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Chapter 6. Continuous Random Variables Reminder: Continuous random variable takes infinitely many values Those values can be associated with measurements on a continuous scale (without gaps or interruptions) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 1 Example: Uniform Distribution A continuous random variable has a uniform distribution if its values are spread evenly over a certain range. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 2 Example: Uniform Distribution A continuous random variable has a uniform distribution if its values are spread evenly over a certain range. Example: voltage output of an electric generator is between 123 V and 125 V. The actual voltage level may be anywhere in this range. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 3 Density Curve A density curve is the graph of a continuous probability distribution. It must satisfy the following properties: 1. The total area under the curve must equal 1. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 4 Density Curve A density curve is the graph of a continuous probability distribution. It must satisfy the following properties: 1. The total area under the curve must equal 1. 2. Every point on the curve must have a vertical height that is 0 or greater. (That is, the curve cannot fall below the x-axis.) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 5 Area and Probability Because the total area under the density curve is equal to 1, there is a correspondence between area and probability. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 6 Using Area to Find Probability Given the uniform distribution illustrated, find the probability that a randomly selected voltage level is greater than 124.5 volts. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 7 Using Area to Find Probability Given the uniform distribution illustrated, find the probability that a randomly selected voltage level is greater than 124.5 volts. Shaded area represents voltage levels greater than 124.5 volts. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 8 Using Area to Find Probability Given the uniform distribution illustrated, find the probability that a randomly selected voltage level is greater than 124.5 volts. Shaded area represents voltage levels greater than 124.5 volts. The area corresponds to probability: P = 0.25. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 9 Standard Normal Distribution Standard normal distribution has the following properties: Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 10 Standard Normal Distribution Standard normal distribution has the following properties: 1. Its graph is bell-shaped Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 11 Standard Normal Distribution Standard normal distribution has the following properties: 1. Its graph is bell-shaped 2. It is symmetric about its center Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 12 Standard Normal Distribution Standard normal distribution has the following properties: 1. Its graph is bell-shaped 2. It is symmetric about its center 3. Its mean is equal to 0 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. ( = 0) 13 Standard Normal Distribution Standard normal distribution has the following properties: 1. Its graph is bell-shaped 2. It is symmetric about its center 3. Its mean is equal to 0 ( = 0) 4. Its standard deviation is 1 ( = 1) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 14 Standard Normal Distribution The standard normal distribution is a bellshaped probability distribution with = 0 and = 1. The total area under its density curve is equal to 1. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 15 Standard Normal Distribution: Areas and Probabilities Probability that the standard normal random variable takes values less than z is given by the area under the curve from the left up to z (blue area in the figure) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 16 Examples Thermometers are supposed to give readings of 0ºC at the freezing point of water. Since these instruments are not perfect, some of them give readings below 0ºC and others above 0ºC. Assume the following for the readings: • The mean is 0ºC • The standard deviation is 1ºC • They are normally distributed Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 17 Example 1 If one thermometer is randomly selected, find the probability that, at the freezing point of water, the reading is less than 1.27º. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 18 Example 1 If one thermometer is randomly selected, find the probability that, at the freezing point of water, the reading is less than 1.27º. µ=0 σ=1 P (z < 1.27) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 19 Look at Table A-2 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 20 Using StatCrunch Select Stat, Calculators, Normal Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 21 Using StatCrunch 1.27 P(z<1.27): Enter ‘1.27’ in left box with ‘<=‘ then hit Compute Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 22 Using StatCrunch P(z<1.27) = 0.8979577 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. (In the right box) 23 Example 1 P (z < 1.27) = 0.8980 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 24 Example 1 P (z < 1.27) = 0.8980 The probability of randomly selecting a thermometer with a reading less than 1.27º is 0.8980. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 25 Example 2 If thermometers have an average (mean) reading of 0 degrees and a standard deviation of 1 degree for freezing water, and if one thermometer is randomly selected, find the probability that it reads (at the freezing point of water) above –1.23 degrees. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 26 Example 2 If thermometers have an average (mean) reading of 0 degrees and a standard deviation of 1 degree for freezing water, and if one thermometer is randomly selected, find the probability that it reads (at the freezing point of water) above –1.23 degrees. µ=0 σ=1 P (z > –1.23) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 27 Example 2 µ=0 σ=1 Method 1 P = P(z > –1.23) P = 1 – P(z < 1.23) P = 1 – 0.10934855 P = 0.89065145 P ≈ 0.8907 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 28 Example 2 µ=0 σ=1 Method 2 P = P(z > –1.23) P = 0.89065146 P ≈ 0.8907 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 29 Example 2 P (z > 1.23) = 0.8907 Thus, there is a 89.80% change the picked thermometer will read above -1.23 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 30 Example 3 A thermometer is randomly selected. Find the probability that it reads (at the freezing point of water) between –2.00 and 1.50 degrees. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 31 Example 3 A thermometer is randomly selected. Find the probability that it reads (at the freezing point of water) between –2.00 and 1.50 degrees. µ=0 σ=1 P ( –2.00 < z < 1.50) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 32 Notation P(z < a) denotes the probability that the z score is less than a. P(z > a) denotes the probability that the z score is greater than a. P(a < z < b) denotes the probability that the z score is between a and b. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 33 P(a < z < b) = P(z < b) – P(z < a) P(a < z < b) P(z < b) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. P(z < a) 34 P(a < z < b) = P(z < b) – P(z < a) P(a < z < b) P(z < b) P(z < a) Example: P(-1.5 < z < 0.7) = P(z < 0.7) – P(z < -1.5) P(-1.5 < z < 0.7) = 0.7580364 – 0.0668072 P(-1.5 < z < 0.7) = 0.6912 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 35 Finding z Scores When Given Probabilities Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 36 Finding z Scores When Given Probabilities 5% or 0.05 (z score will be positive) Finding the z-score separating 95% bottom values from 5% top values. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 37 Finding z Scores When Given Probabilities 5% or 0.05 (z score will be positive) 1.645 Finding the z-score separating 95% bottom values from 5% top values. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 38 Finding z Scores When Given Probabilities Enter the probability on the right box then hit Compute The z-score will be in the left box. Example: For top 5% (i.e. 0.05) z-score= 1.6449 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 39 Finding z Scores When Given Probabilities - cont (One z score will be negative and the other positive) Finding the Bottom 2.5% and Upper 2.5% Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 40 Finding z Scores When Given Probabilities - cont (One z score will be negative and the other positive) Finding the Bottom 2.5% and Upper 2.5% Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 41 Finding z Scores When Given Probabilities - cont (One z score will be negative and the other positive) Finding the Bottom 2.5% and Upper 2.5% Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 42 Notation We use za to represent the z-score separating the top a from the bottom 1-a. Examples: z0.025 = 1.96, z0.05 = 1.645 Area = a Area = 1-a za Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 43 Normal distributions that are not standard All normal distributions have bell-shaped density curves. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 44 Normal distributions that are not standard All normal distributions have bell-shaped density curves. A normal distribution is standard if its mean is 0 and its standard deviation is 1. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 45 Normal distributions that are not standard All normal distributions have bell-shaped density curves. A normal distribution is standard if its mean is 0 and its standard deviation is 1. A normal distribution is not standard if its mean is not 0, or its standard deviation is not 1, or both. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 46 Normal distributions that are not standard All normal distributions have bell-shaped density curves. A normal distribution is standard if its mean is 0 and its standard deviation is 1. A normal distribution is not standard if its mean is not 0, or its standard deviation is not 1, or both. We can use a simple conversion that allows us to standardize any normal distribution so that Table A-2 can be used. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 47 Conversion Formula Let x be a score for a normal distribution with mean and standard deviation We convert it to a z score by this formula: z= x–µ (round z scores to 2 decimal places) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 48 Converting to a Standard Normal Distribution x– z= Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 49 Example – Weights of Passengers Weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. If one passenger is randomly selected, what is the probability he/she weighs less than 174 pounds? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 50 Example – Weights of Passengers Weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. If one passenger is randomly selected, what is the probability he/she weighs less than 174 pounds? P(x < 174) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. µ = 172 and σ = 29 51 Example – Weights of Passengers Weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. If one passenger is randomly selected, what is the probability he/she weighs less than 174 pounds? P(x < 174) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. µ = 172 and σ = 29 52 Example – Weights of Passengers Weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. If one passenger is randomly selected, what is the probability he/she weighs less than 174 pounds? P(x < 174) = ??? µ = 172 and σ = 29 P(z < 0.069) = 0.5279 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 53 Example – Weights of Passengers Weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. If one passenger is randomly selected, what is the probability he/she weighs less than 174 pounds? P(x < 174) = ??? µ = 172 and σ = 29 P(z < 0.069) = 0.5279 P(x < 174) = 0.5279 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 54 Finding x Scores When Given Probabilities 1. Use StatCrunch to find the z score corresponding to the given probability (the area to the left). 2. Use the values for µ, , and the z score found in step 1, to find x: x = µ + (z • ) (If z is located to the left of the mean, be sure that it is a negative number.) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 55 Example – Lightest and Heaviest The weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. Determine what weight separates the lightest 99.5% from the heaviest 0.5%? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 56 Example – Lightest and Heaviest The weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. Determine what weight separates the lightest 99.5% from the heaviest 0.5%? µ = 172 and σ = 29 P(x < ???) = 0.995 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 57 Example – Lightest and Heaviest The weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. Determine what weight separates the lightest 99.5% from the heaviest 0.5%? µ = 172 and σ = 29 P(x < ???) = 0.995 P(z < 0.995) = 2.575 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 58 Example – Lightest and Heaviest The weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. Determine what weight separates the lightest 99.5% from the heaviest 0.5%? µ = 172 and σ = 29 P(x < ???) = 0.995 P(z < 0.995) = 2.575 x = µ + σ*z = 172 + 2.575*29 = 246.7 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 59 Example – Lightest and Heaviest The weights of taxi passengers have a normal distribution with mean 172 lb and standard deviation 29 lb. Determine what weight separates the lightest 99.5% from the heaviest 0.5%? µ = 172 and σ = 29 P(x < ???) = 0.995 P(z < 0.995) = 2.575 x = µ + σ*z = 172 + 2.575*29 = 246.7 Separating weight: 247 ib Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 60 Central Limit Theorem The Central Limit Theorem tells us that the distribution of the sample mean x for a sample of size n approaches a normal distribution, as the sample size n increases. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 61 Central Limit Theorem Given: 1. The random variable x has a distribution (which may or may not be normal) with mean µ and standard deviation . 2. A random sample of size n is selected from the population. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 62 Central Limit Theorem – cont. Conclusions: Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 63 Central Limit Theorem – cont. Conclusions: 1. The distribution of the sample mean x will, as the sample size increases, approach a normal distribution. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 64 Central Limit Theorem – cont. Conclusions: 1. The distribution of the sample mean x will, as the sample size increases, approach a normal distribution. 2. The mean of that normal distribution is the same as the population mean µ. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 65 Central Limit Theorem – cont. Conclusions: 1. The distribution of the sample mean x will, as the sample size increases, approach a normal distribution. 2. The mean of that normal distribution is the same as the population mean µ. 3. The standard deviation of that normal distribution is n. (So it is smaller than the standard deviation of the population.) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 66 Formulas the mean µx = µ the standard deviation x = n Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 67 Practical Rules: 1. For samples of size n larger than 30, the distribution of the sample mean can be approximated by a normal distribution. 2. If the original population is normally distributed, then for any sample size n, the sample means will be normally distributed. 3. We can apply Central Limit Theorem if either n>30 or the original population is normal. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 68 Example: Water Taxi Passengers Assume the population of taxi passengers is normally distributed with a mean of 172 lb and a standard deviation of 29 lb a) Find the probability that if an individual passenger is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected passengers will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 69 Example: Water Taxi Passengers Assume the population of taxi passengers is normally distributed with a mean of 172 lb and a standard deviation of 29 lb a) Find the probability that if an individual passenger is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected passengers will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 70 Example: Water Taxi Passengers Assume the population of taxi passengers is normally distributed with a mean of 172 lb and a standard deviation of 29 lb a) Find the probability that if an individual passenger is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. µ = 172 σ = 29 P(x > 175) = ??? b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected passengers will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 71 Example: Water Taxi Passengers Assume the population of taxi