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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
MEDICAL SERVICES ADVISORY COMMITTEE
HbA1c point of care testing for the diagnosis and
management of diabetes mellitus
Protocol
December 2016
1
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
1. Title of application
HbA1c point of care testing for the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus.
2. Purpose of application
Please indicate the rationale for the application and provide one abstract or systematic
review that will provide background.
Diabetes is a common chronic disease in Australia, increasing at a faster rate than other
chronic diseases such as heart disease and cancer. It is estimated that around 1.7 million
Australians have diabetes, with around 280 people developing it every day (1;2). This
includes all types of known and registered diabetes, as well as silent, undiagnosed type 2
diabetes which is estimated to affect up to 500,000 Australians (1;2). The total annual cost
impact of diabetes in Australia is estimated at $14.6 billion (1).
It is estimated that for every 100 people with the diagnosis of diabetes there are between 25
(3) and 80 (4) people living with undiagnosed diabetes. Many patients do not seek help until
they have developed complications which may be many years after diabetes actually began.
The high prevalence of undiagnosed diabetes demonstrates the importance of early
detection of the disease.
Diabetes is a serious complex condition resulting from defective insulin production and/or
action. If left undiagnosed or poorly controlled, the chronic hyperglycaemia associated with
diabetes can affect the entire body and lead to coronary artery disease (CAD), stroke, kidney
failure, limb amputations and blindness (5).
The diagnosis of diabetes typically involves one or more biochemical analyses: blood
glucose levels (fasting and random); the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT); and glycated
haemoglobin (HbA1c) (2). HbA1c, a marker of long-term glycaemic control, reflects the
average blood glucose concentration over the preceding 3 month period.
Current guidelines recommend HbA1c tests every 3 to 6 months to assess glycaemic control
as a routine component of disease management for patients with established diabetes (2).
HbA1c has been endorsed as a diagnostic test for diabetes by the World Health
Organization (WHO), and recently the Australian Diabetes Society, the Royal College of
Pathologists of Australasia, and the Australasian Association of Clinical Biochemists
confirmed its use to establish the diagnosis of diabetes (2). HbA1c testing performed in
NATA accredited pathology laboratories is currently MBS listed for both the diagnosis and
the management of patients with established diabetes (refer to MBS items 66551, 66554,
66841 for further details). Point of care (PoC) testing is funded by the Federal Government in
a limited capacity under the Quality Assurance for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander
Medical Services (QAAMS) program (MBS Item 73840).
Early identification and optimal glycaemic control can slow the onset and progression of
diabetes-related complications (2). Innovative HbA1c PoC tests have been developed to
allow diagnostic testing at or near the site of patient care, providing clinicians and patients an
alternative to laboratory testing (6). The addition of HbA1c PoC testing to usual patient
management leads to improved patient outcomes (ie improved and quicker clinical
decisions), and allows prevention of unnecessary healthcare resource use (ie more rational
prescribing, fewer laboratory or doctor visits) (7-14).
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
During the recent MSAC application for HbA1c for the diagnosis of diabetes (1267) there
was strong public support for the consideration of the PoC testing however this was
ultimately not included in the final assessment report.
This application seeks MBS listing for the quantification of HbA1c by PoC for the diagnosis
and usual management of patients with diabetes.
The proposed MSAC application will be undertaken by Optum on behalf of IVD Australia.
Please refer to Appendix 1 for background information from the Australian Government Point
of Care Trial in General Practice (2009).
3. Population and medical condition eligible for the proposed medical services
Provide a description of the medical condition (or disease) relevant to the service.
Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterised by hyperglycaemia
resulting from defects in insulin secretion and/or action, and is categorised into three main
types: type 1, type 2 and gestational. Several pathogenic processes are involved in its
development ranging from autoimmune destruction of the β-cells of the pancreas to
abnormalities resulting in insulin resistance. For patients with diabetes, chronic
hyperglycaemia is associated with long-term damage, dysfunction and failure of various
organs including eyes, kidneys, nerves, heart and blood vessels. The symptoms of
hyperglycaemia include polyuria, polydipsia, weight loss and blurred vision. Long-term
complications involve loss of vision due to retinopathy, renal failure, peripheral and
autonomic neuropathy. The incidence of atherosclerotic cardiovascular, peripheral arterial
and cerebrovascular disease, as well as hypertension and lipoprotein abnormalities in
patients with diabetes is increased. Early detection and effective therapy providing good
metabolic control, can delay the onset and progression of diabetes late complications,
resulting in better outcomes for patients.
