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University of Zagreb Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing Biomedical Instrumentation Transducers and sensors prof.dr.sc. Ratko Magjarević November 2015 Biomedical transducers A transducer is a device that converts a quantity from the measured object into an electrical signal. Biomedical transducers are transducers with specific uses in biomedical applications: physiological measurement, patient monitoring, health care. Measurement quantities: physical and chemical quantities that reflect the physiological functions in a living body. Examples: blood composition - determined from a sample extracted from the body real-time and continuous measurements - transducer is attached to the body 2 Electrodes • Bioelectrical potentials - recall: bioelectrical potentials occur at the cell membrane due to difference in ions concentration (mostly Na +, K + and Cl-) in intracellular fluid and in the extracellullar space • Potential difference at the cellular membrane may be in the range within 5mV and 100mV • This potential difference is called the resting potential 3 Electrodes • Bioelectrical resting potentials: – resting potential inside the cell is negative comparing to the environment – resting potential of nerve and muscle cells is typically -70mV to -85mV 4 Electrodes • Action potentials: when the cell membrane is stimulated, there is a sudden change in membrane conductance, first for sodium ions (cell depolarization), and then to potassium ions (repolarization) • Negative potential inside the cell reduces, such that short-term potential may become positive • Such a potential difference is called the action potential 5 Electrodes • How to access the cell and measure bioelectrical potentials? – individual cells • thickness of the semi-permeable membrane approx. 10nm • measurement of in vivo or in vitro – groups of cells - tissue or organ • access to tissue or organ - a non-invasive (bloodless) or invasive measurements • mutual influence of different tissues /organs (potentials, impedance) 6 Electrodes Electrode is an interface • to connect the measurement devices and measure bioelectrical potentials, electrode is used as an interface, however.. The electrode is also a transducer • exchange charge carriers : – in electrical circuits, electrons are charge carriers – in the body, ions are charge carriers • connects to the surface of the body (skin, mucous membranes) or on/in the organ inside the body 7 Electrodes • Most of bioelectric potentials strive to measure noninvasively, e.g. from the surface of the body, by placing electrodes on the skin • Electrical characteristics of different tissues – specific conductivity (specific resistance) – specific dielectric constant • Characteristics of biological tissue are: – nonlinearity (dependence on frequency and current density), – inhomogenity (unequal material properties of the body) – anisotropy (different properties in different dirrections, typically along the fiber-cells) 8 Electrodes • Using a model of the interface for better understanding of the interface electrode -tissue • Passive electrical characteristics of the skin - electrode interface strive to express by ideal electric components with intent parameters – Resistance – Capacity • This model can be used for measurement electrodes in limited frequency range 9 Equivalent circuit of the skinelectrode Electrode Skin Virtual electrode Biological issue Electrode – skin intarface and its simplified electrical circuit 10 Equivalent circuit of the skinelectrode d R P A 1 qn A CP d μ - charge mobility q - charge n - number of electrons in volume unit Rp - resistance between the electrode and the well-conductive layer of tissue (virtual electrode) d – skin thickness A - electrode surface ρ - specific resistance Cp - capacity between the electrode and virtual electrode ε - dielectric constant of the skin 11 Equivalent circuit of the skinelectrode 12 Equivalent circuit of the skinelectrode 13 Nonlinearity of the electrode interface 14 Electrodes Electrode-electrolyte interface The current crosses it from left to right. The electrode consists of metallic atoms C. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution containing cations of the electrode metal C + and anions A-. 15 Metal-electrolyte potential Potential double-layer Metal Electrolyte Electrolyte Potential Charge Dissociation of water to H+ and OH- ions Potential double-layer at the interface metal-electrolyte 16 Metal-electrolyte potential Standard electrode potential relative to standard hydrogen electrode at 20°C 17 Metal-electrolyte potential • If you plunge a metal in a solution of its salt, the half cell potential E0 M appears, also the voltage dependent on the concentration of metal ions in solution: RT E0.5 M E0 M 1 ln cM 1 nF • If there is some other metal also immersed in a solution of its own ions, its potential will be E0.5 M RT E0 M 2 ln cM 2 nF 18 Polarization voltage • If these two solutions are separated with semi-permeable membrane to allow passage of ions, and to avoid the original combination of solutions, the potential difference between the solutions can be measured according to the formula E E0.5 M 1 E0 M 2 RT [cM 1 ] E0 M 1 E0 M 2 ln nF [cM 2 ] • Each electrode that comes in contact with the electrolyte will have the potential of the expression above. This potential is undesirable in the measurement of biological voltage because when using high gain dc amplifier, it causes saturation of the amplifier. To avoid saturation, amplifier with less gain in the input is used and the next stages of amplification are separated with condenser. 19 Dry electrodes • Used to avoid the appearance of polarization voltage. • The problem is in large input impedance, which makes them susceptible to interference. • Therefore, the electrode itself incorporates an amplifier designed to reduce the high input resistance to a small value and thus reduce the impact of interference. 20 Dry electrodes with integrated amplifier Microelectrodes • They are used to measure the biological potential of the cells 21 Microelectrodes • cell attached recording: – pipette touching the membrane and forming a high-ohmic junction (~ 1GOhm) • whole cell recording: – by suction through a pipette the membrane breaks - solution in the pipette and inside of the cells become uniform 22 Microelectrodes Extracellular recording 23 Microelectrodes Action potentials recorded extracellularly 24 Subcutaneous electrodes • They are used, for example, to measure the voltage on the individual muscle fibers or groups of neurons in the brain Subcutaneous needle electrodes a) monopolar, b) bipolar c) wire d) electrode array d) cortical 25 Subcutaneous electrodes • Example of subcutaneous electrodes used for deep brain stimulation • Example of electrode implantation for deep brain stimulation 26 Subcutaneous electrodes 27 Surface EEG electrodes • EEG electrodes (passive, active) • Conductive paste and gel 28 Surface EEG electrodes • 10-20 system - standards for placing EEG electrodes 29 EEG recording 30 Surface ECG electrodes • Adhesive: • Suction (pump to suck air) 31 Surface ECG electrodes • Electrodes for extremities (hands and feet): • EKG recodring 32 EMG electrodes • Surface • Subcutaneous 33 EMG recording 34 Surface electrodes - more examples • EOG electrodes: • Electrodes for electrostimulation 35 Literature • John G. Webster: Medical Instrumentation, Chapter 5, Biopotential Electrodes • A. Šantić, Biomedicinska elektronika, 3. poglavlje, Elektrode za mjerenje biopotencijala i električne smetnje 36