passengers is normally distributed with a mean of 172 lb and a standard deviation of 29 lb a) Find the probability that if an individual passenger is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. µ = 172 σ = 29 P(x > 175) = ??? b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected passengers will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 72 Example – cont a) Find the probability that if an individual man is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. µ = 172 σ = 29 P(x > 175) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 73 Example – cont a) Find the probability that if an individual man is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. µ = 172 σ = 29 P(x > 175) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 74 Example – cont a) Find the probability that if an individual man is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. µ = 172 σ = 29 P(z > 0.10) = 0.4602 P(x > 175) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 75 Example – cont a) Find the probability that if an individual man is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. µ = 172 σ = 29 P(z > 0.10) = 0.4602 P(x > 175) = 0.4602 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 76 Example – cont b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected men will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb (so that their total weight exceeds the safe capacity of 3500 pounds). µ = 172 σ = 29 n = 20 P(x > 175) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 77 Example – cont b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected men will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb (so that their total weight exceeds the safe capacity of 3500 pounds). µ = 172 σ = 29 n = 20 P(x > 175) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 78 Example – cont b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected men will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb (so that their total weight exceeds the safe capacity of 3500 pounds). µ = 172 σ = 29 n = 20 P(z > 0.4626) = 0.3228 P(x > 175) = ??? Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 79 Example – cont b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected men will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb (so that their total weight exceeds the safe capacity of 3500 pounds). µ = 172 σ = 29 n = 20 P(z > 0.4626) = 0.3228 P(x > 175) = 0.3228 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 80 Example - cont a) Find the probability that if an individual passenger is randomly selected, his weight is greater than 175 lb. P(x > 175) = 0.4602 b) Find the probability that 20 randomly selected passengers will have a mean weight that is greater than 175 lb. P(x > 175) = 0.3228 It is much easier for an individual to deviate from the mean than it is for a group of 20 to deviate from the mean. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 81 Review Binomial Probability Distribution 1. The procedure must have a fixed number of trials, n. 2. The trials must be independent. 3. Each trial must have all outcomes classified into two categories (commonly, success and failure). 4. The probability of success p remains the same in all trials (the probability of failure is q=1-p) Solve by binomial probability formula or calculator Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 82 Approximation of a Binomial Distribution with a Normal Distribution If np 5 and nq 5 Then µ = np and = npq and the random variable has a distribution. (normal) Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 83 Procedure for Using a Normal Distribution to Approximate a Binomial Distribution 1. Verify that both np 5 and nq 5. If not, you cannot use normal approximation to binomial. 2. Find the values of the parameters µ and by calculating µ = np and = npq. 3. Identify the discrete whole number x that is relevant to the binomial probability problem. Use the continuity correction (see next). Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 84 Continuity Correction When we use the normal distribution (which is a continuous probability distribution) as an approximation to the binomial distribution (which is discrete), a continuity correction is made to a whole number x in the binomial distribution by representing the number x by the interval from x – 0.5 to x + 0.5 (that is, adding and subtracting 0.5). Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 85 Example: Finding the Probability of “At Least 122 Men” Among 213 Passengers The value 122 is represented by the interval (121.5,122.5) The values “at least 122 men” are represented by the interval starting at 121.5. Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 86 at least 8 (includes 8 and above) more than 8 (doesn’t include 8) at most 8 (includes 8 and below) fewer than 8 (doesn’t include 8) exactly 8 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 87 at least 8 (includes 8 and above) more than 8 (doesn’t include 8) at most 8 (includes 8 and below) fewer than 8 (doesn’t include 8) exactly 8 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 88 at least 8 (includes 8 and above) more than 8 (doesn’t include 8) at most 8 (includes 8 and below) fewer than 8 (doesn’t include 8) exactly 8 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 89 at least 8 (includes 8 and above) more than 8 (doesn’t include 8) at most 8 (includes 8 and below) fewer than 8 (doesn’t include 8) exactly 8 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 90 at least 8 (includes 8 and above) more than 8 (doesn’t include 8) at most 8 (includes 8 and below) fewer than 8 (doesn’t include 8) exactly 8 Copyright © 2010, 2007, 2004 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 91