Define the proposed patient population that would benefit from the use of this service. This
could include issues such as patient characteristics and /or specific circumstances that
patients would have to satisfy in order to access the service.
The two proposed patient populations are the same as those currently funded for HbA1c
testing for the diagnosis and management of diabetes (MBS items 66841, 66551 and 66554)
for rural, remote and urban areas.
NHMRC guidelines (5) suggest case detection should be conducted on an opportunistic
basis (eg in GP consulting rooms) in individuals who are judged to be at risk, either through
a score of ≥12 on the AUSDRISK assessment tool, or are in one of the following population
groups with a known higher risk:
•
•
•
•
•
people with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose;
women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus;
women with a history of polycystic ovary syndrome;
people presenting with a history of cardiovascular disease event (ie myocardial
infarction, stroke); and
people on antipsychotic medication.
The proposed HbA1c PoC test will be used for the detection and diagnosis in this same at
risk population.
The HbA1c POC test will also be used for ongoing management of patients with established
diabetes on an as needed basis every 3-6 months to assess blood glucose control.
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
The HbA1c PoC test will be an alternative to the HbA1c test currently performed by a
laboratory.
PASC noted that the potential benefits of the HbA1c POC test versus laboratory testing may
be greater in rural, remote, disadvantaged and aged populations. Therefore these groups
are listed as sub-populations of interest in the protocol. These populations will be assessed if
HbA1c POC test is not cost-effective in the general population.
Indicate if there is evidence for the population who would benefit from this service i.e.
international evidence including inclusion / exclusion criteria. If appropriate provide a table
summarising the population considered in the evidence.
Two clinical trials were identified that recruited patients with similar criteria described above.
These prospective, randomised controlled trials (RCTs) assessed the clinical effectiveness
of HbA1c PoC testing in patients with established diabetes. Additionally, an RCT funded by
the Australian Government investigated PoC testing in general practice. It assessed patients
across three conditions (anticoagulant therapy, diabetes, hyperlipidaemia) and reported the
results separately. Results from the diabetes subgroup are presented in this protocol. The
eligibility criteria used to select and randomise patients in the RCTs are presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Patient inclusion and exclusion criteria
Author and
year
Khunti 2006
N
Inclusion criteria
Exclusion criteria
681
Patients with type 2 diabetes who attended
participating general practices for review of
their diabetes care.
Patients who were unable to attend the
practice.
Patients who were exclusively under hospital
care.
Miller 2003
597
Australian
Government
2009
1967
Patients with type 2 diabetes for at least
6 months.
Patients with established diabetes.
Patients with a fasting plasma glucose of
≥ 7.0 mmol/L or a two-hour post glucose load
of ≥ 11.1 mmol/L. (This equates to 53
mmol/mol.)
Patients who were < 18 years of age.
Patients whose condition was not stabilised.
Patients who had dementia.
Patients deemed by their GP as unable to
comply with the requirements of the Trial.
Patients who were unable to understand the
instructions written in English.
In both trials by Khunti et al (2006) and Miller et al (2003) trials patients were randomised to
receive HbA1c results either during (“rapid”) or after (“routine”) the patient visit. Khunti et al
(2006) (14) found that the proportion of patients with HbA1c < 7.0% was not statistically
different between either group at 12 months. Miller et al (2003) (7) reported more
intensification of therapy in patients with HbA1c ≥ 7.0% at baseline occurred in the PoC
testing group (51 versus 32, p=0.01), particularly when HbA1c ≥ 8.0%. Additionally, a
statistically significant reduction was reported in HbA1c in the PoC testing group (8.4% to
8.1%, p=0.04), whilst no reduction was reported in the routine care group (8.1% to 8.0%,
p=0.31) (7). Overall no statistically significant changes in HbA1c between groups were
reported, however, the trial was not powered to determine a statistically significant difference
in routine care provided over the 4 month trial duration (7).
The multi-centre, cluster RCT evaluated the safety and clinical effectiveness of HbA1c PoC
testing in Australian general practice (15). The main clinical outcomes of the PoC test trial
findings in relation to HbA1c were:
•
The median number of HbA1c tests performed was the same across treatment
groups and the median HbA1c test result was similar between groups, though
slightly lower in the PoC testing group (15).
