Download Chapter Thirteen—Interpersonal And Collaborative Group

Chapter Thirteen—Interpersonal And Collaborative Group
Communication
Chapter Summary
Business is conducted through relationships created with others, both inside and outside of a
company. Interpersonal communication forms and maintains relationships and helps teams
work together smoothly. Successful interpersonal communicators understand the nuances of
social and cultural rules that govern comfortable verbal and nonverbal interactions with
others, as well as how to utilize appropriate human and technological channels.
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Interpersonal communication is interaction between people engaged in the creation of a
relationship and includes patterns of behavior, verbal statements, and listening.
A relationship is dynamic interaction with another person or persons using
communication. They are dynamic because they are interdependent, interconnected, and
changeable. As individuals communicate, their verbal and nonverbal signals influence one
another, and the resulting interaction creates the relationship.
Business relationships are important because they heighten productivity. Common
business relationships include interaction with coworkers, vendors, and customers.
There are two primary relationship patterns. In complementary relationships, one person
takes control and the other or others follow that person’s lead. In business, this is usually
the relationship between supervisor or management and employees. In symmetrical
relationships, all parties respect one another’s position and work together. Problems that
arise in symmetrical relationships are power struggles, when more than one person wants
control, or over-accommodation, when neither wants to take the lead. Both kinds of
relationships are fluid, and change according to situation and need.
Interpersonal relationships are non-linear; the participants continuously influence one
another. To make changes in interpersonal relationships, one of the participants must
redesign reactions and feedback to others. Since changing other people is impossible, the
communicator must initiate any such changes in his or her own behavior.
All communications involve cultural and relational rules. Cultural rules are associated
with social norms that dictate appropriate behavior (Chapter 12). Relational rules are
created by the participants in an interpersonal relationship, who mutually agree on the
form and content of the communication (for example, formal or informal) depending on
the context and situation.
Breaking cultural or relational rules may cause a negative reaction in others, or may
simply be ignored.
Breaking rules may result from being unaware of what appropriate cultural or relational
norms are, especially when communicating with individuals from other cultures. It is a
wise practice to become acquainted with cultural and relational business norms when
interacting with those from another culture.
Interpersonal communication involves verbal and nonverbal communication and listening.
Nonverbal communication is gestures, facial expressions, and posture (body language)
and non-word vocalizations that convey meaning. Nonverbal communication regulates
conversation and conveys emotions, feedback, and influence. These behaviors are usually
culturally dependant and influenced by gender.
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o Kinesic behaviors are body language and gestures. They can convey meaning
themselves, or serve to emphasize verbal messages.
o Eye behaviors include eye gaze and eye movements during interaction. They can
convey interest, power, or embarrassment, among other things.
o Paralanguage, or vocalics, is how a verbal message is spoken. The pitch, volume,
and rhythm a communicator uses influences how a message is to be received.
Vocal interferences like “um,” or “er” sometimes indicate that the communicator
is nervous and can also be distracting to listeners.
o Chronemics is how people perceive and use time. What is early for some is late for
others.
o Proxemics is how people perceive and use space and distance. What is close for
some is far for others. In general, people observe an appropriate amount of space
indicated by the type and purpose of their relationship.
o Haptics is touching behavior. For example, some people touch when emphasizing
a point or to indicate intimacy.
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Teams are groups of people who come together to accomplish a common goal. Small
groups are two or more interdependent people who are aware of their membership in the
group and communicate to accomplish their goal. Group members interact interpersonally
to accomplish group goals.
Groups and teams form in business to reach a variety of goals. Common groups in the
corporate world include tasks forces, quality circles, steering committees, management
teams, project teams, cross-functional teams, self-managing teams, problem-solving
teams, and virtual teams.
The most effective groups are those that share common levels of commitment, cohesion,
collaboration, and conflict resolution.
o Commitment is the level of participation given by members of a group when
working toward a common goal. If all members are equally committed, no one
member dominates the group.
o Cohesion is the harmony and compatibility of group members while working
toward their goal. Individuals identify themselves as part of the group if they feel
they develop relationships between one another that are positive.
o Collaboration is working together toward a specific goal. When group members
share expectations for behavior and performance norms, they can cooperate to
make decisions that will meet their objectives
o Conflict strategies are methods groups use to negotiate disagreements when they
arise. Through open communication, groups can identify, understand, and
transform opinions (Chapter 14).
