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21
Convergent
Plate Boundaries
The convergence of two tectonic plates develops some of the most remarkable structural
and topographic features on our planet. At convergent plate margins, great slabs of
oceanic lithosphere slide ponderously into Earth’s internal abyss—the deep mantle.
As they slowly disappear from the surface, spectacularly deep trenches form graceful
arcs on the seafloor. The subducted plates strive to reach mechanical and chemical
equilibrium with the mantle, and, in the process, many of Earth’s most dramatic
landscapes and structures are created. Earthquakes, volcanic arcs, deep-sea trenches,
and the continents themselves are the result of converging plates. But perhaps the most
fascinating phenomena resulting from plate collision are the great mountain ranges
of the world: the Alps, Andes, Rockies, and Himalayas. The internal structure of mountains shows intense folding, thrust faulting, and other features of intense horizontal
compression resulting from plate collision. Young orogenic belts are elevated to great
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heights and subjected to vigorous erosion by streams and glaciers.
An example is the great Alpine fold and thrust belt of southern Europe. The Tyrolean
Alps of northern Italy illustrate the results of deformation when plates collide, in this case
the African and Eurasian plates. Thick sequences of sedimentary strata, originally deposited on the seafloor, were deformed into anticlines and synclines and uplifted as much as
four kilometers above sea level. These rocks now form the highest peaks. Erosion has removed a large volume of rock so that what we see in the high peaks is only a small fraction
of the total volume of rock.
Convergent plate margins are where continental crust is born, just as divergent plate margins are the birthplaces of oceanic crust. This is perhaps the most important fact to remember
as you study these important plate boundaries. This new granitic crust is so buoyant that it can
never sink into the denser mantle below. Consequently, the rocks of the continents are much
older than those in the ocean basins. They preserve a record of much of Earth’s ancient
history—a record in the form of faults, folds, mountain belts, batholiths, and sediments.
In this chapter, we examine the basic types of convergent boundaries, how they develop,
and the rocks they form. We review their intimate relationship to Earth’s most destructive
earthquakes and volcanoes and to deformation at all scales. In addition, we will see that
the deformed rocks, high-grade metamorphic rocks, and igneous intrusions developed at
convergent plate margins are the building blocks of the continents.
Courtesy of Dallas and John Heaton/CORBIS
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MAJOR CONCEPTS
1. Convergent plate boundaries are zones where lithospheric plates collide.The
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3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
three major types of convergent plate interactions are (a) convergence of
two oceanic plates, (b) convergence of an oceanic and a continental plate, and
(c) collision of two continental plates. The first two involve subduction of
oceanic lithosphere into the mantle.
Plate temperatures, convergence rates, and convergence directions play important roles in determining the final character of a convergent plate
boundary.
Most subduction zones have an outer swell, a trench and forearc, a magmatic
arc, and a backarc basin. In contrast, continental collision produces a wide belt
of folded and faulted mountains in the middle of a new continent.
Subduction of oceanic lithosphere produces a narrow, inclined zone of earthquakes that extends to more than 600 km depth, but broad belts of shallow
earthquakes form where two continents collide.
Crustal deformation at subduction zones produces melange in the forearc
and extension or compression in the volcanic arc and backarc areas. Continental collision is always marked by strong horizontal compression that causes folding and thrust faulting.
Magma is generated at subduction zones because dehydration of oceanic
crust causes partial melting of the overlying mantle. Andesite and other silicic magmas that commonly erupt explosively are distinctive products of convergent plate boundaries. At depth, plutons form, composed of rock ranging
from diorite to granite. In continental collision zones, magma is less voluminous, dominantly granitic, and probably derived by melting of preexisting
continental crust.
Metamorphism at subduction zones produces low-temperature–high-pressure facies near the trench and higher-temperature facies near the magmatic arc. Broad belts of highly deformed metamorphic rocks mark the sites of
past continental collision.
Continents grow larger as low-density silica-rich rock is added to the crust at
convergent plate boundaries and by terrane accretion.
TYPES OF CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
Three distinctive types of convergence are recognized: (1) the convergence
of two oceanic plates, (2) the convergence of a continental plate and an
oceanic plate, and (3) the convergence of two continental plates.
We have learned a great deal about convergent boundaries from geophysical studies that include gravity surveys, measurements of heat flow, and seismic-reflection
profiles. In addition, geochemical studies of the igneous rocks erupted at these
boundaries tell the tale of their generation, rise, and differentiation. These results,
combined with field studies of ancient and modern mountain belts and arcs, give
us an integrated picture of the geologic features of convergent plate margins and
the processes that have shaped them.
If you study Figure 21.1, you will observe that convergent boundaries involve
either the convergence of two oceanic plates (numerous trenches in the Pacific),
the convergence of an oceanic and a continental plate (the western margin of
South America), or two continental plates (India and Asia).
Convergence of Two Oceanic Plates
The simplest type of convergent plate margin—ocean-ocean convergence—consists of two oceanic plates. As the plates collide, one is thrust under the other,
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599
Ca
le
do
ni
de
s
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Urals
Alps
Rockies
Cascade
Aleutian
Himalaya
West
Indies
Mariana
Andes
Java
Tonga
Scotia
Mesozoic
mountains
Paleozoic
mountains
10 cm/yr
Fold
trends
Convergent
boundary
Mid-ocean
ridge
FIGURE 21.1
Convergent plate margins are marked in two ways: either by deep trenches, where plates of oceanic lithosphere converge
and one descends to be recycled into the mantle, or by high folded mountain belts. In both cases, earthquakes and magma are generated.
Absolute plate motions are shown with arrows. Trenches and mountain belts are labeled.
forming a subduction zone. The subducting plate descends into the mantle, where
it is heated, triggering the generation of magma. The magma, being less dense
than the surrounding rock, rises and erupts on the seafloor, ultimately building an
arc of volcanic islands (Figure 21.2). Andesite is the volcanic rock that characteristically forms at such sites.
Several important structural and topographic features form at many subduction zones (Figure 21.2). A broad rise or bulge in the downgoing plate, known as
an outer swell, commonly develops where the plate bends to dive down into the
mantle. Closer to the island arc, a deep trench and a forearc ridge form. The forearc commonly traps sedimentary deposits and is underlain by faulted and highly
deformed sedimentary and metamorphic rock. Behind the volcanic arc, the backarc
is a broad region of variable character that may be compressed or extended.
The Tonga Islands in the western Pacific show the structure and topography of
a simple island arc (Figure 21.1). The volcanoes are dominated by the eruption of
andesite, and the backarc region is extending to form a basin.
Convergence of Oceanic and Continental Plates
A subduction zone also develops where oceanic and continental plates converge
(Figure 21.3). The less-dense continental crust always resists subduction into the
dense mantle and overrides the oceanic plate. Consequently, the volcanic arc forms
on the continent, and compression may deform the continental margin into a folded mountain belt. Moreover, the deep mountain roots are intruded by granitic
plutons and metamorphosed. In this setting, a trench, a deformed forearc, and a
backarc region of deformation are all important.
Ocean-continent convergence has created the Andes Mountains of western South
America. The Cascade Range of western North America is another example,
forming above an east-dipping subduction zone. An older example is the Rocky
Mountain chain of western North America, which was deformed during late
What are the typical features produced
by ocean-ocean convergence?
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Chapter 21
Backarc
Rift
Forearc
Swell
Accretionary
Sediment
wedge
Trench
Volcanoes
Pluton
FIGURE 21.2
Ocean-ocean
convergence is dominated by volcanic
activity and construction of an island arc.
Features developed include an outer swell, a
forearc, a volcanic arc, and a backarc basin.
The forearc is underlain by an accretionary
wedge—sediment scraped off the downgoing
slab. Widespread metamorphism and large
granitic intrusions are rare or absent.
Magmatic
arc
Melting and
dehydration
O
c
ic
an
e
c
t
rus
Lithosphere
Mantle
Asthenosphere
50
0
km
Mesozoic and early Tertiary time (about 150 to 50 million years ago). The Appalachian Mountains in the eastern United States were deformed several times in
the Paleozoic Era (about 500 to 300 million years ago). During some part of their
histories, all of these mountain chains experienced subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continental margin.
Convergence of Two Continental Plates
What structures and rock sequences
are produced by continent-continent
convergence?
If both converging plates contain continental crust, neither is subducted into the
mantle, because continental crust is too buoyant (Figure 21.4). In continentcontinent convergence, one plate overrides the other for a short distance. In sharp
contrast to the other two types of convergence, there is no outer swell, deep subduction zone, trench, or forearc wedge. Instead, both continental masses become
compressed, and the continents ultimately are “fused” into a single block, with a
folded mountain belt marking the line of the suture. Orogenic metamorphism and
granite generation mark this kind of convergence.
Collisions between two continents are occurring in several places.The most dramatic is the one that produced the Himalaya Mountains and Tibetan Plateau of
southern Asia. The Himalayas, Earth’s highest mountain belt, is a wide and highly
deformed zone of mountains that rose as India collided with the Eurasian continent.
Russia’s Ural Mountains also formed during late Paleozoic time when the Siberian
continental mass collided with Europe.The Urals are not tectonically active and are
deeply eroded, so they are much lower than the Himalayas (Figure 21.5).
Backarc
FIGURE 21.3
At ocean-continent
convergent plate boundaries, major geologic
processes include formation of an
accretionary wedge, deformation of the
continental margin into a folded mountain
belt, metamorphism due to high pressures
and high temperatures in the mountain
roots, and partial melting of the mantle
overlying the descending plate. The resulting
magmas commonly differentiate to form
andesite and even more silicic magmas,
which cool to form plutons. Explosive
volcanism is also common. Granitic
batholiths and metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks develop in the deeper zones of the
orogenic belt.
Inland sea
Lithosphere
Forearc
Magmatic
arc
Fold and
thrust belt
Metamorphism
Accretionary
wedge
Plutons
O
Asthenosphere
c
ic
an
ce
Melting and
dehydration
Swell
Trench
t
rus
Mantle
50
0
km
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Clastic
sediment
Fold and
thrust belt
Former
magmatic
arc
Fold and
thrust belt
Ophiolite
Crust
Former rift
margin
Lithosphere
Mantle
50
0
Asthenosphere
601
Remnant slab
km
FIGURE 21.4
Continent-continent
collision is marked by complete subduction
of the oceanic crust. A high mountain belt
forms by folding, thrust-faulting, and
doubling of the crustal layers as one
continent is thrust beneath the other.