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
•
•
•
PoC testing was non-inferior compared to pathology laboratory testing in relation
to the proportion of diabetes patients who have shown an improvement from
baseline and are within the target range (p<0.0001). Based on the adjusted
analysis, the percentage of patients within target range was higher in the PoC
testing group (65.48%) compared to the pathology laboratory testing group
(56.18%) with a difference of 9.31%. The results of the unadjusted analysis
confirmed these findings (15).
PoC testing was non-inferior compared to pathology laboratory testing
(p<0.0001). Based on the adjusted analysis, the percentage of patients with a
reduction in their HbA1c test from baseline was higher in the PoC testing
group (57.33%) compared with the pathology laboratory group (44.91%) with a
difference of 12.42% (15).
PoC testing was non-inferior compared to pathology laboratory testing in relation
to the proportion of HbA1c tests within the target range (p<0.0001). Based on the
adjusted analysis, the percentage of HbA1c tests within the target range was
higher in the PoC testing group (64.11%) compared with the pathology laboratory
group (54.74%), with a difference of 9.36%. The results of the unadjusted
analysis confirm these findings (15).
This trial conducted an analysis of the comparison of PoC testing and pathology laboratory
test results for HbA1c and found the mean difference in results and the 95% limits of
agreement were clinically acceptable. In addition, no serious adverse events (AEs) were
attributable to PoC testing (15).
Additional data from non-randomised trials were located. Kennedy et al (2006) investigated
the impact of active versus usual monitoring of algorithmic insulin titration and PoC versus
laboratory HbA1c measurement on glycaemic control (11). 7,893 adults with type 2 diabetes
were enrolled and assigned to treatment with insulin, with either:




Usual titration (no contact between visits) using a simple algorithm with laboratory
HbA1c testing;
Usual titration with HbA1c PoC testing;
Active (weekly monitoring) titration with laboratory HbA1c testing; or
Active titration with HbA1c PoC testing.
The HbA1c PoC testing arm was associated with an increase in the proportion of patients
receiving active insulin titration achieving HbA1c<7.0% (41% for PoC testing vs 36% for
laboratory testing, p<0.0001) (11).
Cagliero et al (1999) tested the hypothesis that immediately available HbA1c results could
improve glycaemic control by changing physician or patient behaviour, or both (9). In the
PoC testing group, HbA1c decreased significantly at 6 and 12 months (-0.57±1.44,and -0.40
±1.65%, respectively), whilst HbA1c levels did not change in the laboratory testing arm (0.11±0.79, and -0.19±1.16%, respectively, NS) (9). The difference between the two groups
was statistically significant at 6 months (p=0.029) but not at study end (p=0.346).
Provide details on the expected utilisation, if the service is to be publicly funded.
Table 2 below shows the number of services for HbA1c MBS item numbers between
March 2015 and February 2016. HbA1c pathology for diagnosis testing was made available
on the MBS in November 2014. The most recent 12 months of data between March 2015
and February 2016 shows approximately 1.4 million HbA1c tests were provided. Of these the
majority of tests have been in patients with established diabetes (1.1 million services).
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
For the diagnosis of diabetes, it is expected that POC testing would be additional testing in
situations where current laboratory testing is not practical. This is based on the experience of
the introduction of laboratory HbA1c testing for the diagnosis of diabetes which has results in
additional testing rather than the replacement of other diagnostic tests such as OGTT. To
verify this assumption the number of services provided from the OGTT were compared with
the HbA1c test (MBS items 66542 and 66841). This information is shown in Table 2.
For the management of diabetes, it is estimated that PoC testing would be a combination of
new testing (5%) where current laboratory testing is not practical, and replacement of
laboratory testing (5%).
