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MARCEL DEKKER, INC. • 270 MADISON AVENUE • NEW YORK, NY 10016 ©2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of Marcel Dekker, Inc. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL Vol. 19, Nos. 1 & 2, pp. 139–148, 2003 The Global Potential for Quinoa and Other Andean Crops S. E. Jacobsen,1,* A. Mujica,2 and R. Ortiz2 1 Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Department of Agricultural Sciences, Taastrup, Denmark 2 Universidad Nacional del Altiplano, Escuela del Postgrado, Puno, Peru ABSTRACT Crops that have been cultivated in the Andean region for thousands of years have a high level of resistance to drought, frost, salinity, pests, and diseases, and have only been little improved over the years. The Andean crops, which include grains, tubers, roots, fruit trees, aromatics, and medicinal plants, have a great potential for increased use and for transformation into a range of processed products. The challenge to enhancing use of these crops will be to find the most adequate forms to use and improve, without negatively altering their flavor, color, and texture characteristics. They should be produced and processed in a sustainable way in harmony with nature, because they present comparative and competitive advantages for the acquisition of organic products. There is great genetic diversity in the Andean crops, with a variability of forms, colors, and sizes. Furthermore, there are differences in quality and quantity of primary constituents (starches, proteins, sugars, fatty acids, minerals, vitamins, glucosides) and secondary metabolites (saponins, alkaloids, tannins, oxalates, carotenes, anthocyanins, betalains). Agroindustrial research should search for genotypes for each specific use. Genetic transformation must be accomplished while preserving nutritive quality. And, these crops must be cast in the best light so that they are appropriately valued by consumers unfamiliar with them. *Correspondence: S. E. Jacobsen, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Department of Agricultural Sciences, Hojbakkegaard Alle 9, DK-2630 Taastrup, Denmark; E-mail: [email protected]. 139 DOI: 10.1081/FRI-120018880 Copyright q 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. 8755-9129 (Print); 1525-6103 (Online) www.dekker.com MARCEL DEKKER, INC. • 270 MADISON AVENUE • NEW YORK, NY 10016 ©2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of Marcel Dekker, Inc. 140 Jacobsen, Mujica, and Ortiz INTRODUCTION The level of poverty and nutritional deprivation in the Andean countries is high. In Peru, 48% of schoolchildren suffer from chronic malnutrition, and in the rural areas, malnutrition is as high as 67% (Ayala et al., 2001; Ministerio de Educación, 1994). Yet, the Andes region is one of the Vavilov centers of diversity. For example, in Peru, there are 25,000 species of plants, which corresponds to 7 –10% of the total species existing in the world. Of this high number, 38 species are domesticated, including tubers, roots, grains, fruits, and vegetables, whereas a large number of medicinal and ornamental plants still have not been domesticated. The biodiversity of the Peruvian altiplano includes living organisms from both Titicaca lake, covering 84,000 km2 on the border between Peru and Bolivia (3800 masl), and the surrounding land. In these environments, flora and fauna have evolved gradually and adapted to the harsh climate, creating the diversity of species, the genetic variability, the ecosystems, and the ethnic diversity. Human groups that populated the Peruvian – Bolivian altiplano have domesticated plants and animals, selecting them in order to give rise to varieties that are the basis of Andean agriculture, livestock, fishery, and forestry. The animal and plant genetic resources are the result of a complex and slow evolutionary process, where the farmer has implemented the rational use and conservation of the genetic resources, creating landraces, pure lines, and modern cultivars (Brack, 2000). The Quechua and Aymara ethnic groups of the altiplano use the biodiversity to ensure production of sufficient food, and to a minor extent, for economic reasons. The biodiversity of the Andean crops provides a potential resource for South America and other regions of the developing world, because these species have exceptional nutritional characteristics with the potential for alleviating malnutrition. PROCESSING OF THE ANDEAN GRAINS Andean grains include quiuoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen), amaranth (Amaranthus caudatus L.), and the Andean lupin or tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis Sweet). They all have high nutritional value, with an outstanding protein quality and a capacity to be transformed into a large range of products. The Andean grains can be used to make products of different flavor, color, and form (CIED, 1992). Traditionally, Andean farmers utilized these crops in a variety of forms, so their experience about how to process the crops should be taken into consideration when developing new technologies of and uses for the genetic diversity. Quinoa is one of the oldest crops of the Andes, being cultivated for at least 7000 years (Pearsall, 1992). The pre-Inca cultures recognized from very early times the high nutritional value of quinoa. Consumption of quinoa replaccd animal proteins, and in many areas, it continues to be one of the principal protein sources (Jacobsen and Mujica, 2002; Mujica et al., 2001). The protein quality of quinoa is very high, with a balanced amino acid composition similar to casein, the protein of milk (Repo-Carrasco et al., 2001). Biological value has been found to be higher in quinoa than casein, Quinoa oil is high in essential fatty acids, with 48% oleic acid, 50.7% linoleic acid, 0.8% linoleuic acid, and only 0.4% MARCEL DEKKER, INC. • 270 MADISON AVENUE • NEW YORK, NY 10016 ©2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of Marcel Dekker, Inc. Global Potential for Quinoa 141 Table 1. Name Description Jiquira Jacku Pitu Toasted quinoa Quinoa bun Quispifio Tactte Quinoa tamal Pesqhe Kcatawi Quinoa Quinoa Tecte Quinoa Quinoa Quinoa Processed quinoa products. soup pop with apple flakes flour Colored quinoa flour Toasted quinoa flour Precooked quinoa flour Precooked quinoa flour with chocolate Fresh leaves Freeze-dried leaves Young panicles Quinoa milk Protein concentrate Germinated quinoa Quinoa stains Pearl quinoa Toasted quinoa seeds Quinoa seed Broken quinoa seed Saponin Cellulose from the stem Pellets of stems and leaves (jipi and kiri) Llipta Semolina of quinoa Raw flour of quinoa Cooked flour of quinoa Quinoa toasted, broken, and swelled as rice (doubles volume) Round bun of quinoa flour, cv. Real, cooked, eventually to be filled with meat Quinoa bread made from raw flour and animal fat, cooked Small cake made from quinoa flour, fried in animal fat, of crunchy consistency Mass of quinoa flour with egg and oil, packed in corn leaves and cooked on steam Salted porridge of whole, sweet quinoa seeds Quinoa porridge of raw, bitter seeds, ground with lime, of liquid consistency White soup with native cultivar Chullpi Quinoa toasted, broken, and expanded, of popping cv. Pasankalla White fermented drink of quinoa Cooked quinoa with apple or other flavors Flakes made from quinoa of large seed size and high fat content Milling of sweet quinoa seeds, used for the preparation of noodles, tamales, biscuits, etc. Colored flour is used to prepare purple, yellow, or white porridge For pies, milkshakes, and cocktails For instant soups For instant breakfast Green salad Soups Gratin Vegetable milk Utilizing the embryo for concentrate of protein Quinoa germs Natural colorants Quinoa seeds selected for direct use Toasted seeds added to bread, as a substitute for sesame and other species Bird feed Ingredient of muesli Varied uses (medicinal, cosmetic, industrial, etc.) For industrial uses For animal use Ash of the quinoa stem to prepare a mass, used when chewing coca leaves MARCEL DEKKER, INC. • 270 MADISON AVENUE • NEW YORK, NY 10016 ©2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of Marcel Dekker, Inc. 142 Jacobsen, Mujica, and Ortiz saturated acids (De Bruin, 1964). In addition, quinoa has a high content of calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, and zinc (Repo-Carrasco et al., 2001). Before consumption, quinoa must be processed to remove saponins in the seed hull. The amount of saponin varies with genotype, which may range from sweet (without saponins) to bitter (Jacobsen et al., 2000). As a result, processing methods should be related to the genotype in question. The traditional technology for the elimination of saponins is dry polishing by using a stone or a combination of polishing and washing, often following toasting to facilitate removal of the seed hull (Supo, 1996). Several methods for removing saponins in the agroindustry exist, among them washing, abrasive dehulling, and the mixed method of polishing followed by washing (Nieto and Soria, 1990). In the future, it may be possible to apply an enzymatic method utilizing enzymes of Eurysacca quinoae Povolny. However, this method is not yet commercial. There are specific and characteristic