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Conformity occurs when all members of a group subscribe to the same rules and behave
accordingly. Conformity enhances cohesion of business groups when it provides a
common basis for all group members. However, over-reliance on group rules can result in
groupthink: the inability to think outside of accepted group tenets. Groupthink stifles
creativity and the ability to think “outside of the box.”
Most groups need leaders to provide guidance and perspective. Leadership is a quality
possessed by individuals who can influence others and move a group toward a goal with
an eye to larger issues. Successful group leaders understand interpersonal relationships
and foster collaboration. Rather than perform all tasks themselves, they delegate
workloads, information, and responsibility while providing a supportive environment for
the group.
In order to work together, groups must meet. To facilitate clear and efficient
communication in meetings, leaders create agendas, which explain to group members
what will be accomplished at the meeting, including discussion topics and timeframes.
Men and women tend to interact differently while in meetings. In general, men are more
aggressive and confident; women are more passive and thoughtful.
The channels offered by modern technology make virtual teams possible. People who
cannot meet face-to-face can now communicate effectively as part of a group.
o C-commerce is a networking software technology that allows companies to work
with customers, suppliers, and distributors to improve and create products and
services. They allow real-time communication between group members through
their computers, and allow them to share files and software, web conference, and
transmit voice through the network.
o Distance business meetings can be conducted through teleconferencing,
videoconferencing, and web conferencing. Teleconferencing, the most common
form of distance meetings, allows participants to communicate as a group over the
phone. Videoconferencing allows groups to communicate with both voice and
image transmissions to all members over a video monitor and satellite. Web
conferencing is similar to videoconferencing, however group members transmit
voice and image through their computers over the Internet.
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Although these technologies can facilitate group communication over distances,
relationships between group members may deteriorate without occasional face-to-face
personal interaction.
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In Text Exercises
 Creative Challenge: Adjectives
Comparing the adjectives the student uses to describe him/herself with the adjectives another
person uses to describe him/her reveals two things. First, it may show the student that others
perceive him/her in an unexpected way. Second, it demonstrates the feelings the other person
has toward the students, and defines the nature of the relationship to an extent.
 Word on the Web: Skills Test
The sites provided in this exercise give students a chance to broaden their understanding of
interpersonal communication. In particular, the skill test may give students insight into their
own communication habits, including things they may want to change to make themselves
more effective communicators.
 Jump In!: Management Problems
Strategies to help the manager interact more productively with the assistant manager include
working collaboratively rather than unilaterally, praising what the assistant manager does well
to earn respect as a leader, setting goals with the assistant manager (rather than for him),
asking for the assistant manager’s advice (since he’s been with the store much longer),
allocating tasks clearly to all staff members, and, most importantly, paying attention to verbal
and nonverbal communication cues.
 Creative Challenge: Elevator
Of course, if the student already has a relationship with the people on the elevator, the results
may be different, but in general one would expect the others on the elevator to be
uncomfortable, not make eye contact, shuffle around in their own small space, or even smile
and ask the newcomer which floor they are seeking. Logically, one stands with one’s back to
the wall because the floor designators are visible and it’s easier to walk straight out the door
when it opens. Standing in the opposite direction means that the individual standing there is
not there for the same purpose (to get from one floor to another), but what other reason is
there to get on an elevator? Since American-style proxemics are already violated somewhat
by the crowded nature of elevators, someone behaving in an even more confusing way might
be unsettling.
 Creative Challenge: Value Management
If group members hold values in common, there may be less tension; the foundation for group
cohesion is already in place. However, if there is no conflict the group might find itself
lacking necessary outside input, resulting in groupthink.
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 Word on the Web: Corporate Retreats
A good question to ask students is how effective they think group retreats are, especially the
exotic survival based retreats. The purpose is to develop strong, positive interpersonal
relationships with coworkers, but how does helping someone across a rope bridge translate
into a good working relationship? Students can examine how interpersonal relationships
formed for business purposes tend to transcend the workplace.
 Creative Challenge: Research and Leadership
Students can investigate conflict strategies as they consider how they would deal with the
team member whose work is late. Possible responses could be to submit the report on time, as
is, with a portion missing; contact the client to let him/her know it will be late; complete the
teammate’s work on their own, without the teammate’s input; demand the teammate complete
the work immediately; or offer to assist the teammate in his/her task. Students should be
asked to reflect on the effect each of these responses might have on the situation and evaluate
not just what seem to be right, but what will meet project goals most successfully.
