberosus Mol.)
Olluco (Ullucus tuberosus Loz.)
Mashua or izaño (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz and Pav.)
Use
Flour, marmalade, kcaya, umakcaya
Lingly, colorants, instant soup, leaves
for feed, mucosa
Tayacha, ice cream, flour
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Global Potential for Quinoa
145
Table 3.
Andean roots.
Crop
Use
Arracacha
(Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft)
Llacon
(Polymnia sonchifolia Poeping and Endricher)
Chagos (Mirabilis expansa Ruiz and Pav.)
Maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers)
Achira (Canna edulis Ker-Gawl.)
Chijuro (Valeriana henrici)
Flour of different colors and flavors,
starch, marmalade, precooked instant
soup, jelly, alcohol, flakes, desserts,
sweets, and caramels; stems and
leaves can be used to produce pellets
for animal feed
Food processed for diabetics due to the
high insulin content; flour, marmalade,
precooked instant soup, juice; stems
and leaves can be used for animal feed
Starch, flour, flakes, sweets, and caramels;
stems and leaves are used for animal feed
Maca cocktail and Maca Andina capsules
Starch, noodle, flour, leaf silage for animal
feed
Flour
medicinal plants that in Andean medicine are used against liver diseases (Mujica and
Jacobsen, 2001).
ANDEAN FRUITS
Many native fruits of the Andes have distinct flavors and aromas and many are
unique in smoothness, consistency, and texture. The most well known are cherimoya
or custard apple (Annona cherimola L.), lucuma (Pouteria lucuma), tree tomato
(Ciphomandra betacea), ahuaymanto or cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.),
granadilla (Passiflora edulis Sims), pepino (Solanum muricatum Aiton), pacae (Inga
edulis Mart.), lulo (Solanum quitoense Lam.), upland papaya (Carica candinamarcensis), and elder tree (Sambucus peruvianus L.). These and others still have not been
utilized or exploited. All of them have potential importance, even acquiring greater value
through processing, being accepted in national and international markets (National Research
Council, 1989) (Table 4).
Juices, nectars, and fruit concentrates, flours prepared for porridges, sweets, and
fruit essences can be obtained from the Andean fruits. In every cases, it is beneficial
to pretreat them after harvest in order to improve quality, flavor, and sweetness and to
extend shelf life. They are typically stored fresh in cold rooms. Cape gooseberry, for
example, can be stored fresh for up to 100 days. However, it is necessary to provide
adequate treatment (e.g., heat) to avoid the transfer of larvae of fruit fly and other
insects.
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Jacobsen, Mujica, and Ortiz
Table 4.
Andean fruits.
Crop
Use
Elder tree (Sambucus peruvianus L.)
Lucuma (Pouteria lucuma)
Cherimoya (Annona cherimola L.)
Pacae (Inga edulis Mart.)
Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.)
Lulo (Solanum quitoense Lam.)
Dehydrated fruit, jelly, and marmalade, flour,
prepared for ice cream
Flour of pulp, jelly, marmalade flow
used for ice cream
Jelly, marmalade, ice cream
Pods as vegetable, ice cream
Jelly and marmalade
Juice
CONCLUSION
Andean crops have great potential to provide the Andean countries and other regions
of the developing world with diverse and nutritious food materials. The Andean grains,
roots, tubers, and fruits may help to solve problems of human malnutrition and poverty due
to their nutritional characteristics. These crops hold great promise for the rural
agroindustry for producing new and unique healthy, natural, and highly nutritive products
for the benefit of the producer and consumer.
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