uses for each genotype of quinoa. For instance, genotypes adequate for toasting cannot be utilized with the same advantages and characteristics for the preparation of noodles. Varieties that make good flour cannot be used efficiently for soups. However, cultivars are often used for any product, resulting in reduced quality characteristics. Traditional uses of quinoa are as whole seeds in soups, quispiño, tactte, and pesqhe (Table 1). Quispiño is a cooked quinoa bread made from raw flour and animal fat. It is to be used on long trips and may be preserved at least 6 months without cooling, maintaining its consistency. Different types of quispiño exist; classical quispiño, uja thaja, pala, and muttu. Tactte is a small cake made from quinoa flour and fried in animal fat. It has a crunchy consistency and maintains its flavor for a long time. Pesqhe is a salted porridge of whole, sweet quinoa seeds. Quinoa flour is used for biscuits, noodles, tamales, and bread. Quinoa milk, which may have potential for consumption directly as milk or in milky products, may in the near future be of significant consumption. It is a high-quality, nutritive, and healthy product, easily digested by the schoolchildren of the high Andean region, who suffer from malnutrition. It will be necessary to extend the production areas of quinoa cultivars for milk production, and to build processing plants for milk in areas of quinoa production, for the benefit of farmers, consumers, and rural agroindustries (Mujica et al., 2000a). An aspect of great importance will be the dissemination of the use of this highly nutritive and tasty product among consumers, who may be people unable to ingest animal lactose or casein. Quinoa milk might be an alternative to the most common vegetable milk, from soybean. Currently, there is a need for obtaining high-quality protein concentrates to solve problems of chronic malnutrition affecting rural and urban populations of the Andean region. Quinoa, in addition to having a high protein content (from 10 to 22% depending on genotype), has an adequate balance of the essential amino acids. The protein is mainly found in the embryo of the seed, which contains up to 45% protein. The embryo can be separated from the rest of the seed through processes of pregermination or abrasive dehulling, which is also used for removal of saponins. The concentrated embryo can then be utilized directly in food for children, for instance, to obtain a quick recovery of the nutritional level of children suffering from malnutrition, and adults, such as pregnant and breast-feeding women, in a diversity of dishes. Quinoa genotypes with higher protein content and with a larger proportion of embryo in its seeds should be selected from the wide genetic diversity, including wild species, MARCEL DEKKER, INC. • 270 MADISON AVENUE • NEW YORK, NY 10016 ©2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of Marcel Dekker, Inc. Global Potential for Quinoa 143 already existing. A processing plant should be built in the rural area in order to facilitate the use of available labor and to secure that the added value remains by the producers, whose level of income and access to new markets will improve (Jacobsen and Mujica, 2000). The pigments found in plants play important roles in the metabolism and visual attraction in nature. Major plant pigments include carotenoids, anthocyanins, other flavonoids, betalains, and chlorophylls. Quinoa contains betalains, a natural colorant used traditionally for cloth dyeing and food preparation. Betalains only occur in about 10 plant families (Clement et al., 1994). It is difficult to assign a specific function within the plants, but the presence of betalains in flowers and fruits could indicate a function as attracting pollinators or seed dispersors (Piattelli, 1981). However, their appearance elsewhere in the plant, such as in stems and roots, may also indicate other functions. A defense mechanism against viral infections was suggested (Sosnova, 1970). Colored quinoa (red, purple, yellow, pink, and pale) are present in genotypes that still remain in the gene banks but are in the process of genetic erosion due to reduced use and substitution by synthetic dyes. The natural colorants present in the quinoa plant can be utilized in foods (Von Elbe et al., 1974), similar for instance to, those that are currently extracted from cochinilla, a larvae obtained from Opuntia ficus. It is necessary to select quinoa cultivars for this character and to optimize the extraction techniques. Amaranth, cañihua, and tarwi are plant species that have multiple and varied uses. If proper