Ophiolites are thrust into the suture zone.
Granite magma and high-grade
metamorphic rocks form deep in the
mountain belt.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE NATURE
OF CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES
Plate buoyancy, convergence rates and directions, and the thermal
structure of a subduction zone are all important to the development of
convergent plate boundaries.
Plate Buoyancy
Many geologic processes at convergent plate boundaries are influenced by density differences that make one plate more buoyant than the other. The most obvious expression of this fact is that subduction occurs because oceanic plates cool and
become denser than the underlying mantle. Another important example is the
sharp contrast in density between oceanic plates and continental plates. Oceanic
crust is composed mostly of basalt (about 3.0 g/cm3) and is much denser than continental crust (about 2.8 g/cm3). Thus, at ocean-continent plate boundaries, the
oceanic plate descends beneath the continental plate.
(A) The young Himalaya mountain chain formed as a result of the
ongoing collision of India and Eurasia. It is Earth’s highest range, with
some peaks more than 7000 m above sea level, but deep valleys have been
cut by river and glacier erosion. (Courtesy of Paolo Koch/Photo
Researchers, Inc.)
(B) The Ural Mountains formed in the late Paleozoic (about 350 million
years ago) when Europe collided with Asia. The mountains have been
deeply eroded so that no peaks are higher than 2000 m, but the internal
structure reveals its origin. (Courtesy of Wolfgang Kaehler)
FIGURE 21.5 High folded mountain belts are formed during the collision of two continents but are gradually eroded away, as seen in this
comparison of the Himalayas and Urals.
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Chapter 21
Less obvious, but nevertheless important, are density differences caused by differences in the thickness of the crust. For example, seamounts and thick plateaus
of basaltic lava that erupted on the seafloor can make the lithosphere slightly more
buoyant than sections of oceanic lithosphere that lack this thick crust and are made
mostly of dense mantle instead. Consequently, oceanic lithosphere with thick crust
resists subduction and may bend into the mantle at a relatively low angle. Moreover, as a seamount chain approaches a subduction zone, it may clog up the subduction process or become scraped off the oceanic lithosphere and accreted to an
island arc or continental margin.
Temperature also affects the buoyancy of the lithosphere. We have already
seen how oceanic lithosphere gets denser as it moves away from the midoceanic
ridge and cools. Imagine what would happen if a continental subduction zone developed immediately next to an oceanic ridge. The hot young lithosphere would
be only slightly less buoyant than the old cold continental lithosphere. Consequently, it would not subduct readily and the hot slab might dip into the mantle
at a low angle.
The Thermal Structure of Subduction Zones
The physical and chemical behavior of most materials are profoundly affected by
temperature. There are many familiar examples. Warm honey flows much more
readily than refrigerated honey. Snow a few degrees below freezing is crisp and brittle, but near its melting point, it is slushy and flows. A similar situation occurs in
lithospheric plates. The temperature variations at convergent plate margins exert
strong controls on rock dynamics.
The Cold Slab. The most obvious feature of the thermal structure of a subduction
zone (Figure 21.6) is the deep penetration of the cold subducting plate into the
hot asthenosphere. Rocks are very good insulators, and heat diffuses very slowly
through them. Consequently, subducted lithosphere heats very slowly as it moves
down through the hot mantle. As a result, temperatures as low as 400°C may be
found in the plate at a depth of 150 km. This is a strikingly anomalous situation;
in an area with a normal temperature gradient, the temperature would be as high
as 1200°C at this depth. Even at a depth of more than 600 km, the central zone of
FIGURE 21.6
Heat flow
Backarc
0
Volcanoes
Trench
300°C
600°C
900°C
1200°C
Temperature
200
Depth (km)
The thermal structure of
a subduction zone is dominated by the
underthrusting of a thick, cold slab of
oceanic lithosphere into the hot mantle. The
descending lithosphere remains cold
compared with the surrounding rock to
considerable depth. Gradually, the slab heats
as it dives deeper and deeper into the hot
mantle. The heat flow from the volcanic arc
is higher than adjacent regions because heat
is carried upward by magma and perhaps by
convection in the wedge-shaped area above
the slab. Note that earthquakes (dots) occur
only in the cold, brittle parts of the slab.
(After R. Stein and C. A. Stein)
Earthquakes
Extension
1500°C
400
600
Compression
Convergent Plate Boundaries
the subducted plate is still as much as 600°C cooler than the surrounding mantle.
Because rocks are such poor conductors of heat, it would take an estimated
12 million years for the plate to reach even this relatively low temperature.
The fact that the subducting lithosphere is so much colder than the hot asthenosphere through which it moves explains a great deal about the slab’s behavior. The
cold slab is much more brittle, stronger, and resistant to ductile flow. It resists mixing with the rest of the mantle and continues to move downward as a discrete plate
for hundreds of kilometers. Recent seismic investigations show that the cool temperature of a subducting slab persists all the way to the bottom of the mantle—a
distance of about 2700 km and a time of more than 100 million years—before it
completely warms up (Figure 21.7).
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Why are a cold slab and a hot arc
produced at convergent margins?
The Hot Arc. A second important feature of the thermal structure of a
convergent plate boundary is the elevation of the heat flow in the volcanic arc
(Figure 21.6). The high heat flow in this region reflects the large amount of heat
transported from the mantle by magmas generated in the subduction zone.
In addition to this magmatic heat transport, flow in the asthenosphere above the
subducting plate may enhance heat flow. Because the subducting plate drags the
overlying asthenosphere downward, hotter asthenosphere from a greater depth
must flow upward to replace it, as shown by the arrows. This convective movement delivers extra heat to the region immediately above the descending plate.
Plate Motions: Directions and Velocities
As you might expect, the velocity and direction of plate motion play important
roles in the dynamics of convergent plate margins (Figure 21.1). Plates moving directly toward each other (such as the Pacific and Eurasian plates) converge with
high energy and develop long, continuous subduction zones, intense compressive
deformation, and vigorous igneous activity.
Plates converging at oblique angles (such as the North American and the Pacific
plates) tend to slide past each other and have a strong shearing component.They develop short discontinuous convergent boundaries interspersed with long transform
faults. In fact, many convergence zones are like this and have components of extension or transform movement along the plate boundary.
Extremely rapid plate motion develops extensive geologic activity, such as the
“Ring of Fire” around the fast-moving Pacific plates. Likewise, the AustralianIndian plate is moving at a high rate northward into the nearly fixed Eurasian
Nor th America
an
st
O ce
We
i fi c
c
a
P
Atlantic
Ocea
n
Eas
t
E
W
Faster than average (cold)
500
Average
Slower than average (hot)
1000
FIGURE 21.7
1500
pt
De
h (k
m)
0
2000
2500
Core
The trace of a cold subducted
slab appears to extend from the continental margin
all the way to the core-mantle boundary in this
seismic tomograph of Earth’s interior beneath
North America. Blue represents the cold parts of
the mantle, which have high seismic wave
velocities; red represents the warmest parts of the
mantle, which have lower seismic velocities.
(Modified from S. P. Grand and R. D. van der Hilst)
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Chapter 21
continent, explaining the high Himalaya range. Plate velocities are also important
for the angle of subduction. Rapidly moving plates generally subduct at lower angles than slower plates.
SEISMICITY AT CONVERGENT
PLATE BOUNDARIES
In subduction zones, earthquakes occur in a zone inclined downward
beneath the adjacent island arc or continent. But in continental collision
zones, where subduction is minimal, earthquakes are shallow and widely
distributed. Many of Earth’s most devastating earthquakes occur at
convergent plate boundaries.
The most widespread and intense earthquake activity occurs at convergent plate
boundaries. Almost 95% of the total energy released by all earthquakes comes
from these margins. These belts of seismic activity are obvious on the world seismicity map (Figure 21.8).
Earthquakes and Subduction Zones
A strong concentration of shallow, intermediate, and deep earthquakes coincides
with the descending plate in a subduction zone. Earthquakes beneath the Tonga
arc in the South Pacific illustrate this point nicely (Figure 21.9). The inclined seismic zone plunges into the mantle to a depth of more than 600 km.The angle of the
seismic zone is usually between 40° and 60°.
Trench
FIGURE 21.8
Subduction
zone volcano
Shallow-focus
earthquake
Intermediate-focus
earthquake
Deep-focus
earthquake
Earthquakes and volcanoes at convergent plate boundaries are common. Earthquakes occurring here are the most devastating.
This map shows the locations of some of the tens of thousands of earthquakes that occurred during a 5-year period. Shallow-focus, intermediatefocus, and deep-focus earthquakes form the inclined zones of earthquakes characteristic of subduction zones. Volcanoes at subduction zones are also
the most destructive kind. Subduction zone volcanoes form the “Ring of Fire” around the Pacific Ocean and the arcs of the Mediterranean and
Indonesia. Shorter volcanic arcs are found in the Caribbean and South Atlantic. Zones of continental collision, such as the Himalayan region, are
quite different from subduction zones. They have abundant, but shallow, earthquakes, and they lack prominent active volcanoes.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
605
Samoa Islands
Fiji
Islands
Key
0–100
100–200
200–300
300–400
400–500
>600
Focal depth
ch
Fiji Sea
ga
en
Tr
n
To
Ocean crust
Extension
or compression
faulting from
sinking plate
Thrust
faulting
from plates
sliding past
each other
Normal
faulting from
tension and
bending
of plate
FIGURE 21.9
Earthquake foci in the Tongan region in the South Pacific occur in a zone inclined from
the Tonga Trench toward the Fiji Islands. The top of the diagram shows the distribution of earthquake
epicenters, with focal depths represented by different-colored bands. The cross section on the front of the
diagram shows how the seismic zone is inclined from the trench. The colored dots represent different focal
depths. This seismic zone accurately marks the boundary of the descending plate in the subduction zone.
(Modified from L. R. Sykes)
Near the top of the subducting slab, a zone of shallow earthquakes forms where
the downgoing slab shears against the overriding plate. Deeper in the subduction
zone, earthquakes originate within the slab and not in the surrounding asthenosphere (Figure 21.9). These earthquake zones must correspond to the regions of
most intense shearing in the cold, brittle part of the plate.
Why do earthquakes at subduction zones occur so deeply within the mantle? In
no other tectonic setting do we detect earthquakes much deeper than 25 km. The
answer seems to lie in the thermal structure of a subduction zone (Figure 21.6).