Table 2 Expected utilisation
MBS item description
OGTT for the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus
Quantitation of HbA1c (glycated haemoglobin)
performed for the diagnosis of diabetes in
asymptomatic patients at high risk. (Item is subject
to rule 25)
Quantitation of glycated haemoglobin performed in
the management of established diabetes – (Item is
subject to rule 25)
Quantitation of glycated haemoglobin performed in
the management of pre-existing diabetes where the
patient is pregnant – including a service in item
66551 (if performed) – (Item is subject to rule 25)
Total HbA1c services
MBS item
number
Uptake of HbA1c PoC testing
in the first year
66542
Total number of
services (between
March 2015 and
February 2016)
263,872
66841
230,209
23,021
66551
1, 161,359
58,068 – New testing
58,068 – Replacement testing
66554
11,353
590 – New testing
590 – Replacement testing
1,402,921
140,337
26,387
Ultimately, the level of uptake is uncertain. Uptake is expected to grow in with line with
number of patients at risk and diagnosed with diabetes. It is anticipated that uptake will be
greatest in rural and remote areas where patients are required to travel long distances for
pathology services. The level of uptake would likely be affected by the implementation of the
service when it is funded.
As noted by PASC, due to ‘episode coning’ which limits the payment of pathology services
within a patient episode, it is difficult to determine the total number of HbA1c tests that were
performed based on MBS data. HbA1c tests that are not paid for by Medicare due to episode
coning are not captured in MBS data. The Sponsor notes this coning effect and will attempt
to account for this in the economic and budget impact models within the SBA based on
available data.
4. Intervention – proposed medical service
Provide a description of the proposed medical service.
The proposed medical service is for the use of an in vitro diagnostic test instrument that
meets defined accepted performance criteria equivalent to laboratory based testing being
performed at or near the site of patient care (eg within GP consulting rooms) for the
quantification of HbA1c in human whole blood.
If the service is for investigative purposes, describe the technical specification of the health
technology and any reference or “evidentiary” standard that has been established.
Generally accepted performance criteria for an HbA1c PoC test system are (16):
•
a total coefficient of variation (CV) <3.0%; and
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
•
a National Glycohemoglobin Standardization Program (NGSP) manufacturer
certification.
The CV specification ensures that the instrument or system provides reproducible results.
NGSP certification is a widely recognised international certification program for both
laboratory-based and point of care HbA1c assays. .
The aim of the NGSP program is to standardise HbA1c test results to those of the Diabetes
Control and Complications Trial (DCCT) and United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study
(UKPDS) which established the direct relationships between HbA1c levels and outcome
risks in patients with diabetes.
For NGSP certification, a particular assay (laboratory or point of care) is compared against a
reference method in an independent laboratory. Test specimens must be distributed over the
clinically meaningful range of concentrations and the assay must meet the internationally
accepted specification for agreement with the reference method in order to obtain
certification. Certification is valid for 1 year.
The analytical performance of NGSP certified laboratory assays and point of care assays
with external proficiency samples (QAP samples) is comparable. The bias compared to the
mean result, and %CV of laboratory assays is comparable to those of point of care assays.
NGSP certification indicates appropriate analytical accuracy across the range of clinically
relevant HbA1c values, including the diagnostic cut-off of 48 mmol/mol (6.5%), compared to
a globally accepted standard and allows comparison of results between different test
methodologies.
HbA1c tests are Class 2 in vitro diagnostics and must be included on the ARTG by the TGA
before being supplied in Australia. All PoC instruments undergo mandatory technical review
by the TGA which assesses the test’s analytical performance and suitability for use at the
PoC.
The proposed medical services have analytical performance which meet quality
specifications for both trueness and imprecision, and their performance is comparable to that
of laboratories.
Indicate whether the service includes a registered trademark with characteristics that
distinguish it from any other similar health technology.
The service will be available for all appropriate PoC tests that meet the performance criteria
described above, irrespective of registered trademark.
Below are examples of ARTG listed PoC test devices that meet the proposed performance
criteria:


Afinion Test System:
o ARTG identifier 204479: Instrument/analyser IVD
o ARTG identifier 204476: Clinical chemistry substrate IVDs
cobas b 101system
o ARTG identifier 202785: Instrument/analyser IVD
ARTG identifier 201876: Clinical chemistry substrate IVDs
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
Indicate the proposed setting in which the proposed medical service will be delivered and
include detail for each of the following as relevant: inpatient private hospital, inpatient public
hospital, outpatient clinic, emergency department, consulting rooms, day surgery centre,
residential aged care facility, patient’s home, laboratory. Where the proposed medical
service will be provided in more than one setting, describe the rationale related to each.
The proposed medical service will be delivered at the point of patient care, primarily within
health care professionals consulting rooms.