 Jump In!: Groupthink
College students have been, for the most part, trained to absorb information and reflect it
back. For this reason, when they hit the corporate world, they are unsure of their own abilities
and lack confidence to rely on their own ideas, preferring to follow the lead of others. To
prepare for this assignment, the instructor may want to ask students to reflect on a time when
they had an idea, but didn’t express it. What were the consequences of that withholding?
What may have been different if they had expressed their opinions?
 Creative Challenge: Weekly Meetings
The manager needs to assess what is wrong about the meetings in the first place. Possible
reasons for dissatisfaction could be that the meetings are disorganized, favor some individuals
over others, or go off topic. Strategies to improve meeting effectiveness could be to provide
an agenda beforehand, ask all staff members to contribute specific things to each meeting, and
set a time limit.
 Jump In!: ST Microtronics
Maintaining the flattened hierarchy is the tricky part of this assignment. A potential solution
could be to create small-project task forces that have overlapping members who can share
information. Another would be to create regular progress reports that circulate to all members
of the expanded team, with information gathered input from a few key sources that have
access to many projects. Also, teams could be centralized according to department or
company. In any case, students should consider not only what makes a team work well, but
the relationships that have been built between team members, and try to preserve those
relationships.
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Discussion Questions
1. What nonverbal behaviors are common indicators that communication is breaking down
and that the rules need to be renegotiated or redesigned?
When one or more parties in the communication begin to violate cultural or relational norms
when interacting, the rule may need to be reexamined to determine if they are being violated
intentionally or unintentionally, and be renegotiated accordingly.
2. Why is communication in a business context somewhat impersonal? Are there times when
business communication should be more intimate? If so, when?
Business communication is often somewhat impersonal because even if the communicators
know one another, the relationship may be confined to the workplace. They have not built the
same catalog of interactional nuances that inform more intimate personal relationships.
Depending on the situation, there are occasions when business communication could be more
intimate, for example, showing sympathy when a coworker’s loved one dies, or in a social
setting like a picnic or party. In these cases, a more relaxed, informal communication style
may be appropriate.
3. If you wanted to change your relationship with another person, what would you do?
Since no one can change another’s behavior, the subject would have to change his or her own
behavior, verbal and nonverbal, when interacting with the other person. This could mean
changing behavior, avoiding certain topics, finding common ground, or simply listening to the
other person more closely.
4. Can breaking cultural or relational communication rules improve communication, or
does breaking the rules always risk breaking down the communication? Can you think of
a situation in which one communicator may wish to break a communication rule? What
might be the results?
Breaking communication rules is risky, but may be a useful strategy in some situations.
Violating a rule in a minor way (not an overly aggressive way) might grab attention or
underscore a point vividly. It might even produce humor in the right context. Context is the
key: if communicating with strangers, violating communication rules can be disastrous. But
with people who are known already, violating them can be an effective communication tool.
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5. How does understanding interpersonal communication change the way you think about
making meaning?
Earlier chapters discussed communication from an intrapersonal perspective, since meaning
originates in an individual and travels outward. However, meanings are also developed and
defined through interactions with others, both through their influence and through agreement
and experience.
6. Why is nonverbal communication more believable than verbal communication?
Nonverbal communication is often more believable than verbal communication because
people tend to think more about what they are saying than how they are moving. Nonverbal
communication unconsciously conveys what a person is thinking, which may be quite
different from what they are saying.
7. Why do men and women communicate differently during meetings? Specifically, why do
men take the floor to speak more than do women?
Men are culturally trained to be more aggressive and confident. Women are trained to be
more passive, and tend to consider things carefully before voicing an opinion. Women search
for points of agreement, while men maintain their own position.
8. Why is punctuality or promptness so important in U.S. culture?
Punctuality is important in U.S. culture because Americans value time highly. By attending
meetings and other gatherings on schedule, we show respect for the value of other people’s
time and, by extension, we show respect for them as well.
9. Can there be any nonverbal communication in a written message? Explain and give
examples.
Various types of communication noise may be nonverbal communication in a written
message; oddly formatted documents may be a sign of creativity or sloppiness, for example.
Also, choice of stationery, the color of ink used, the type of font the writer chooses, and other
options used when physically creating a message all may indicate forms of nonverbal
communication.
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10. Sometimes people in groups and teams behave in ways that most individuals would not.