Cold slabs of lithosphere plunge down into the mantle in these zones.These “cold”
rocks break by brittle fracture when stress exceeds their elastic limits, generating
earthquakes. The surrounding warmer mantle also deforms, but it does so by slow
ductile flow. In addition, some deep earthquakes may be caused by abrupt metamorphic mineral changes in the subducting slab.
Not all earthquakes in subduction zones are generated by simple compression. Studies of seismic waves indicate that the type of faulting varies with depth.
For example, near the walls of the trench, normal faulting is typical, resulting
from tensional stresses generated by the bending of the plate as it enters the
subduction zone (Figure 21.9). In the zone of shallow earthquakes, thrust faulting dominates as the descending lithosphere slides beneath the upper plate. At
intermediate depths, extension and normal faulting result when a descending
plate that is denser than the surrounding mantle sinks under its own weight.
Compression results when the mantle resists the downward motion of the descending plate. In many subduction zones, the deepest earthquakes result from
compression, indicating that the mantle material at that depth resists the movement of the descending plate.
Earthquakes and Continental Collision
Earthquakes in continental collision zones are spread out over much broader areas
than those involving subduction of oceanic crust and do not form an inclined zone
of seismicity. For example, the Himalaya and adjacent Tibetan Plateau are marked
by a wide belt of shallow earthquakes that reveals the northward movement of
the Indian plate, currently about 0.5 cm/yr. This east-west zone of earthquakes is
about 2500 km long and between 1200 and 2000 km wide (Figure 21.8). Moreover,
How does an earthquake zone at a
convergent margin differ from that of a
divergent margin?
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Chapter 21
because there is no longer a cold, brittle slab subducting beneath this region, almost
all of the earthquakes are relatively shallow. Similarly, the convergent boundary between the Africa-Arabia and the Eurasian plate coincides with a wide seismic belt
in the Mediterranean region and across Turkey, Iraq, and Iran (Figure 21.8).
DEFORMATION AT CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Intense deformation occurs along convergent plate margins. At subduction
zones, melange is produced in the forearc accretionary wedge. In some arc
and backarc regions, compression creates folds and thrust faults, but in
others extension causes rifting. Collision of two continents is marked by
strong horizontal compression that causes folding and thrust faulting.
The single most distinctive feature of the rocks at a convergent plate margin is
their structural deformation by folding and faulting. The scale of deformation
ranges from small wrinkles in mineral grains or fossils to huge folds and faults tens
of kilometers wide that combine to form mountain belts hundreds of kilometers
wide and thousands of kilometers long. Understanding this deformation is key to
understanding the structure of most continental crust, because convergent plate
boundaries are where most continental crust forms.
Compression at Subduction Zones
How is an accretionary wedge formed?
Strong contraction caused by horizontal compression occurs at many convergent
plate boundaries, including ocean-continent and continent-continent boundaries.
Especially striking is the deformation in the forearc region of a subduction zone.
Unconsolidated sediment is scraped off the descending plate and piles up into a
long wedge—called the accretionary wedge—in front of the overriding plate (Figure 21.10). The structures in an accretionary wedge are similar to those in the deformed snow that accumulates in front of a moving snow plow. The weak layer of
snow is sliced off the solid road surface and stacks up in a thick, internally deformed pile immediately in front of the rigid blade. In this analogy, the overriding
plate is the snowplow.
Folds of all sizes form in the accretionary wedge (Figure 21.10). As expected from the orientation of the applied stresses, the hinge planes of these folds
are parallel to the trench and dip in the same direction as the subduction zone.
Temperature and pressure changes during compression cause metamorphism,
and slaty cleavage develops during folding. Thrust faults also cut through the soft
sediment (Figure 21.10). These generally dip in the same direction as the subduction zone. As subduction continues and more sediment is scraped off, the
deformed mass grows toward the trench, simultaneously shortening and thickening. Consequently, the front of the accretionary wedge grows steeper until it
becomes unstable. It then collapses along faults that allow extension and thinning of the deformed mass. This cycle of tectonic shortening followed by gravitational collapse occurs repeatedly. The net result is uplift of deeper rocks to
the surface.
This complicated deformation produces an accretionary wedge that is a chaotic mixture of rock types known as melange, one of the most structurally complex
rock bodies in the crust.The deformed rocks are mostly sediments, but in some subduction zones, volcanic seamounts or other fragments of igneous oceanic crust
also are scraped off the downgoing plate and incorporated into the wedge.
Not all of the sediment on the oceanic crust is scraped off to form an accretionary
wedge.Apparently some is subducted deep into the mantle.As much as 20% to 60%
of the sediment on the oceanic crust is subducted. Some sediment may be carried
deep into the mantle, possibly to the core-mantle boundary.
North
South
Cascade arc
in e
Cont
n
Co
helf
ntal s
n
ti n e
tal
pe
slo
Abyssal
plain
Strike-slip fault
Fold crest
Ast
Continental
crust
or
ia
Ch
anne
Fold
l
Thrust fault
Trench
Depth (km)
0
4
8
Oceanic
crust
12
Mantle
50
40
30
20
10
0
(km)
FIGURE 21.10 Accretionary wedges form at convergent plate margins as sediment and some igneous rock are scraped off
the downgoing slab of oceanic rock. A southward-looking sonar image of the accretionary wedge along the coast of Oregon
reveals that its surface is like a folded carpet. The ridges mark anticlines and areas where thrust sheets are stacked on top of one
another. Transverse faults are strike-slip faults. Here the Juan de Fuca plate is being subducted beneath the North American
plate. The block diagram shows the internal structure of an accretionary wedge derived from a seismic reflection profile. Faults
and folds deform the rocks in the wedge. As sediment is removed from the downgoing plate, it is added to the base of the
accretionary wedge. Stacks of thrust faults form above the downgoing oceanic crust. Folds of all sizes form between the thrust
faults. (Courtesy of L. Praxton and R. Haxby)
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Chapter 21
FIGURE 21.11 The Andes Mountains of South America are forming by subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath continental crust. Here, in
the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, you can see a row of andesitic stratovolcanoes towering over an intensely deformed series of layered
sedimentary rocks Deep in the mountain belt, metamorphic rocks are probably forming today. (Hubert Stadler/CORBIS)
What is distinctive about compression
along a subduction zone at a continental margin?
If a subduction zone lies along a continental margin, compression produces a
long orogenic belt (folded mountain belt) parallel to the continental margin. The
Andes, parts of the Rockies, and the European Alps are classic examples.
In the central Andes, horizontal compression and crustal elevation are active
today in the arc and backarc (Figure 21.11). Here, compression is causing pronounced folding, thrust faulting, and thickening of the crust. The fold hinges and
thrust faults trend parallel to the arc and the linear belts of granitic batholiths.
Intrusion of granitic plutons has added to the deformation. Not surprisingly, much
of the lower and middle crust has been metamorphosed from the tremendous heat
and pressure during compression and intrusion. The crust beneath the Andes is
75 km thick, probably thickened by intrusion of mantle-derived magmas as well as
by folding and contraction (Figure 21.12). The deformed continental margin and
its volcanic crest rise up to 6 km above sea level. Rapid erosion of such mountain
belts occurs simultaneously with volcanism, intrusion, and deformation.
Another good example of compression at an ocean-continent boundary is provided by the Mesozoic history of western North America (Figure 21.13). During
the Early Mesozoic, as oceanic lithosphere was subducted beneath the continent,
a long magmatic arc developed along the western margin of North America. Behind the arc, thrusting and folding created a mountain belt. This extra load depressed the crust in much the same way that thick glacial ice sheets make the crust
subside. Because of this subsidence, a shallow sea expanded onto the continent
behind the thrust belt. Clastic sediments were shed from the thrust belt, forming
coarse alluvial fans, floodplains, deltas, and shallow-marine shales that interfinger
with carbonates deposited in deeper water.Thin beds of volcanic ash, erupted from
volcanoes in the arc, also fell into the shallow sea. Today, these sedimentary basins
are rich in natural resources, including coal, oil, and natural gas.
The European Alps have a long and complicated history that started with convergence of the oceanic part of the African plate beneath Eurasia (see page 479).
Convergence has not yet completely consumed the oceanic crust of the Mediterranean Sea. Remnant volcanic arcs and scraps of unsubducted oceanic crust mark
places where suturing of the two continents is still incomplete. In the Alps, great
overturned folds called nappes (French, “tablecloths”) show enormous amounts
Convergent Plate Boundaries
609
Gravity (mgal)
200
Trench
0
Dense
oceanic
crust
–200
Thick, low density
continental crust
–400
Line of
section
400
200
0
200
Distance form shore (km)
Trench
Old plutonic
belt
400
Magmatic
arc
600
Fold and
thrust belt
–400
–300
–200 –100
0
Depth (km)
0
100
mgal
50
Continental
crust
Oceanic
crust
Mantle
100
Mantle
FIGURE 21.12 The thick crust beneath the Andes is revealed by the gravity field. The gravity profile and geologic cross section show that the
outer bulge on the downgoing slab is marked by a positive gravity anomaly (red tones). Gravity is lower over the deep trench (light blue), which is
filled with low-density water, and over the accretionary wedge, which is made of low-density sediment. Gravity is highest in the part of forearc that is
underlain by the cold, dense subducting slab. The volcanic arc and folded mountain belt are marked by the lowest gravity anomalies (deep purples)
because of the great thickness (as much as 70 km) of low-density crust beneath the Andes. (Gravity map courtesy of M. Kösters and H. J. Götze)
of crustal shortening (Figure 21.14C). The rocks are so strongly deformed that
spherical pebbles were stretched into rods as much as 30 times longer than the
original pebble diameters! Deformation is most intense near the continental margin and dies out northward toward the continental interior.
Compression in Continental Collision Zones
When two lithospheric plates that carry continents converge, the orogenic belt has
very different characteristics than those formed during ocean-continent convergence. An excellent example of deformation related to continental collision is the
Himalaya chain of southern Asia. The course of this collision is shown in Figures
21.15 and 21.16.
California
Coast Ranges
Accretionary
wedge
Great Valley
Nevada
Sierra Nevada
Magmatic
arc
Utah
Colorado
Sevier Fold Belt
Old
accreted
terranes
Fold and
thrust belt
Shallow
sea
Precambrian
basement
Pluton
Crust
Oceanic
lithosphere
Mantle
Line of section
Zone of
melting
Asthenosphere
FIGURE 21.13 Much of western North America developed at a convergent plate margin 150 to 60 million years ago. The former locations of the
accretionary wedge, magmatic arc, and folded mountain belt are shown. A sedimentary basin formed in the backarc region because of tremendous weight
added by the mountain belt. The eroding mountains supplied sediment for the thick deposits that have accumulated along the margins of the mountains.