Describe how the service is delivered in the clinical setting. This could include details such
as frequency of use (per year), duration of use, limitations or restrictions on the medical
service or provider, referral arrangements, professional experience required (e.g.:
qualifications, training, accreditation etc.), healthcare resources, access issues (e.g.:
demographics, facilities, equipment, location etc.).
The details of the PoC HbA1c testing depend on the test instrument or system that is used,
with a number of appropriate instruments available in Australia.
Typically, a lancet is used to perform a fingerstick and a small (1 – 10 µl) sample of whole
blood is obtained. The whole blood is added to a disposable test cartridge or device which
contains the reagents required for the analysis. The test cartridge is inserted into an analyser
which provides the HbA1c test result in 3 – 10 min. Most systems require minimal
maintenance (if any) and calibration is typically via bar code or chip inserted into the device.
In terms of frequency of use and duration of use, the proposed medical service would reflect
current MBS reimbursement criteria (MBS items 66841, 66551 and 66554):
•
•
•
Diagnosis of diabetes: a limit of HbA1c diagnostic test once in a 12 month period
for the diagnosis of diabetes in asymptomatic patients at high risk.
Management in established diabetes: not more than four times in a 12 month
period.
Management in pre-existing diabetes (pregnant patients): not more than six times
in a 12 month period.
PoC testing is proposed to be an alternative to laboratory testing where appropriate and that
current limits on frequency of HbA1c testing would continue to apply whether the test is
performed in a laboratory or at the point of care e.g. HbA1c testing for management in
established diabetes would be limited to not more than four times (laboratory and/or PoC) in
a 12 month period.
For clarity, testing outside the direct supervision of a medical or nurse practitioner, such as in
pharmacy or other settings, is outside the scope of this application. Per PASC
recommendations, the MBS item descriptor will be implicit in stating that the test result
interpretation will be conducted by the treating medical or nurse practitioner.
The HbA1c PoC test can be performed in a non-laboratory clinical setting by appropriately
trained device operators that may include registered nurses, nurse practitioners, general
practitioners or practice staff who meet a required competency level to perform PoC testing.
These device operators can perform the test and analyse the data output with the results
reported to the treating practitioner for interpretation and action (where the test is not
performed by a GP).
It is proposed that a practical framework would be used for the accreditation of sites
performing point of care testing. Requirements would include appropriate quality control
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
testing, enrolment an external proficiency program, and staff training requirements. This
point of care accreditation would be conducted as part of overall Practice Accreditation.
Healthcare resources required to utilise the proposed medical service will vary depending on
the instrument or system that is used but would typically consist of: an appropriate test
system and any associated reagents or cartridges; a small amount of space in the consulting
rooms for the instrument and equipment required for collecting fingerstick samples such
lancets, swabs, etc. Aside from the test system and reagents the costs of additional
equipment is not considered to be significant.
The use of PoC testing by health care professionals is likely to significantly improve access
to HbA1c testing for the diagnosis and ongoing management of patients with diabetes,
particularly in patients in rural and remote areas. Patients in these areas may have limited
access to pathology services due to issues of transportation and the distance to approved
pathology laboratories.
PASC agreed with the description of the proposed intervention and requested that the
following specifications be included in the Protocol:



Provider of service – The PoC testing component will be undertaken within General
Practice (registered nurses, nurse practitioners, general practitioners or practice staff
who meet a required competency level to perform PoC testing). Test results
interpretation will be conducted by the treating medical or nurse practitioner.
Proposed training – The device manufacturer, device supplier or appropriate training
organisation will provide training on use of HbA1c PoC testing devices to practice
staff.
Accreditation, quality control (QC) and quality assurance (QA) – The Sponsors of this
application are currently drafting a proposed guidance document and framework for
accreditation, QC and QA. The complete framework will be included in the
Submission Based Assessment (SBA). In brief, the framework will include
requirements for:
o Clinical governance
o Quality control (QC) procedures and external proficiency (external QA)
requirements
o Staff training and competency checks
o Incorporation of POC testing into the practice’s quality framework with a
nominated person responsible for POC testing.
5. Co-dependent information (if not a co-dependent application go to Section 6)
Please provide detail of the co-dependent nature of this service as applicable
Not applicable
6. Comparator – clinical claim for the proposed medical service
Please provide details of how the proposed service is expected to be used, for example is it
to replace or substitute a current practice; in addition to, or to augment current practice.
