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Evolution and Psychology While evolutionary ideas in one form or another trace back to the ancient Greeks, it was not until 18th century that they became scientifically prominent and were connected to psychology Georges de Buffon 1707-1788 French naturalist, mathematician, cosmologist In his Histoire naturelle discusses a concept similar to “common descent.” However, did not see a close relationship between humans and apes. Credited by Darwin as being the first modern author to treat evolution in a scientific spirit. Herbert Spencer 1820-1903. Saw evolution as a progressive march toward perfection (his view of survival of the fittest). Argued that societies must allow adequate freedom so that more ‘fit’ individuals could succeed both socially and reproductively while less ‘fit’ would fail, therefore leading to general ‘improvement’ in society and humanity, called social Darwinism. Added learned adaptive associations to Lamarck’s list of acquired traits. These adaptive associations would be reflected in instincts, habits, and reflexes. His combo of associationism and evolution called evolutionary associationism. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1744-1829. Argued the inheritance of acquired traits. Adaptive physical characteristics acquired during one’s lifetime passed along to offspring making offspring more adaptive. Darwinism • Charles Darwin’s 1809-1882. Major contribution was not evolution itself; but the mechanism by which it operated: Natural selection • NS was also discussed by Darwin’s contemporary: Alfred Russell Wallace (1823-1913). Part of Darwin’s inspiration in the development of NS, was the writings of economist Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) who argued that while food resources increase arithmetically over time, human population grew geometrically, thus leading to an inevitable competition for scarce resources. Evolution: Basic Principles Evolution: Change over time; decent with modification Darwin said little about humans in Origin of Species (1859), but addressed the question later in Descent of Man (1871) and The Expressions of Emotions in Man and Animals (1872). In Expressions, he argued that human emotions were related to the internal, biological states that accompanied animal behaviors associated with survival and reproduction. For example, when animals fight, they bare their teeth in a threatening manner. Humans ancestors probably did this as well, but now there is no need for the behavioral threat, but the internal, biological state associated with that behavior persists in humans. Natural Selection: Primary mechanism producing evolution (change over time). There are other mechanisms such as: sexual selection, social selection, drift. Basic principles of NS: 1. Variability: stuff varies 2. Heritability: variation is passed on genetically 3. Competition: limited resources 4. Selection: some variations are advantageous in securing limited resources and tend to passed on more than others = change over time Spencer’s misleading summary of NS: “survival of the fittest.” After Darwin. E. O. Wilson (still with us) published Sociobiology (1975) arguing for the use of evo theory in explaining human social behavior. William Hamilton (1936-2000) made the case for inclusive fitness, a gene’s eye view of evolution which has proved useful in explaining human cooperation, morality, tribalism, love, aggression and other social behaviors. Eugenics: Evolution and the ‘improvement’ of the human race • In Victorian England views that today would be considered racist and sexist were fairly commonplace. “Civilized” Europeans (especially the English) saw themselves as superior to ‘savage races,’ and men were often considered more intelligent than women. For many, natural selection provided scientific legitimacy to these views and Spencer’s idea of ‘progressive evolution’ was seen as part of the natural order of things. Hence, allowing ‘inferiors’ to reproduce at rate greater than ‘superiors’ was seen as unnatural and threatening to continued social progress. Eugenics was the idea that society should actively encourage ‘better’ people to reproduce while discouraging ‘inferiors’ from doing so. Even though Darwin did not see evolution as producing inevitable progress, he was not immune from the general zeitgeist of the times. Francis Galton (1822-1911). Argued that intelligence was largely a function of sensory acuity – the speed and accuracy with which the sense organs processed inputs – and sensory acuity was determined by inheritance. Thus, intelligence is inherited. While he did develop sensory acuity measures (rt to visual and auditory signals, highest perceivable pitch, etc.), he was more well-know (with regard to intelligence studies) for his studies of eminence. Galton studies families of eminence (politicians, wealthy businessmen, scientists, military commanders, etc. to see if their offspring were more socially, economically successful than the general population. They were. Since eminence ran in families, he argued this supported the hypothesis that intelligence was largely inherited. He did note, however, that intelligence must be combined with ‘zeal and vigor’ for success. Rise of Nature – Nurture debate • Partly in response to Eugenics, French botonist Alphonse de Candolle (1806-1893), argued that environmental factors such as education, climate, economic prosperity, etc. were critical in the creation of scientists. In response Galton developed a questionnaire (first use of the research method) distributed to English scientists (members of Royal Society) asking about a wide range of issues including physical traits, political views, religious beliefs, educational background, family, was their scientific interest innate, etc. Most thought their scientific interest was inherited. Galton also undertook twin studies (first use of the method) finding that identical twins were more similar to one another even when reared apart compared to fraternal twins rear together. Galton’s many contributions to psychology: along with questionnaires and twin studies, Galton initiated studies in mental imagery (normally distributed in population, however many highly intelligent people including scientists, were very poor at imagery. Correlational studies: provided some of the first evidence of the co-variation of quantifiable factors. He did this visually using scatterplots. Karl Pearson (1857-1936) later developed the r stat. Galton also noted the regression toward the mean phenomenon (tall people had tall offspring – inheritance, but not quite as tall as they and vice-versa with short people). First word-association tests, later used extensively both by Freud and in memory research. Championed idiographic approach to studying humans, that is extensive measures for identifying individual differences. Idiographic Testing in America • Galton’s method of extensive individual measurement was brought to American by James Cattell (1860-1944), a student of Wundt and research colleague of Galton. Cattell developed a series of ‘mental tests’ that he believed measured intelligence. An intensive set of 50 test were designed to be used to assess incoming university students, while a more restricted set of 10 could be used on the general public. In 1901 Clark Wissler, then a grad student under Cattell, found no significant inter-correlations among the ‘mental tests’ and no relationship among the tests and academic performance. Results thoroughly contradicted Cattell’s assumption that the tests measured intelligence. Cattell’s 10 tests I. Dynamometer Pressure (hand squeeze) II. Rate of Movement. (quickest possible movement of the right hand and arm from rest through 50 cm. III. Sensation-areas. (two-point thresholds) IV. Pressure causing Pain. (pressure applied by a tip of hard rubber 5 mm) V. Least Noticeable difference in Weight. VI. Reaction-time for Sound. VII. Time for naming Colours. VIII. Bi-section of a 50 cm. Line IX. Judgment of 10 seconds time. (I strike on the table with the end of a pencil and again after 10 seconds, and let the experimentee in turn strike when he judges an equal interval to have elapsed.) X. Number of Letters remembered on once Hearing. History of IQ testing • The origin of IQ testing can be found in Galtonian emphasis on individual differences in intelligence. In France, this initially took the form of the development of an assessment measure that would reliably distinguish between ‘normal’ (now called ‘typically developing’) children and ‘mentally retarded’ (now called ‘developmentally disabled’ or ‘atypically developing’) children. The person heading this effort was Alfred Binet (1857-1911). Binet’s original test was largely successful at identifying children with mental developmental delays. Quickly, however, the goal shifted to assessing differences intelligence levels of typically developing children. For this, Binet and Theodore Simon constructed a test that use chronological age as the referent. Measures were developed that at 75% of children of a certain age could pass. This was considered ‘age appropriate.’ Children were given measures appropriate for their age, if they passed they were then given tests for the next higher age level. If they failed, they were given the test for the next lower age level. Eventually, the Binet-Simon Scale of Intelligence included 5 age appropriate tests for 3-15 year-olds. Thus children’s mental age could be assessed per year in five increments. Ex. Someone passing all the tests for a 7 year-old and 2 tests for an 8-year-old had a mental age of 7 and 2/5ths. It was German psychologist William Stern (1871-1938) who proposed the original IQ formula. Louis Terman later added the ‘x 100’ part to remove the decimal place. Simple interpretation >100 below normal; <100 above Charles Spearman and ‘g’ • Charles Spearman (1863-1945). Student of both Wundt and Kulpe. Found that measures of sensory acuity (speed and accuracy of sensory responses) were highly inter-correlated and correlated with school performance. Developed factor analysis to study correlational patterns. Cyril Burt (1883-1971). Twin studies seem to support inheritance of g. Correlationed IQ scores among identical twins higher whether reared together or apart compared to non-identical twins. Later accused of fraud, but studies largely replicated. Argued that the results of these studies indicated two components to intelligence: specific abilities (s) upon which people varied (mathematical ability, memory, language, etc.) and general intelligence (g). (g) was more fundamental (s’s arose from g) and (g) was largely inherited and relatively fixed. On this point, he clashed with Binet, who argued that while some aspects of intelligence were inherited, most people functioned below their native ability and mental orthopedics (training in focusing attention, developing study skills, logical reasoning, etc.) could actualize inherited potential. Deteriorating National Intelligence? • If intelligence was largely inherited and less intelligent people were both (a) reproducing more, and (b) immigrating in larger numbers to the US, then could deteriorating national intelligence represent a threat to American society? The question became a great concern for both political leaders and some scientists. Concerns over deteriorating national intelligence were heightened when psychologist Henry Goddard (1866-1957) administered a translated version of the Binet-Simon scale to over 2,000 New Jersey public school students and found an alarming number of them were below age norms. This prompted him to further investigate the connection of heredity and intelligence in his famous “Kallikak” family study. Goddard found that the descendants of Martin Kallikak from his liaison with a ‘feebleminded’ barmaid were far more likely to be thieves, prostitutes, convicts, alcoholics and every other sort of miscreant, while the descendants of his later marriage to a ‘worthy girl’ were more likely to be socially successful doctors, lawyers, etc. This was taken as evidence of hereditary ‘feeblemindedness which was thought at the time to be behind many forms of social vice, immorality and criminality. Lewis Terman and the Standford-Binet • Lewis Terman (1877-1956). Responsible for revising the Binet-Simon scale for an American population, called the Stanford-Binet Test of Intelligence. As was common at the time, he held a largely nativistic view of intelligence. Validated the Stanford-Binet by correlating it with academic performance (those you did well on S-B were found to also do well in school). Also well-known for his studies of gifted children (defined as IQ 135 or greater). Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939). Studied at Columbia University under E. L. Thorndike and influenced his views on intelligence from nativistic (women are generally less intelligent than men) to more nurture (limited opportunities often give the impression of less intelligence in women in general). Argued that simply labeling a child gifted did little to actualize potential. Often gifted kids are bored and thought ‘troublesome’ by teachers. Specific tasks necessary to challenge are necessary to kept gifted kids engaged. Terman’s ‘termites.’ Studied over 1,000 gifted children for nearly 80 years. Contrary to widely held beliefs at the time, Terman found that intellectually gifted children were largely well-adjusted and successful social and especially economically throughout life. By and large, gifted children tended to become gifted adults. Group Aptitude Tests • At the outbreak of WW1, the Army was faced with an influx of new recruits and needed some way of assessing their mental acuity. Robert Yerkes (18761956), headed a project designed to create a largescale group administered intelligence test. The result was the Army Alpha (for literate test-takers) and Beta (non-literate and non-English-speakers). The test were based on a simple ‘point score’ system where a total intelligence score was produced rather than a mental age assessment. Most group administered academic tests (ACT, SAT, GRE, etc.) can trace their origins to Yerkes efforts. For his efforts, Yerkes was made a Major in the Army. Examples of parts of the Alpha and Beta (right) David Wechsler and Modern IQ testing • David Wechsler (1896-1981) developed the most popular IQ test being used today. He created separate tests for different age groups (WAIS, WISC, WPPSI). His scales were normed with standard mean and deviation score. This creates a total score and percentile rank.