With increasing distance from their sources, the sedimentary environments include alluvial fans, floodplains, deltas, and shallow-marine settings where shale
interfingered with carbonates. (After E. Miller and P. Gans)
610
Chapter 21
(A) The Canadian Rockies contain both folds and thrust faults.
(B) The Appalachian Mountains consist of tight folds and thrust faults. These geologically older mountains have been
eroded to within 1000 to 3000 m of sea level. Resistant sandstones form the remaining mountain ridges.
(C) The Alps are a young range that consist of complex folds, many of which are overturned.
FIGURE 21.14 The structure of folded mountain belts reflects intense compression at convergent plate boundaries. Yet, each
range can have its own structural style, as shown in these cross sections.
Folded Mountain Belts
The vast Himalaya orogenic belt formed during the past 100 million years, as
oceanic lithosphere that was carrying India moved northward and was subducted
beneath Asia. As a result, an accretionary prism developed on the southern edge
of Asia. The sediments along the continental margin were also folded and faulted
(Figure 21.15A). Simultaneously a magmatic arc developed as oceanic lithosphere
was progressively consumed at the subduction zone (Figure 21.15B). When the
two continental masses began to collide about 50 million years ago, subductionzone volcanism ceased. The floors of the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea are remnants of oceanic lithosphere that were not subducted. Farther east, slices of oceanic crust were thrust onto the continent. These ophiolites occur north of the
Himalayas along the suture (Figure 21.15C). As the two continents collided, India
was thrust under Asia, effectively doubling the thickness of the crust to about 70
km. Its buoyancy prevented it from descending into the mantle more than perhaps 40 km below its normal depth. Thrust faults and folds formed a belt of deformed mountains, mainly in the overriding Asian plate. Much of the deformation
was ductile and accompanied high-grade metamorphism in the deeper part of the
crust. Because of compression and crustal thickening, the Himalayas and the extensive highlands of the Tibetan Plateau rose (Figure 21.15D). Mount Everest,
Earth’s highest peak, lies over the greatly thickened part of the crust. The continental masses were welded together to make a single large continent with an internal mountain range. At some point, the slab of descending oceanic lithosphere
must have become detached and then sank, independent of the Indian continent.
When it sank, volcanic activity and deep earthquakes ceased. Deformation
associated with the collision drove Southeast Asia and parts of China eastward
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Accretionary Forearc
sediment
wedge
Passive margin
sediments
Continental
crust
(A)
INDIA
611
Volcanic
arc
Granite
Oceanic crust
Mantle
ASIA
Ophiolite
Folding and faulting
Suture
Future
thrust
Volcanism
stops
ASIA
INDIA
(B)
Future
thrust
Folding, thrusting, and erosion
(C)
ASIA
INDIA
Ganges
Plain
Lower
Himalaya
High
Himalaya
Tibetan Plateau
Crust melts
to form granite
(D)
INDIA
ASIA
FIGURE 21.15 Continental collision
formed the Himalaya Mountains and involved the
deformation of oceanic and shallow marine
sedimentary rocks. These were originally
deposited along a passive continental margin.
Collision produced a complex mountain range
with large nappes and gently dipping thrust faults.
As India and Asia converged, slivers of oceanic
crust were thrust onto the continents as
ophiolites. A double layer of continental crust
formed, resulting in very high mountains. The
continents were “welded” together. Eventually,
the descending oceanic portion of the plate
detached from the rest of the plate and sank
independently. Once the slab was consumed,
volcanic activity and deep earthquakes ended.
However, during high-grade metamorphism in the
roots of the mountain range, the continental crust
itself may partially melt to form granite with
distinctive compositions; these are found in no
other tectonic setting.
612
Chapter 21
40°
along faults that fan away from India (Figure 21.17). Of course, erosion of the
mountain belt continued throughout this long process.
It is interesting to contrast compression in the Himalayas with compression
in the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. Compression in the
Appalachians was produced by several episodes of subduction of oceanic lithosphere, followed by collision between North America and Europe or Africa.
These collisions occurred during the Paleozoic Era, making the Appalachian
Mountains more than 300 million years old. A cross section of the Appalachians
shows a different style and extent of deformation than in the Himalayas (Figure
21.14B). The major structural features are tight folds and thrust faults. Orogenic
(or regional) metamorphism accompanied the collisions, but most of the plutonic rocks are subduction-related and preceded the collisions.
30°
10 my
20°
38 my
10°
0°
55 my
Extension at Convergent Boundaries
10°
It may seem paradoxical that extension occurs in regions where two plates of
lithosphere converge. However, mild extension—not compression—is the dominant deformation occurring at most oceanic volcanic arcs and at some continent
arcs as well. Before we consider why, let us describe the evidence for extension
and its effects.
20°
70 million years ago
30°
600
0
40°
km
60°
70°
80°
90°
100°
FIGURE 21.16 The Himalaya
mountain belt formed by the collision of the
Indian and Eurasian plates. Seventy million
years ago, India rifted away from Africa and
moved rapidly northward until it collided
with Asia. The collision started about
25 million years ago and built the high
Himalaya range and the Tibetan Plateau to
the north.
Extension Above Subduction Zones. In island arcs and some continental arcs,
grabens and normal faults typically are centered on the active volcanic region. For
example, the modern-day andesitic composite volcanoes of Ecuador lie in a graben
hundreds of kilometers long. The trends of these faults are parallel to the trench,
indicating that the direction of extension is perpendicular to the trench. Extension
like this is very common in island arcs. Compression, marked by thrust faults and
folding, is found in few modern-day island arcs.
The backarc basins found behind most oceanic island arcs also reveal the effects
of extension. These shallow oceanic basins are traversed by normal faults and have
high heat flow and active seafloor volcanism. Extension may ultimately lead to backarc
spreading. The Mariana and Tonga-Kermadec arcs of the western Pacific have such
basins.The backarc regions of many continental arcs are also marked by extension and
subsidence like that behind oceanic island arcs. For example, backarc extension is active in the Aegean Sea behind a volcanic arc rooted in continental crust (Figure 21.18).
Normal faulting has produced many narrow grabens with trends that are parallel to
the arc and has allowed most of the area to drop below sea level. However, no oceanic crust has yet developed in this region of extension and subsidence.
The islands of Japan, with their striking composite volcanoes and active subduction zones, were once part of the Asian mainland before backarc extension
opened the sea of Japan. This sea marks more extensive development of rifting
above a subduction zone and is underlain by oceanic crust.
Extension and Continental Collision. As a secondary effect of the collision of
two continents, extensional tectonics may also develop. The Rhine Graben of
central Europe was created by the collision that raised the Alps. Lake Baikal in
southern Siberia lies in one of Earth’s deepest continental rifts, but the stresses
responsible for it are related to the collision that formed the Himalayas.
Why does extension occur in backarc
basins?
Compression Versus Extension. What controls whether a particular convergent
margin experiences horizontal compression or extension? No one yet knows for
sure, but several possible causes have been identified. One important variable
might be the angle of the subducting plate. For example, the Mesozoic fold and
thrust belt of western North America formed during a period of rapid convergence.
The subducting plate was probably inclined at a low angle, perhaps even dragging
along the base of the overriding lithosphere. Such a close coupling between
subducting plate and overriding plate may cause contraction in the backarc.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
China
Tibet
Hi
m
a la
India
ya
nf
ro n
ta l t
h ru s
613
t
Indian Ocean
Indochina
Thrust fault
Subduction zone
Strike—slip fault
Spreading ridge
Movement relative to Siberia
800
0
Absolute velocity
km
FIGURE 21.17 Complex folds, mountains, and plateaus mark the collision zone between India and Eurasia, as shown on this digital shaded relief
map. The collision also drove parts of Southeast Asia and China eastward along lengthy strike-slip faults or shear zones. (Courtesy of Ken Perry, Chalk
Butte, Inc.)
Black Sea
Greece
Aegean Sea
Turkey
Vo
Volcanoes
Subduction zone
Grabens
lca
nic arc
Fo
r e a
r c b a s i n
200
0
km
FIGURE 21.18 The Aegean backarc
basin developed in continental crust above
a subduction zone in the eastern
Mediterranean Sea. Like backarc basins
formed within ocean basins, the Aegean
basin has subsided, and normal faulting
has caused extension. However, no
oceanic crust has yet developed. (Courtesy
of Ken Perry, Chalk Butte, Inc.)
614
Chapter 21
In addition, the subduction of young, hot, and buoyant oceanic lithosphere that
drags along the base of the overriding slab may be important for the development
of some fold and thrust belts.Another way to cause a compressional fold and thrust
belt is by collision of a continent with minor arcs or continental fragments. On the
other hand, backarc extension may be dominant where these factors are missing.
One cause of extension at convergent plate boundaries may be the convective
flow of the mantle beneath the arc (Figure 21.2). As described above, the downgoing slab may drag the viscous mantle with it, causing hot asthenosphere from
deeper in the mantle to flow upward and take its place.A convection pattern is thus
formed in the asthenosphere above the subducting plate. It thins the lithosphere
and may cause spreading behind the volcanic arc.
The absolute motion of the overriding plate (rather than the more obvious
relative movement) also may play a role in developing extensional structures
(Figure 21.1). For example, extension is common in arcs where the overriding plate
is moving away from the trench.
MAGMATISM AT CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Magma in a subduction zone is probably generated when water in the
descending oceanic crust is driven out and rises into the overlying mantle.
The addition of water lowers the melting point of the mantle rock and
causes partial melting. Differentiation of this magma produces andesite
and rhyolite, which rise and intrude as plutons or extrude to make longlived composite volcanoes or calderas.
What produces a magmatic arc at
convergent margins?
Most volcanoes erupting above sea level are clearly associated with subduction
zones at convergent plate boundaries (Figure 21.8).The geographic setting for volcanic activity along such zones depends on the type of plate interaction. Where
two oceanic plates converge, an island arc forms, as you have seen. Where a continent is on the overriding plate, similar volcanic activity develops in a folded mountain belt. In both cases, the close association of volcanism and convergent plate
boundaries is clear. In contrast, where two continents collide, volcanism is rare,
although magmas form granite plutons at depth.