The proposed medical service will be a new MBS item for a PoC test conducted at or near
the site of patient care (within consulting rooms and excluding the laboratory setting) using a
PoC instrument that meets defined performance criteria for the quantification of HbA1c in
human whole blood.
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
It is proposed that the appropriate comparator for HbA1c PoC testing will be HbA1c testing
performed in a laboratory (MBS items 66841, 66551 and 66554). Currently, HbA1c tests are
predominantly performed in NATA accredited laboratories. Point of care testing has been
funded in a limited capacity under the Quality Assurance for the Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander Medical Services (QAAMS).
The current clinical pathways for diagnosis and management of diabetes are based on
recommendations in the NHMRC case detection guidelines (5) and general practice
guidelines (2).
The three new proposed MBS items will be similar to the currently listed diagnostic tests for
HbA1c currently used to diagnose diabetes in asymptomatic patients at high risk (see
MBS item 66841) and to monitor the effectiveness of diabetes treatment and long-term blood
glucose in people with established diabetes (see MBS items 66551 and 66554 in pregnant
patients).
For the proposed medical service, practitioners would perform the test under the same
circumstances as they would order the existing HbA1c tests.
As with current HbA1c testing arrangements the medical practitioner may request alternative
tests such as fasting blood glucose (FBG) or OGTT if they are clinically indicated.
PASC agreed with the comparator being HbA1c test as analysed in an accredited pathology
laboratory. PASC also agreed that provision of HbA1c PoC testing via QAAMS is not an
appropriate comparator.
PASC agreed that the reference standard is the HbA1c test analysed in an accredited
pathology laboratory at the diagnostic cut-off of 48 mmol/mol (6.5%).
7. Expected health outcomes relating to the medical service
Identify the expected patient-relevant health outcomes if the service is recommended for
public funding, including primary effectiveness (improvement in function, relief of pain) and
secondary effectiveness (length of hospital stays, time to return to daily activities).
Improvements in therapeutic control, even slight, can prevent or delay the onset of diabetesrelated complications, including kidney failure, heart disease and diabetic retinopathy,
lowering associated healthcare costs and resource use.
Immediate availability of HbA1c results at the time of consultation can increase the
frequency of intensification of therapy (7), lowers HbA1c levels in type 2 diabetes (8;14),
positively impact on medication adherence (10) and assist in the better management of
chronic conditions (7-14). The avoidance of diabetes-related diseases and complications
leads to both an increase in quality and quantity of life for patients, and a consequent
reduction in the healthcare burden associated with diabetes-related death, disability and
decline in quality of life when compared to no intervention.
The RCT performed in Australian general practice (15) reported the following patientrelevant health outcomes:

GP visits: The number of GP visits per person-year in the diabetes sub-analyses
were similar between both treatment groups. The total number of tests per personyear for HbA1c in Phase ll was slightly higher for the HbA1c PoC test group (1.8)
compared to the pathology laboratory group (1.5) (15).
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes



Process of care actions: Across both treatment groups, a total of 3014 (55.03%)
HbA1c tests were within target range and 2463 (44.96%) tests were outside the
target range (15).
o For HbA1c test results within the target range:
 the most common process of care actions for patients with diabetes, which
were not part of the diabetes annual cycle of care, were review of the results
(94.01%), a GP consultation (91.10%) and a review of all medications
(59.32%).
 the least common action was change or cessation of medication (8.31%).
 when viewed by treatment group, the proportion of actions in all areas was
greater in the HbA1c PoC test group than in the pathology laboratory group.
More tests in the HbA1c PoC test group were associated with a GP
consultation (94.48%) compared with the pathology laboratory group (83.39%)
as well as review of all medications (61.22%) and other actions (45.62%).
o For HbA1c tests outside the target range:
 the most common actions were similar to those reported for the tests within
range being review of test results (93.61%), GP consultation (85.06%) and
review of all medications (61.18%)
 when comparing treatment groups the HbA1c PoC test group had a larger
proportion of actions in terms of GP consultations (90.83% versus 78.56%),
review of all medications (64.18% versus 57.81%) and other actions (42.49%
versus 27.94%). However, the pathology laboratory group reported a slightly
higher proportion of changes in medication (19.73% versus 17.01%).
o In terms of impact on processes of care:
 More GPs changed or ceased diabetes medication if the test was outside the
target range (18.3%) than within range (8.3%).