advantage is taken of product development, their present subutilized situation can change radically. Amaranth is a highly nutritious grain crop (Repo-Carrasco et al., 2001) that is consumed similarly to quinoa. Amaranth was an important crop, especially among the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru. It was probably domesticated earlier than the earliest dating, which is 6000 years old (Sauer, 1993). For the last 500 years, it has been of less importance. The potential is obvious, especially if the crop can be improved according to the demands from agriculture. Amaranth and cañihua do not require treatment prior to use of the seed, but often, quality is reduced by the presence of impurities such as soil, mouse excrements, and small stones, which should be avoided at the time of harvest. Cañihua provides exceptional nutritional qualities with high iron content in leaves and seeds. It has a high quantity and quality of fiber and numerous forage uses. Its flour can, like quinoa, be used by people with celiac disease, who cannot eat the gluten present in wheat, rye, barley, and oat. Cañihua cultivation is presently limited to the harshest and coldest areas of the Andes, above 3800 masl. Recent research on tarwi, called chocho in Ecuador, includes studies on oil extraction (Bocanegra et al., 1980; Lucisano et al., 1980), flour production (FAO, 1982), physical barriers to protect other crops from pests (Alcázar and Cisneros, 2001; González and Franco, 2001), and improved debittering processes (Hatzold et al., 1990). Tarwi requires technology for processing in order to remove the alkaloids, which must be washed out of the seeds due to their bitter flavor. In the traditional areas of cultivation, tarwi is boiled and then left in a jute sack in the river for a week. This procedure cannot be recommended, because it contaminates the waters and causes damage to the fish. Even though processing of tarwi is rarely done in larger quantities, another technique should be sought to remove the alkaloids. The washed seeds may be peeled, such as in Ancash, or not, as in Puno, both Peru. The utilization of tarwi is far from optimized in the modern agroindustry, but its great potential is due to a high content of protein and oil in its seeds, MARCEL DEKKER, INC. • 270 MADISON AVENUE • NEW YORK, NY 10016 ©2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of Marcel Dekker, Inc. 144 Jacobsen, Mujica, and Ortiz (it is sometimes called the Andean soya). The alkaloids may be removed for potential medicinal or biocide use. TRANSFORMATION OF THE ANDEAN TUBERS AND ROOTS Potato, the most well-known Andean species, is a tuber crop of worldwide importance, discovered by the Europeans 500 years ago. It is today the fourth most important food crop, providing 300 million t/year (Bowen, 2002). Among the subutilized Andean tubers are oca (Oxalis tuberosus Mol.), olluco (Ullucus tuberosus Loz.), and mashua or izaño (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz et Pav.). Only oca requires processing for its utilization. In sunny weather, the starch is transformed to sugar, making the tuber sweet. Oca can be milled to flour, to achieve oxalates, and to make marmalades (Alfaro et al., 1999) (Table 2). It can be conserved for a long time through drying in the sun, which is called “kcaya,” of dark color. Another way of conserving is through washing and drying in the shade, creating “umakcaya,” of white color. Olluco is traditionally processed by washing and rubbing, removing the mucosa. It can be conserved for a long time through semi-cooking, freezing, and drying in the shade, conserving even the color of its skin, being called “lingly” or mallullo. The natural colorants of some genotypes, called “añil,” whose pigments are natural and stable, are used traditionally, but not commercially, in food preparation and for staining cloth. Olluco may be used in freeze-dried products, such as instant soups. Another possibility is to use its leaves for feed, fresh and dry. Great potential exists in the use of the mucosa, which contain progesterone. The acquisition of flour is so far only used for the dish olluquito with charqui, which is widespread in the region. The high yield potential of mashua, up to 70 t/ha, associated with a high content of glucosinolates, makes it interesting for utilization in agroindustry. It may be preserved as tayacha, which is the cooked tuber exposed to frost. In this form, it is consumed in desserts such as ice cream, and it also has potential to be made into flour (Cortez et al., 1982). In some genotypes, a high protein content, up to 14%, is found. Maca (Lepidium meyenii) is used for a hot energy cocktail of cooked maca hypocotyls with condiments (Table 3). Maca is believed to have the medicinal effect of improving fertility, which recently has led to commercial exploitation in a capsule called Maca Andina (Mujica et al., 2000b). Both maca and another root, cuchucho (Xanthoxylaceae) with an unknown taxonomy (Gallegos et al., 2002), have properties that influence the longevity and fertility of males and females. P’irka and wachanq’ha are little-known Table 2. Andean tubers. Crop Oca (Oxalis tuberosus Mol.) Olluco (Ullucus tuberosus Loz.) Mashua or izaño (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz and Pav.) Use Flour, marmalade, kcaya, umakcaya Lingly, colorants, instant soup, leaves for feed, mucosa Tayacha, ice cream, flour MARCEL DEKKER, INC. • 270 MADISON AVENUE • NEW YORK, NY 10016 ©2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of Marcel Dekker, Inc. Global Potential for Quinoa 145 Table 3. Andean roots. Crop Use Arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza Bancroft) Llacon (Polymnia sonchifolia Poeping and Endricher) Chagos (Mirabilis expansa Ruiz and Pav.) Maca (Lepidium meyenii Walpers) Achira (Canna edulis Ker-Gawl.) Chijuro (Valeriana henrici) Flour of different colors and flavors, starch, marmalade, precooked instant soup, jelly, alcohol, flakes, desserts, sweets, and caramels; stems and leaves can be used to produce pellets for animal feed Food processed for diabetics due to the high insulin content; flour, marmalade, precooked instant soup, juice; stems and leaves can be used for animal feed Starch, flour, flakes, sweets, and caramels; stems and leaves are used for animal feed Maca cocktail and Maca Andina capsules Starch, noodle, flour, leaf silage for animal feed Flour medicinal plants that in Andean medicine are used against liver diseases (Mujica and Jacobsen, 2001). ANDEAN FRUITS Many native fruits of the Andes have distinct flavors and aromas and many are unique in smoothness, consistency, and texture. The most well known are cherimoya or custard apple (Annona cherimola L.), lucuma (Pouteria lucuma), tree tomato (Ciphomandra betacea), ahuaymanto or cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.), granadilla (Passiflora edulis Sims), pepino (Solanum muricatum Aiton), pacae (Inga edulis Mart.), lulo (Solanum quitoense Lam.), upland papaya (Carica candinamarcensis), and elder tree (Sambucus peruvianus L.). These and others still have not been utilized or exploited. All of them have potential importance, even acquiring greater value through processing, being accepted in national and international markets (National Research Council, 1989) (Table 4). Juices, nectars, and fruit concentrates, flours prepared for porridges, sweets, and fruit essences can be obtained from the Andean fruits. In every cases, it is beneficial to pretreat them after harvest in order to improve quality, flavor, and sweetness and to extend shelf life. They are typically stored fresh in cold rooms. Cape gooseberry, for example, can be stored fresh for up to 100 days. However, it is necessary to provide adequate treatment (e.g., heat) to avoid the transfer of larvae of fruit fly and other insects. MARCEL DEKKER, INC. • 270 MADISON AVENUE • NEW YORK, NY 10016 ©2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be used or reproduced in any form without the express written permission of Marcel Dekker, Inc. 146 Jacobsen, Mujica, and Ortiz Table 4. Andean fruits. Crop Use Elder tree (Sambucus peruvianus L.) Lucuma (Pouteria lucuma) Cherimoya (Annona cherimola L.) Pacae (Inga edulis Mart.) Cape gooseberry (Physalis peruviana L.) Lulo (Solanum quitoense Lam.) Dehydrated fruit, jelly, and marmalade, flour, prepared for ice cream Flour of pulp, jelly, marmalade flow used for ice cream Jelly, marmalade, ice cream Pods as vegetable, ice cream Jelly and marmalade Juice CONCLUSION Andean crops have great potential to provide the Andean countries and other regions of the developing world with diverse and nutritious food materials. The Andean grains, roots, tubers, and fruits may help to solve problems of human malnutrition and poverty due to their nutritional characteristics. These crops hold great promise for the rural agroindustry for producing new and unique healthy, natural, and highly nutritive products for the benefit of the producer and consumer. REFERENCES Alcázar, J.; Cisneros, F. (2001). Integrated Management for Andean Potato Weevils in Pilot Units, Program Report 95 – 96, Program 4 Integrated pest management, International Potato Centre. 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