Island Arc Magmatism
Igneous Crystallization
On a map, the most obvious manifestation of convergence of two oceanic plates
is an arcuate chain of volcanoes that rise from the seafloor (Figure 21.8). The volcanic arc forms on the overriding plate and is parallel to the curving trench. Typical island arcs are the Tonga Islands, the Aleutian Islands, and the West Indies (Antilles) Islands (Figure 21.1).
These volcanoes lie about 100 km from the trench and 100 km above the inclined
seismic zone that shows the location of the subducted slab. They mark a zone of
voluminous magma production and high heat flow (Figure 21.6).The volcanoes are
built on igneous intrusions and deformed metamorphic rocks, including remnants
of oceanic crust formed at a midoceanic ridge. Most of these volcanoes are large
composite volcanoes that erupt large volumes of andesite and lesser amounts of
basalt and rhyolite.
The major volcanoes rise 1 to 2 km above their surroundings and are quite
regularly spaced, about every 50 to 75 km. Smaller extrusions build a nearly continuous ridge connecting the major cones. Most island arcs are several hundred
kilometers wide and extend discontinuously along the length of the trench.
Continental Arc Magmatism
A continental volcanic arc is a chain of many composite volcanoes on the margin of the continent above a subduction zone. The active volcanoes and under-
Convergent Plate Boundaries
615
lying plutons are about 100 to 200 km landward from the trench. Subsidiary
vents, lava domes, cinder cones, and fissure vents dot the landscape between the
major volcanoes. The deep part of the arc consists largely of plutonic rocks that are
the roots of volcanic systems. Multiple plutons intrude one another and form long,
linear batholiths. The plutons are typically diorite to granite in composition. These
plutons are commonly larger and more silicic than those found in island arcs. Moreover, they intrude into preexisting continental crust that is made of folded and
thrust-faulted sedimentary rocks overlying a basement of older igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Generation of Magma in Subduction Zones
Magmatism along subduction zones is quite different from the basaltic fissure
eruptions of divergent plate boundaries. The magmas generated at subduction
zones are characteristically andesite or even rhyolite. They are richer in silica than
basaltic magma and thus are more viscous. Consequently, water dissolved in the
magma cannot escape easily to form gas bubbles. Moreover, subduction zone magmas contain more water and other dissolved volatiles than do those formed at
divergent plate boundaries. These two characteristics result in violent, explosive
eruptions from central vents. They commonly produce ash flows, composite volcanoes, and collapse calderas, as well as viscous lava flows and domes. These important differences are probably caused by dramatically different mechanisms of
magma generation.
What triggers the generation of magma at subduction zones? How does insertion of a cold slab into the mantle create hot molten magma? The probable answer
to this paradox lies not in the temperature of the plate, but in its high water content. The water in the descending plate was incorporated into the oceanic crust by
metamorphism at a midoceanic ridge. This water is eventually released from the
subducting oceanic lithosphere and rises into the overlying wedge of mantle.There
the water lowers the melting point of the mantle rock.
Figure 21.19 illustrates how the release of water from the subducting slab is involved in the generation of magma. Water moves along with the descending plate
into a subduction zone as a pore fluid in sediments and as water included in the
Back arc
Magmatic arc
Accretionary
wedge
Trench
How do andesitic and silicic magmas
form in subduction zones?
Ocean basin
Wet oceanic crust
Silicic
magma
Granitic intrusions
15°-75°
Dehydration and
partial melting
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
FIGURE 21.19 Magma at convergent plate boundaries is generated at depths of about 100 to 150 km. Subduction of oceanic
crust carries sediment and basalt into the hot asthenosphere. (This sediment and basalt were altered earlier by ocean ridge
metamorphism at a divergent plate boundary.) The descending slab is slowly heated; eventually, the hydrous minerals in the crust
decompose and release water. At this critical depth, the water rises into the overlying mantle, causing it to melt partially. This
basaltic magma rises buoyantly into the crust, where it may differentiate to form andesite and rhyolite. The magmas may crystallize
to make plutons or erupt at the surface.
616
Chapter 21
0
50
Dry
Depth (km)
250
Solid peridotite
ite
dot
eri
fp
go
O
H2
lab
gs
ctin
du
te
ub
oti
fs
r id
ho
pe
of
ing
elt
Px
tz +
+Q
lti n
t
Pa
200
le
m
et
A
o
hib
mp
W
150
me
100
300
500
1000
1500
Temperature (¡C)
2000
FIGURE 21.20 The generation of magma in a subduction zone is primarily due to the role
played by water. As a descending plate slides into the mantle, it follows a path of increasing pressure
and temperature (red arrow). Where the path crosses the breakdown curve for amphibole (blue
line), an important mineral in metamorphosed oceanic crust, water is released. The buoyant fluid
rises into the overlying mantle and there induces partial melting. Wet peridotite begins to melt at a
temperature nearly 500°C lower than dry peridotite. This new mafic magma is wetter and more
oxidized than magma produced at midocean ridges and may differentiate to make silicic magma
such as andesite or rhyolite.
Why is magma generated at convergent
margins?
structures of minerals formed by ocean ridge metamorphism.The descending slab
is subjected to progressively higher temperatures and pressures (red line in Figure
21.20). Water trapped in the sediments is probably squeezed out at shallow depths
beneath the accretionary wedge, but some of the water tied up in the chemical
structures of minerals may remain in the oceanic crust until depths greater than 100
km are reached.
Figure 21.20 shows a typical temperature-pressure path encountered by the
upper part of the cold slab as it descends into the hot mantle. Somewhere between 100 and 200 km deep, the slab has warmed enough that the hydrated minerals are no longer stable. Consequently, they break down to form new minerals
that lack water, together with a separate water-rich fluid. Figure 21.20 shows that
the mineral amphibole in wet oceanic crust may dehydrate to form pyroxene,
quartz, and water.
The water released rises buoyantly into the hot mantle peridotite overlying the
cold slab, causing the peridotite to partially melt (Figure 21.19). Careful examination of Figure 21.20 reveals why melting happens: Water dramatically lowers the
temperature at which peridotite begins to melt. You can see this relation by comparing the melting temperature at 100 km on the dry-melting curve with the melting temperature on the wet-melting curve. Consequently, the wet mantle above
the subducting slab may melt without increasing its temperature. (Here, water acts
as a flux, much like fluorite added to iron ore in a steel furnace will make it melt
at a lower temperature than pure iron ore.)
As this hybrid magma (derived partially from the oceanic crust and partially
from the overlying mantle), rises it reacts extensively with the overlying crust (Figure 21.21). Thus, this magma may contain components derived from oceanic sediments, from metamorphosed oceanic basalt, from peridotite in the mantle wedge,
and from the overlying crust. On the way to the surface, the magma also may mix
with other batches of magma. Or, it may cool and experience fractional crystallization to form andesite or rhyolite magmas, which are even richer in silica.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Volcanoes
Plutons
Dikes
Magma
Crystallization
Partial melting,
assimiliation, and mixing
Basaltic
dikes
Sills
FIGURE 21.21 Intrusions at convergent plate margins are one of the major ways that
continental crust is produced. Hot magma rising from a subduction zone may assimilate crustal
rocks or mix with other magma simultaneous with fractional crystallization. Through these
processes, basaltic magma differentiates to make andesite and rhyolite. Magma may rise in teardropshaped bodies or through fractures or dikes that merge into larger and larger masses.
Eventually, magma that started deep in the subduction zone cools to form plutons
or extrudes as lava or ash flows. The fundamental point is that silica-rich continental crust is formed by the extraction of low-density material from the mantle.
Note that at subduction zones, magma is generated by partial melting—a process
that differentiates and segregates the materials of Earth. Here, magma rich in silica is produced. It is concentrated in island arcs or in granite plutons in mountain
belts of the continents. Unlike basalt, which may become dense enough to be subducted, this silica-rich material cannot sink into the mantle. It becomes concentrated to form additional continental crust.
Subduction zone magmas are distinct from those in most other tectonic settings. We have already emphasized that the typical subduction zone magma is andesitic in composition, but the full spectrum of igneous rock compositions occurs.
Moreover, it is very important to remember that subduction zone magmas are
characteristically enriched in the water, as well as other volatile components such
as chlorine, sulfur, and oxygen. These elements were probably extracted from the
subducted oceanic crust which had been altered by ocean ridge metamorphism.
Generation of Magma in Continental Collision Zones
Where two continents collide, hot mantle-derived magmas do not form after the
subduction zone disappears (Figure 21.15). Nonetheless, small volumes of magma
are produced. A distinctive granite is the most important igneous rock. In this setting, continental rocks, including metamorphosed shales and other clastic sedimentary rocks, can partially melt to form granitic magmas that are rich in silica and
aluminum. Many of these granites contain minerals rarely found in other types of
granite (such as muscovite, garnet, tourmaline, and cordierite). Such magmas do
not rise far from their sources before they crystallize; only rarely do they erupt to
form lava or ash flows. The heat for melting probably comes from deep burial by
tectonic underthrusting of the continental crust. In the Himalayas, for example,
partial melting of continental crust has produced sill-like sheets of muscovite granite that intrude into previously folded and metamorphosed rocks.
617
618
Chapter 21
Pompeii
Somma <79 A.D. <1631
1694–
1872
1872–
1944
1944
FIGURE 21.22 Vesuvius erupted and buried Pompeii, Italy, with ash in A.D. 79. It is one of several composite volcanoes that lie above a
westward-dipping subduction zone beneath Italy. People asphyxiated by poisonous gas during the eruption were buried in the ash. Eventually, the
bodies decomposed, leaving cavities in the ash. By filling these cavities with plaster, archeologists have made detailed casts. Excavations provide
important insights into volcanic activity at convergent plate margins.
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
AT CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Volcanoes above subduction zones commonly erupt violently to form
viscous lava flows, lava domes, or ash flows or ash falls. Tsunamis, lahars,
and debris avalanches are also common. Although the volcanoes erupt
infrequently, some eruptions can be predicted.
There have been many volcanic eruptions at convergent plate boundaries over
the past 1000 years. Many have been fatal. In the last 100 years, about 100,000 people have died as a result of volcanic eruptions. Historical accounts of a few of these
eruptions help us understand the nature of volcanic activity associated with converging plates. The following sections recount four of the most spectacular, devastating eruptions in recorded history: Mount Vesuvius, Krakatau, Mont Pelée,
and Mount St. Helens.