 More GP consultations were noted (90.1%) within range than outside the
range (85.1%). This was an interesting finding, as it would be expected that
those patients outside the range would require additional GP follow-up visits.
 Larger number of follow-up HbA1c test for those outside the range than within
range (20.2% v 15.0%). Interestingly, GPs in the pathology laboratory group
were more likely to order an HbA1c follow-up test than the HbA1c PoC test
group GPs despite having access to a PoC testing device.
Medication compliance: Based on all Trial participants, using the adjusted analysis,
the percentage of MARS-5 questionnaire responses indicating compliance with
disease management (use of medicines), was higher in the HbA1c PoC test group
(39.27%) compared to the pathology laboratory group (36.98%), with a difference of
2.29% and a 90% confidence interval for the difference of (-0.06, 4.64) (10;15). The
lower limit of the 90% confidence interval is greater than the non-inferiority limit of 3.70%, indicating PoC testing is non-inferior to pathology laboratory testing in relation
to the proportion of MARS-5 questionnaire responses indicating compliance with
disease management (p<0.0001) (10;15). The results of the unadjusted analysis
confirm these findings. Over 50% of diabetes patients reported forgetting to take their
medicines with approximately 10-15% of both treatment groups altering the dose,
missing out a dose or stopping taking them for a while (10;15).
Patient satisfaction: No subgroup analysis for diabetes patients was provided.
However, the Trial findings overall found strong statistical evidence that PoC testing
patients on average were more satisfied than patients in the pathology laboratory
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Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
group in regards to the PoC testing process, the convenience of not travelling to an
outside laboratory and to disease management (12;15).
PASC advised that the proposed outcomes should include the following:




Analytical performance (% coefficient of variation, trueness, imprecision);
Clinical performance (diagnostic accuracy, sensitivity, specificity in proposed setting
(GP));
Clinical effectiveness (safety and effectiveness);
Health resources (number of HbA1c tests, total tests per year, number of GP
consultations, and other healthcare resource use).
These are included in Table 5 and Table 6, which summarise the PICO for the diagnosis and
management of diabetes, respectively.
Describe any potential risks to the patient.
A 2014 study found that four HbA1c PoC test systems met generally accepted performance
criteria (16). This is supported by other studies reporting that PoC testing met the desired
goals for imprecision (9-12), although the study of Schwartz et al (17) showed the mean
HbA1c result of the PoC testing device to be significantly higher compared to the laboratory.
The RCT performed in Australian general practice (15) conducted in 2006 reported weighted
estimates of the number of serious adverse events (SAEs), the number and percentage of
patients experiencing one or more SAE and the number of SAEs per 10,000 person-years
were calculated both overall and by treatment group. Descriptive analysis of Trial incidents
was also undertaken. Issues of under-reporting were noted where reports were made direct
by Trial staff or patients/carers using the appropriate SAE form.
Of patients with diabetes, there were 372 SAEs, with the most common being inpatient
hospitalisations (64.54%), followed by other important medical events (17.55%) (15). A
higher percentage of SAEs within the pathology laboratory group were inpatient
hospitalisations (80.59%) compared with the HbA1c PoC test group (53.765) (15). The
HbA1c PoC test group had a higher percentage of events classified as ‘other important
medical events, compared to the pathology laboratory group (25.19% vs 6.18%) (15). Table
3 presents the type of SAE for the diabetes treatment group (weighted estimates).
Table 3 Type of SAE for the diabetes treatment group (weighted estimates)
Type of SAE
Laboratory test
Death
Inpatient hospitalisation or
prolongation of existing
hospitalisation
Life threatening
Newly diagnosed cancer
Other important medical
event
Permanent or significant
disability or incapacity
Total
N
10
Treatment group
HbA1c PoC
test
%
N
6.50
26
Total
%
11.59
N
36
%
9.55
120
80.59
120
53.76
240
64.54
0
10
0.0
6.73
11
3
5.01
1.56
11
14
3.00
3.63
9
6.18
56
25.19
65
17.55
0
0.0
6
2.89
6
1.73
149
100.00
222
100.00
372
100.00
12
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
Reference: Australian Government PoCT report (2009)
Specify the type of economic evaluation.