Do you think that a group can change people’s values, ethics, and behavior? Why or why
not?
Studies show that groups do indeed influence the behavior of individuals. This is at least in
part due to the meanings that form interpersonally as individuals create relationships with
others. As group members share information and experience, they inform and sway opinions
so that all members of the group have access to the same information, which often leads to
creating the same conclusions.
11. Are you more committed to the goals of groups you choose (such as social groups,
fraternities, political groups), or to groups you must be a part of (business groups and
teams, project teams, study groups, class project groups)? Explain.
People tend to be more committed to groups they have chosen over those they have been
assigned, although assigned groups may have more clearly defined goals. Social groups, etc.,
are made up of individuals who have common interests at the time they come together, while
assigned groups may have a common goal, but must develop relationships to reach it.
12. Have you ever left a group before the group’s goal was completed? What made you
leave? What would have kept you involved?
This is a highly individual question, and may reflect on the commitment of the person
answering it. Some never leave a group before a goal is accomplished; others make a habit of
it. Generally people leave groups if they feel their contributions aren’t respected or if they
don’t share the values of the rest of the group. In these cases, successful relationships have not
been formed. When considering what would have encouraged involvement by group
members, it is important that one cannot change the behavior of others, only one’s own
behavior.
13. What aspects of channel selection should be considered relative to distance
communication?
Basic considerations when choosing a technological conferencing channel include
interactivity, cost, and time. Determine the level of interactivity necessary for efficient
communication (voice alone; voice and image; voice, image and software). Consider the costs
involved for necessary equipment or software. Realize that coordination of participants with
appropriate equipment can be tricky, and that talking in real time is not always possible.
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14. What aspects of team interaction do you believe make the best use of group
communication technologies (telephone, video, and Web conference systems)?
Even though all four of the “Cs” of effective small groups are served by technological
conference systems, such systems serve the interests of cohesion and collaboration best.
Being able to hear or see teammates makes it easier to observe both verbal and nonverbal
communication patterns and form relationships with them.
15. What qualities make a good team leader? How do you think a team leader should interact
with his or her team?
Leaders encourage positive change through open communication of ideas and knowledge
between group members. They motivate and support, influence attitudes after gaining respect,
and distribute responsibility appropriately.
Case development
What’s Your Working Personality?
Students can assess their own working personalities; they can also have classmates or others
also assess their personality using the OCEAN scale and compare results. Other options are to
create a fictional team with the personality traits listed and ask students to role play the
interactions of the team or write about what they think would happen given the collection of
personalities present.
It’s also interesting to consider how useful such scales are and if they could be used
incorrectly. What are the ramifications of using such scales to judge people? Students can
role-play and write about good and bad applications of set scales to evaluate personality, and
whether they can (or should) outweigh performance.
Video enrichment
Wolinsky & Williams: Teamwork
Joe is faced with a serious challenge. He’s been given a team who do not share the same
values, who lack equal commitment to their goal, who have little or no cohesion, and who are
unable to collaborate. They also have personal conflicts that affect their ability to complete
the task, and seem unwilling to deal with those conflicts directly. In the first scene, Joe doles
out tasks for each member, but the other individuals do not respond very enthusiastically. In
fact, it seems pretty clear that they aren’t going to do much on the project from the get go.
Students can speculate on how Joe can motivate them, if at all possible.
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The distractions each team member suffers from are very different. Cheng is more interested
in completing his thesis and being transferred to another department. Rosa is wrapped up in
personal issues and has trouble focusing on her work. Simon has seniority over the others, and
seems totally disinterested in the process as a whole. In fact, he seems resentful of process,
almost hostile.
The second meeting could be disastrous since almost no work has been done on the project
and they are up against the deadline, but Joe manages to get some accommodation from the
team members, even though it means he will take on more responsibilities than originally
planned. His behavior in this scene exemplifies how one can only change his or her behavior,
rather than the behaviors of others, and he does this quite successfully.
Questions:
1. Could Joe have taken steps in the intervening period, between the two meetings, to
ensure that all team members were working?
2. Could he have encouraged them or motivated them more effectively individually?
3. What strategies for inclusion and collaboration would be most successful with each of
the recalcitrant teammates: Simon, Cheng, and Rosa?
4. Would the team have been more successful if one of the other teammates had led it?
For example, Simon, who has more seniority than Joe?
5. If the teammates do not keep their word and complete the revised tasks Joe has
assigned them, what should Joe do?
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