A.D.
79—Mount Vesuvius, Italy
The spectacular cone of Mount Vesuvius looms above the skyline of Naples, Italy.
Over the ages, it has repeatedly erupted magma generated in a subduction zone
beneath the Italian peninsula (Figure 21.22). In a.d. 79, Mount Vesuvius erupted
catastrophically. An extraordinarily vivid eyewitness account of the eruption was
recorded by Pliny the Younger, then a 17-year-old boy. He related details of how
his famous uncle, Pliny the Elder, died while observing the volcano.Along with him,
many perished in the destruction of the two cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Verlaten
Island
619
Lang
Island
Krakatua
Island
0
3 km
Verlaten
Island
Sandbanks
Lang
Island
Krakatua
Island
Outline of
original island
FIGURE 21.23 Maps of Krakatau before (top) and after (bottom) its 1883 eruption show the force of violent volcanic eruptions at convergent
plate boundaries. Krakatau is a composite volcano along the Indonesian arc. All that remains of the volcano are several small islands like the one in
the background. A small volcanic cone (foreground) has been rebuilt over the center of the old volcano. (Charles O’Rear/CORBIS)
Beginning in a.d. 63 and continuing for 16 years, earthquakes shook the western coast of Italy. Then, on the morning of August 24, a.d. 79, Mount Vesuvius
exploded with a devastating eruption of white-hot ash and gas. Within two days,
ash falling from the cloud buried Pompeii, which was directly downwind and near
the volcano. Many people suffocated by sulfurous fumes or were burned by the
searing heat of brief pyroclastic surges that swept through the town; others died
in their homes when roofs collapsed from the weight of the tephra.The entire town
and most of its 20,000 inhabitants were buried by ash and forgotten for more than
1000 years, until Pompeii was excavated in 1748 (Figure 21.22). By contrast, the
town of Herculaneum was buried nearly instantaneously by rapidly moving ash
flows that accumulated to a depth of 20 m.
The ash fall and flow that buried Pompeii and Herculaneum are first-class
examples of the type of violent eruption that is common in volcanoes along convergent margins. The once-smooth and symmetrical cone of Mount Vesuvius was
shattered by the explosion, which created a large caldera where a peak once existed. Subsequent eruptions have built a new cone inside the older caldera.
1883—Krakatau, Indonesia
Krakatau is a small volcanic island west of Java, part of an island arc along the
subduction zone associated with the Java Trench (Figure 21.1). After remaining
dormant for two centuries, Krakatau began to erupt on May 20, 1883.The eruption
culminated in a series of four great explosions on August 26 and 27. One of them was
heard in Australia, 4800 km away. The explosions are considered the greatest in
recorded history. The whole northern part of the island, which stood about 600 m
high, was blown off, forming a huge caldera, 300 m below sea level (Figure 21.23).
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Chapter 21
Tremendous quantities of ash were thrown high into the atmosphere, and some circled the globe for 2 years. Krakatau was uninhabited, but more than 36,000 people
were killed in Java and Sumatra by the huge tsunami produced by the eruption.
1902—Mont Pelée, West Indies
What characteristics do volcanoes at convergent plate margins have in common?
Ash flows are an important part of volcanism along convergent plate margins, and
the great eruption of Mont Pelée, on the island of Martinique in the West Indies,
helped initiate an understanding of this type of eruption. Pelée’s eruption was preceded by nearly a month of warnings, in the form of extrusions of steam and fine
ash from the volcanic vent, accompanied by numerous small earthquakes.
Then, on May 8, 1902, a gigantic explosion blew ash and steam thousands of
meters into the air. The dense, hot ash fell back out of the atmosphere and moved
as an ash flow, sweeping down the mountain’s slopes like a high-speed avalanche.
In fewer than 2 minutes, the hot, incandescent ash flow moved 10 km from the
side vent on Pelée and swept over the city of St. Pierre. It annihilated the entire population of more than 30,000 people, except for one man, a prisoner who was being
held underground in the city jail. Every flammable object was instantly set aflame.
The rushing cloud of ash moved over the waterfront and across the sea surface, capsizing all of the ships.
The ash flow was a mixture of hot glass shards and pumice that flowed at the
base of a billowing cloud of gas. The fundamental force that causes ash to flow
rapidly is simply the pull of gravity, just like an avalanche of snow. But the key to
the speed of the cloud is that such a mixture of hot gas and fragments of ash is
highly mobile.
Intermittent ash-flow eruptions continued on Mont Pelée for several months.
By October, a bulbous dome of lava, too viscous to flow very far, had formed in
the crater. A spire of solidified lava was then slowly pushed up from a vent in the
dome, like toothpaste from a tube. The spire repeatedly crumbled and grew again
from the lava dome. Each collapse produced a hot avalanche that rushed down
the slopes of the volcano.
1980—Mount St. Helens, Washington State
Mount St. Helens
The best-documented eruption of a composite volcano related to a subduction
zone is Mount St. Helens in Washington State. On May 18, 1980, it erupted with a
force estimated to be 500 times greater than the atomic bomb that destroyed Hiroshima, Japan, at the end of World War II (Figure 21.24).
Mount St. Helens is part of the Cascade Range, which extends about 1500 km
from British Columbia to northern California. Mount St. Helens is the youngest
of the 15 major volcanoes in the Cascade Range. It consists of coalesced dacite
domes, lava, and interlayered ash deposits.
Mount St. Helens had been dormant for 123 years, but on March 20, 1980, it
began to stir with a series of small earthquakes. After a week of increasing local
seismicity, it began to eject steam and ash. A series of moderate eruptions continued intermittently for the next six weeks. Within a few days after these first eruptions started, the U.S. Geological Survey issued warnings. During the weeks to
come, the U.S. Forest Service and Washington State officials closed all areas near
the mountain, undoubtedly saving thousands of lives.
By the second week of activity, more than 30 geologists had gathered to conduct
a wide variety of studies. In particular, they monitored the development of a large
bulge on the north flank of the mountain. By the end of April, the bulge was 2 km
long and 1 km wide and was expanding horizontally at a steady rate of 1.5 m/day.
Clearly, the mountain was being inflated by magmatic intrusion.
By monitoring the bulge, seismicity, and the gas emissions, geologists believed they
would detect some significant change to warn of an imminent large eruption. However, no anomalous activity occurred. In fact, seismic activity decreased. Thirty-nine
earthquakes were recorded on May 15 and only 18 on May 17.
Mt. Garibaldi
Mt. Baker
Glacier Peak
Mt. Rainier
on
e
Mt. St. Helens
Co
nv
erg
Fracture zone
e
e
nc
z
Mt. Adams
Mt. Hood
Crater Lake
Mt. Shasta
Lassen Peak
Pacific plate
Juan de Fuca plate
North American plate
Magma
FIGURE 21.24 The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington State was one of the largest and most scientifically important to occur in
the United States. The eruption and devastation by explosive blasts and ash are typical of composite volcanoes built above subduction zones. The
Cascade Range contains 15 large composite volcanoes, extending in a line from British Columbia to northern California. These volcanoes are formed
by subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate beneath the North American plate. (Photography courtesy of U.S. Geological Survey)
621
622
Chapter 21
Summit 2978 m
N. Fork Toutle R.
(A) Mount St. Helens had been
dormant for 123 years until it erupted
on May 18, 1980.
Spirit L.
Gas and ash
cloud
(B) The May 18 eruption was triggered
when a landslide removed the side of
the volcano and caused a lateral blast of
incandescent gas and ash toward the
north.
Pyroclastic
flows
Spirit L.
New crater
(C) The eruption removed a large part
of the northern flank, leaving a
breached crater. The landscape was
ravaged by the blast and by later
pyroclastic flows and lahars. A small
lava dome has subsequently developed
in the horseshoe-shaped crater.
Mud and debris
flow
Blast zone
Scoured
slope
S
E
FIGURE 21.25
Pyroclastic flow
Blast
zone
W
N
The sequence of events in the eruption of Mount St. Helens. (Modified from Geo-Graphics, Portland, Oregon)
On Sunday morning, May 18, the mountain was silent. Only minor plumes of
steam rose from two vents. David Johnston, a 30-year-old geologist, was monitoring gas emissions and observing 8 km northwest of the volcano’s crater. Abruptly, he cried over a two-way radio: “Vancouver! Vancouver! This is it!” Moments
later, Johnston vanished in the blast of hot ash and gas as more than 4 km3 of material was thrown from the blast on the north side of the mountain.
The best way to understand the nature of this eruption is to study the sequence
in Figure 21.25. At 8:32 a.m., the mountain was shaken by an earthquake with a
magnitude of approximately 5. The bulge on the north slope destabilized and then
moved downslope as a great landslide. This uncapped the bottled-up magma and
gas bubbles formed and explosively expanded in the low atmospheric pressure.
Consequently, the eruption blasted horizontally across the collapsing slope.This lateral blast of rock, ash, and gas caused most of the destruction and loss of life. The
blast wave leveled the forest in an area 35 km wide and 23 km outward on the
mountain’s north flank (Figure 21.25).
Convergent Plate Boundaries
The eruption caused three separate, but interrelated, processes: (1) lahars,
(2) ash flows, and (3) ash falls. The lahars originated largely from water-saturated
ash on the mountain’s upper slopes. Most of the lahars were hot. At the height
of the flow, the lower Toutle River was heated to 90°C. The debris flows swept
up 123 homes, as well as cars, logging trucks, and timber, and carried them downstream, destroying bridges and other constructions. So much sediment from the
Toutle was carried into the Columbia River that the downstream depth of the
Columbia was reduced from 12 m to 4 m within a day, and ships upstream were
trapped.
An important part of the eruption was the extrusion of numerous ash flows.
Traveling as fast as 130 km/hr, the incandescent ash and debris (at a temperature
of about 500°C) extended northward a distance of 9 km. This was the same kind
of devastating ash flow that came from Mont Pelée. Some ash flows reached Spirit Lake, where, together with debris flows that had been deposited earlier, they
blocked the lake’s outlet. Consequently, the level of water in the lake rose 60 m.
Immediately after the lateral blast, a vertical ash cloud rose to 18 km altitude.
The ash cloud then fanned out downwind (eastward), and ash began to settle like
a soft, gray snow.The cloud then moved in a broad arc across the United States and
had completely circled Earth by June 5.
Other smaller ash-flow eruptions and lahars continued throughout the summer
of 1980.The closing of the eruption episode was marked by the slow rise of magma
through the central conduit to form a new lava dome in the summit crater.
A Summary of Volcanic Eruptions
The violent eruptions that characterize volcanoes at convergent plate boundaries
result from the magma’s high silica content, which makes it strong and viscous.
Moreover, subduction zone magmas are rich in dissolved water. The dissolved
gases cannot escape easily from the viscous melt. As a result, tremendous pressure builds up in the magma, and when eruptions occur, they are highly explosive.
The eruptions produce huge quantities of ash, often in hot ash flows. Eruption of
thick, viscous lava commonly precedes or follows the explosive activity. Tsunamis,
lahars, and debris avalanches (caused by collapse of the sides of the volcanoes)
are other significant hazards associated with steep stratovolcanoes like those
formed at convergent plate margins.
METAMORPHISM AT CONVERGENT MARGINS
In the forearc of a subduction zone, metamorphism occurs at high-pressure–
low-temperature conditions. In a magmatic arc, or in a zone of continental
collision, metamorphism occurs at higher temperatures and lower
pressures. Most metamorphic rocks in the continental crust were formed
at convergent plate boundaries.
Why are metamorphic processes associated with plate convergence? Recall that
metamorphism is driven by changes in a rock’s environment, mainly changes in
temperature and pressure. Because systems always seek equilibrium, these changes
cause new minerals to form that are in equilibrium with the new conditions. At
convergent plate boundaries, the unique tectonic and magmatic processes create
dramatic temperature and pressure changes. Hence, metamorphism is a major
process at convergent boundaries. Most metamorphic rocks in the continents were
created at convergent plate boundaries.
At both modern and ancient subduction zones, two distinctive types of metamorphic rocks are juxtaposed to create paired metamorphic belts (Figure 21.26).
The pair consists of an outer and an inner belt. The outermost metamorphic belt
623
624
Chapter 21
China
Russia
Hokaido
North
Korea
Sea of Japan
Trench
Low-pressure—
high-temperature
belt
South
Korea
Honshu
North Pacific Ocean
Tokyo
Kobe
0
Shi Koku
Kyushu
High-pressure—
low-temperature
belt
200
400
km
FIGURE 21.26 Metamorphism at convergent plate margins is an important process.
Paired metamorphic belts formed in Japan during Mesozoic subduction. A highpressure–low-temperature belt formed near the trench in the accretionary wedge and a belt
of low- to intermediate-pressure metamorphism formed in the region of the magmatic arc.
forms in the accretionary wedge. Here fine-grained schists and slates contain the
distinctive blue amphibole called glaucophane and other minerals indicative of
the blueschist facies (Figures 21.27 and 6.16). These minerals form here because
they are stable under the conditions unique to the forearc region: high pressure and
relatively low temperature (less than 300°C). These unique high-pressure–lowtemperature conditions are explained by the thermal structure of a subduction
zone (Figure 21.6). Low temperatures result directly from the cold slab of subducting oceanic lithosphere. High pressure is attained because the slab drags cold
oceanic rocks as deep as 30 to 50 km in the mantle, where the pressure is 10 to 15
kilobars. Once formed, blueschist facies rocks are brought rapidly back to the surface of the accretionary wedge by faulting, as described earlier. Belts of blueschist
are found in Japan, California, New Zealand, and in the Alps, all sites of present
or past plate convergence (Figure 21.1). Most of the blueschist metamorphic rocks
are fragments of oceanic lithosphere, including chunks of pillow lava and gabbro.
However, blueschists represent only a small fraction of the metamorphic rocks
formed at convergent plate boundaries because of the very distinctive conditions
required to form them. Serpentine from mantle peridotite is also present.
The innermost part of a paired metamorphic belt consists of rocks near the
magmatic arc that recrystallized at higher temperatures and over a wide range of
pressures or depths. In this zone of high heat flow (Figure 21.6), metamorphism is
driven by heat released from cooling magmas that intruded to form plutonic belts.
Where plutons intrude into sedimentary or other rocks near the surface, narrow
contact metamorphic aureoles form, and hornfels dominates. Wider zones of
orogenic metamorphism develop at moderate depths. In these belts, thrusting and
folding also bury rocks to great depths where they become hotter. The metamorphic rocks are typified by mineral assemblages of the greenschist and amphibolite
facies (see Figure 6.16). These are the most common kind of metamorphic rocks
found on the continents.
Because of the higher temperatures, intensive plastic deformation accompanies
orogenic metamorphism at convergent plate margins. The original sedimentary
and volcanic rocks become strongly foliated schists and gneisses. The horizontal
Convergent Plate Boundaries
625
FIGURE 21.27 Blueschist belts form
by high-pressure–low-temperature
metamorphism in accretionary wedges
near subducting plates of oceanic
lithosphere. The irregular blocks of
blueschist shown here are part of a
melange formed in a Paleozoic subduction
zone along the east coast of New Zealand.
The blocks are metamorphosed fragments
of oceanic crust.
stresses generated by the converging plates cause foliation that is perpendicular to
the direction of stress. Hence, slaty cleavage, schistosity, and gneissic layering in the
deeper parts of a mountain range are characteristically vertical or dip at high angles. In a few collision zones, sedimentary rocks containing carbon were thrust so
deeply (more than 100 km) that diamond formed from the carbon. Diamonds like
this have been found in China, the Alps, Kazakhstan, and Norway. However, it is
the depth of the rock, not the horizontal pressure from collision, that produces the
pressure that drives recrystallization.
In the deeper parts of a mountain belt, metamorphism can become intense enough
to produce migmatite—a complex mixture of thin layers of once-molten granitic
material sandwiches between sheets of schist or gneiss. It develops largely from the
partial melting of preexisting rocks. In these zones, high temperatures and pressures
soften the entire rock body, which then behaves like a highly viscous liquid if it is subjected to stress.As a result, metamorphic rocks in deeper parts of orogenic belts exhibit complex flow structures (see Figure 6.11). Migmatites are probably the sources
of some granitic magma.
FORMATION OF CONTINENTAL CRUST
Continents grow by accretion at convergent plate boundaries. New
continental crust is created when silicic magma is added to deformed and
metamorphosed rock in a mountain belt.
We have already seen how orogenic belts form at convergent boundaries. Strong
deformation of rocks on a continental margin occurs during subduction and collision. These rocks are metamorphosed and intruded by silicic magmas that have
low densities. Portions of this magma are extracted from the mantle or from subducted oceanic crust and form new additions to the continental crust. By virtue of
their low densities, these rocks cannot be subducted and must remain in the continental crust. The gradual growth of the continents by addition of magma and deformation of preexisting crust is known as continental accretion. Consequently,
both the origin and the evolution of Earth’s continental crust are intimately tied
to the processes that occur at convergent plate margins.
STATE OF
THE ART
Magnetic Maps Show Accreted Terranes
Geologists are always trying to find ways to see below the
obscuring skin of soil and vegetation and discover the nature of the rocks hidden below. Geophysical techniques provide tools that can sense important characteristics of rocks
beneath such a cover and for some depth into the interior.
The strength of Earth’s magnetic field is not uniform. Its
strength varies because of the changing pattern of flow inside Earth’s core, because of changes in the solar wind, and,
of importance here, due to differences in the magnetic properties of rocks in the crust.
Magnetic minerals (such as magnetite) in rocks cause
distortions in the magnetic field. Magnetic minerals induce local magnetic fields that either add or subtract
from Earth’s field. Magnetic susceptibility is a measure
of how much magnetism can be induced in a rock. In general, sedimentary and most metamorphic rocks have relatively low magnetic susceptibilities. Igneous rocks, on
the other hand, tend to have more magnetite and to be
more magnetic.
they spin. This precession induces a small but measurable
current in the coil. The frequency of this current correlates
with the strength of the local magnetic field. Airborne magnetometers are usually towed behind aircraft or mounted
on wing tips. By repeatedly flying back and forth across a
region, a magnetic map is constructed. Line spacings may
be as little as 200 m, but more typically they are a kilometer or so apart.
An aeromagnetic map of Alaska shows the power of
this technique. Much of Alaska’s landscape is difficult to
traverse. High mountains, glaciers, surging rivers, short
field seasons, and hordes of mosquitoes make normal field
geologic investigations difficult. A series of airborne magnetic surveys, however, can be conducted quickly and
stitched together with a computer to see the magnetic fabric of the state and nearby offshore areas. The magnetic
variations reveal the distribution of various rock types,
ages, and the folded structures of the mountain belts. They
define the boundaries of arcuate accreted terranes that
were added to Alaska during millions of years of plate
convergence.The aeromagnetic map also shows the
striped fabric of the seafloor before it subducts down the
oceanic trench.
(Courtesy of K. Nyman, Geological Survey of Finland)
By measuring the strength of the magnetic field at a
multitude of individual spots, a map of the distribution of
magnetic and nonmagnetic materials in the crust forms a
powerful interpretive tool for geologists. For land-based
magnetic surveys, the most commonly used magnetometer
is the proton precession magnetometer that measures only
the strength of Earth’s magnetic field, not its polarity. This
kind of magnetometer contains a cylinder filled with water
that is surrounded by a coil of conductive wire. The hydrogen nuclei (protons) in the water behave like tiny spinning
dipole magnets. Because Earth’s magnetic field applies a
force to these protons, they begin to precess or wobble as
626
0
200
km
(Courtesy of R. Saltus, U.S. Geological Survey)
Convergent Plate Boundaries
627
Ophiolite
North
America
North
America
Deformed
continent
margin
Accreted
Terranes
Ancient
seafloor
Deformed
continent
margin
Atlantic
Ocean
Island arc
Deep-marine
sediments
Continental
fragments
ai
n
Accreted
Terranes
Younger
Pl
Co
ta
as
l
Older
0
500
0
300
km
km
FIGURE 21.28 Accreted terranes along convergent plate
margins are an important component of most continents. Western
North America is composed of rocks that moved and became
attached during episodes of convergence in the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic eras. Before reaching their present positions, these rocks
were island arcs, fragments of rifted continents, or oceanic
plateaus. After accretion, they were shuffled along the margin by
strike-slip faults.
FIGURE 21.29 Accreted terranes form much of eastern North
America. The Appalachian Mountains, which extend from
Newfoundland to Alabama, contain terranes that were once parts of
ancient Europe, Africa, island arcs, and even oceanic islands. These
terranes were accreted to the continent during plate convergence
and continental collision in the Paleozoic Era, millions of years
before the western North American accretions.
Accreted Terranes
Studies worldwide reveal that many continental margins consist of a multitude of
separate crustal blocks, each with its own distinctive origin and history.These blocks
have been juxtaposed against one another by major faults. (Figure 21.28) Each
block is a distinctive terrane, a term that refers to a region or group of rocks sharing a common age, structure, stratigraphy, and origin.These exotic segments of the
orogenic belt are called accreted terranes. The terranes vary in size, and their rocks,
fossils, histories, and magnetic properties contrast sharply. Fossils indicate that each
terrane formed at different times and in very different environments than any
other; paleomagnetic data show that the various terranes originated at different latitudes thousands of kilometers away.
Accreted terranes in the orogenic belt of western North America are a prime
example (Figure 21.28). In this region, many independent terranes are squeezed
together, each with its own internal structure, rock types, and fossils. Each terrane
Why are accreted terranes a common
feature in many mountain belts?
628
Chapter 21
3.8—2.8
Slave
4—2.5
2.1—1.9
3.8—2.8
1.9—1.8
Superior
3.2—2.6
Wyoming
3.4—2.6
1.9—1.8
1.8—1.6
1.3—
1.0
Age (billions of years)
1.3—1.0
FIGURE 21.30 Radiometric ages of
basement terranes in North America show
several geologic provinces, each
representing a mountain-building event.
The ages of the major granitic intrusions are
in billions of years, and the lines represent
the trends of the folds and structural trends
in the metamorphic rocks. The continent
apparently grew by accretion as new
mountain belts formed along its margins.
1.8—1.6
1.9—1.8
2.1—1.9
3.8—2.6
4—2.5
contrasts sharply with adjacent segments. One contains remnants of ancient
seamounts related to mantle plumes; another, segments of shallow-marine limestones like those forming in the Bahamas; and still others are pieces of old volcanic arcs formed by subduction. Some are crustal fragments of metamorphosed
basement complexes. Each terrane is separated from the next by long major fault
systems, most of which show evidence of strike-slip movement. For example, paleomagnetic properties and fossils suggest that many of the terranes in British Columbia originated far to the south and traveled hundreds of kilometers northward,
along the continental margin during the Mesozoic Era
The Appalachian Mountains, which stretch from Newfoundland to Alabama, are
another example of continental accretion. They contain slices of ancient Europe,
Africa, and oceanic islands accreted to the continent during the Paleozoic Era
(Figure 21.29).
Accretion of North America
Evidence for even older orogenic and accretion events can be seen on the map
of North America in Figure 21.30. It summarizes many radiometric ages for the
metamorphic and granitic basement, as well as structural details compiled from
years of field mapping and geophysical studies. The ages of the basement rocks
of North America form a regular pattern. The oldest rocks found thus far are in
northern Canada and are about 4 billion years old in the Slave Province (p. 204).
Other ancient scraps of continental crust are in southern Greenland, the
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Continental crust (%)
100
80
60
40
20
0
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Age (millions of years ago)
FIGURE 21.31
The amount of continental crust has grown over the last 4 billion years of Earth’s
history. The curve shows our best estimate of the rate of growth. During the last few billion years, the
rate of growth was not as high as during the earlier history. Today, most continental crust forms at
subduction zones.
Superior, and Wyoming Provinces, where granites and metamorphic rocks have
ages between 2.5 and about 3.8 billion years.
Surrounding the Superior Province to the south, west, and north is a vast area
of gneiss and granite from 1.8 to 1.9 billion years old. In addition, its structural
trends are oriented differently than in the older terrane. To the southeast, the
rocks are younger still; the granitic intrusions and metamorphic rocks are as
young as 1.0 billion years old.
Continental Growth Rates
The crudely concentric pattern of the basement age provinces in North America
is strong evidence that the continent grew by the accretion of material around its
margins during a series of mountain-building events. Each province probably represents a period of relatively rapid crustal growth during mountain building, related
to convergent margin tectonics and magma production.The growth of North America is typical of other continents. Although the details are still sketchy, the amount
of continental crust must have gradually grown during Earth’s long history. Geological studies are starting to reveal the rate of growth of the continents (Figure
21.31). Continental crust grew slowly for the first billion years of Earth’s history.
Initially, much of the crust may have been swept back into the mantle.As Earth matured, its continents appear to have grown rapidly between about 3.5 and 1.5 billion years ago. Subsequently, growth of continental crust was slower. During both
of these time periods, however, subduction and plate tectonics seem to be the principal cause of crustal growth.
Thus, the origin of continental crust can be related to the evolution of convergent plate margins. In an analogous manner, the origin and evolution of the oceanic crust is intimately connected to the processes at divergent plate boundaries.
629
GeoLogic
Lau Basin: A Back Arc Basin
h
nc
Tre
To
ng
a
ve
cti
Ina
Ac
tiv
e
vo
e
lca
nic
ar
c
Vo
lca
nic
Lau Ridg
e
Ar
c
?
Modified from K.E. Zellmer and B. Taylor, 2001,
Geochemistry, Geophysics, and Geosystems
The Tonga-Kermadec arc of the southwest Pacific is like
many other arcs related to subduction. A deep narrow
trench lies to the east of the arc. Subduction carries the Pacific ocean lithosphere beneath the arc and is marked by
an inclined zone of intense earthquakes. Explosive andesitic
volcanoes dot the length of the arc, but many of the active
volcanoes are young and still below sea level. However, unlike some arcs, a broad submarine basin—the Lau Basin—
lies west of the island arc. What could have formed this
basin?
Observations
1.The broad basin is corrugated with narrow ridges and valleys that more or less parallel the trend of the arc.
2. A narrower, slightly deeper valley runs down the center
of the basin and forms a rift (marked in red).
3. Rocks along the submarine rift are mostly basaltic volcanic rocks.
4. The central rift is normally magnetized and rocks on the
flanks are reversely magnetized.
630
5. Shallow earthquakes are clustered along the central valley, but are not as numerous as the deeper earthquakes
along the subducting slab.
6. Hot springs are aligned along the central rift valley.
7. Subducting oceanic lithosphere lies about 300 km below
the central part of the basin.
8.A high volcanic plateau also marks the western side of the
basin. It is made of inactive andesitic volcanoes.
Interpretations
Geologists think the Lau Basin is a back-arc basin that
formed by rifting apart an older volcanic arc. The Tonga
ridge and the Lau Ridge mark the flanks of this rift. The
youngest, most active part of the basin is a rift-valley,
marked by extension, volcanism, shallow earthquakes, and
hydrothermal vents. It is much like an oceanic ridge because new crust is forming here.The backarc extension may
be caused by convection driven by the subducting slab. A
new volcanic arc is developing just west of the old high arc.
Most of the volcanoes in this new arc are still submarine.
Convergent Plate Boundaries
631
KEY TERMS
accreted terrane (p. 627)
accretionary wedge (p. 606)
convergent plate boundary
(p. 598)
ocean-continent convergence
(p. 599)
paired metamorphic belt
(p. 623)
backarc (p. 599)
dehydrate (p. 616)
subduction zone (p. 599)
backarc spreading (p. 612)
folded mountain belt (p. 599)
ocean-ocean convergence
(p. 598)
blueschist facies (p. 624)
forearc ridge (p. 599)
orogenic belt (p. 608)
volcanic arc (p. 599)
continental accretion (p. 625)
inclined seismic zone (p. 604)
continent-continent
convergence (p. 600)
melange (p. 606)
orogenic metamorphism
(p. 600)
nappe (p. 608)
trench (p. 599)
outer swell (p. 599)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Draw a simple cross section across a subduction zone showing the outer swell, trench, accretionary wedge, and magmatic arc.
2. Contrast the features of a continent-continent convergent
plate boundary with those of an ocean-ocean plate boundary.
3. Why are trenches so deep?
4. Where do you expect to find the highest heat flow at a subduction zone? Where would you find the lowest gravity
anomalies? Explain.
5. Describe how an accretionary wedge grows. How do the
highly deformed rocks in the wedge differ from those in a
folded mountain belt?
6. Is extension ever found at convergent plate boundaries?
7. Describe the absolute plate motions along the convergent
plate boundaries: Australian-Indonesian, Indian-Eurasian,
North American-Pacific, Nazca-South America. How do
you think these differences are reflected in the nature of the
plate boundary?
8. Explain how magma is generated at subduction zones and
contrast that with magma generation at a midoceanic ridge.
9. What explains the origin of paired metamorphic belts at
ocean-continent convergence zones?
10. Contrast the type of metamorphism that is found at convergent plate boundaries with metamorphism that occurs at
divergent plate boundaries.
11. In which kind of convergent plate boundary would you
expect to find the strongest compressional deformation—
an ocean-ocean boundary, an ocean-continent boundary,
or a continent-continent boundary? Why?
12. Why are earthquakes found deep (more than 300 km) in
the mantle only at convergent plate boundaries?
13. Give two reasons why volcanoes at convergent plate margins are so explosive.
14. How would you discriminate an ancient accretionary wedge
from the sediments that form on a rifted plate margin?
15. What would a slice of oceanic crust found in the middle of a
continent imply about the tectonic history?
16. What are the characteristic sedimentary rocks formed along
convergent plate margins? How do they compare with
those found in a continental rift?
17. What processes lead to the growth of continents?
18. The average chemical composition of the continental crust
corresponds to that of an andesite. Can you explain this
observation?
ADDITIONAL READINGS
Decker, R., and B. Decker. 1981. The eruption of Mount St. Helens, Scientific American 244(3):68–80.
Francis, P. 1993. Volcanoes: A Planetary Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Keary, P., and F. J. Vine. 1990. Global Tectonics. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific.
Moores, E. M., and R. J. Twiss. 1995. Tectonics. San Francisco: Freeman.
Taylor, S. R., and S. M. McLennan. 1996. The evolution of continental crust, Scientific American 274(1):76–81.
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Earth’s Dynamic Systems CD
Examine the CD that came with your text. It is designed
to help you visualize and thus understand the concepts
in this chapter. It includes:
• On-line Quizzes (Chapter Review, Visualizing Geology,
Quick Review, Vocabulary Flash Cards) with instant feedback
• Animations of plate motions at convergent margins
• Quantitative Problems
• Slide shows of folded mountain belts and island arcs
• Critical Thinking Exercises
• A direct link to the Companion Website
• Web Resources
• A flyover of Earth’s major convergent boundaries