A cost-effectiveness/ cost-utility analysis will be conducted to extrapolate costs associated
with patients who receive the proposed medical service (HbA1c PoC testing) and those who
receive the comparator (HbA1c testing via pathology lab), and associated gains in patient
outcomes ie responder (controlled diabetes) and QALYs. This analysis is based on the
following clinical claim: HbA1c PoC testing is non-inferior (same or better) in terms of clinical
effectiveness and clinical utility for the diagnosis and management of patients with diabetes
when compared with pathology laboratory testing. In areas with limited access to pathology
laboratory services HbA1c testing is likely to be superior. HbA1c PoC testing is non-inferior
and comparable in terms of diagnostic performance, clinical validity and analytical
performance compared to pathology laboratory testing.
8. Fee for the proposed medical service
Explain the type of funding proposed for this service.
Public funding via the MBS is proposed for this service. It is proposed that the medical
service will be listed as an additional medical service similar to the existing
MBS items 66551, 66554 and 66841 (the quantification of HbA1c in established diabetes,
management of pre-existing diabetes where the patient is pregnant, and the diagnosis of
diabetes in asymptomatic patients at high risk respectively) with specific reference to
conducting the test at the point of patient care.
Please indicate the direct cost of any equipment or resources that are used with the service
relevant to this application, as appropriate.
Direct costs associated with the proposed medical service consist of:
•
•
Instrument and reagent costs
Training, accreditation and quality requirements
These costs will depend on the instrument that is used and the quality framework that is
adopted.
To enable PoC tests to be accessible to patients, costs associated with accreditation, quality
assurance and training need to be at an appropriate level to remove barriers to access.
Different cost models will be included in the economic evaluation.
An indication of the costs of the medical service (including the device, consumables (test
cartridge) and operating costs are included in Table 4 per PASC advice. The items described
in this table are adapted from those presented in the Australian Government PoCT GP trial
report (2009).
13
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
Table 4 Costs of the medical service
Item
Establishment and annual costs
Cost per year
Cost per test
(based on 260 tests per
practice per year) a
Source/ Comments
Sponsor. Based on a range of upfront
device costs between $2,000 to $8,000
over 5 years
Sponsor. Based on $600 in the first year,
$200 per year thereafter, over 5 years.
Sponsor estimate based on proposed
accreditation framework
Cost of enrolment in POC QAP program.
Calculations
Device
$1,000
$3.85
Training
$280
$1.08
Accreditation
$350
$1.35
$420
$2,050
$1.62
$7.88
QA/QC consumables
$430
$1.65
QA/QC Device Operator time
$130
$0.50
Subtotal
$560
$2.15
Sponsor market estimate of QC material.
QA material is included in QA program.
Based on 20 tests per year at $6.53 / test
(15)
Calculations
Subtotal
$2,860
$1,698.80
$4,557.80
$11.00
$6.53
$17.53
Sponsor market estimate
Based on PoCT GP Trial (15)
Calculations
Total
$7,167.80
$27.57
Calculations
QA program
Subtotal
Monthly costs
Per test costs
Consumables
Device Operator time
Notes: a Cost per test is based on practices using the device 260 times per year (ie assuming practices operate 5 days per week and use the
POC test device once per day).
Provide details of the proposed fee.
The proposed fee is to be determined based on the direct costs of performing delivering the
service and the value provided by the service through improved diagnosis and management
of diabetes.
In a pivotal clinical trial of the effectiveness and safety of HbA1c PoC testing, the estimated
MBS item fee was AUD$91.42, which included an operating margin as well as the full cost of
the analyser, all training, accreditation, and maintenance requirements (15). It should be
noted that this fee is high as it was only based on the number of times the HbA1c PoC test
was used over the 18 month trial period, ie 73 times (approximately $18 per test). This cost
was based on the within trial analysis, and is a significant overestimate of the cost if the PoC
test was made available on the MBS.
An indication of the proposed MBS item fee is included per PASC advice. This is
approximately $27 per test, and is based on an approximate of the total cost of the testing
over 12 months (ie $7,168) and on an assumption of 260 tests conducted per practice per
year. The items included in this total cost are based on those described in the PoCT GP trial,
as listed in Table 4.Table 4
The Sponsors remains open to further discussions with PASC and MSAC regarding a
suitable fee.
14
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
9. Clinical Management Algorithm - clinical place for the proposed intervention
Provide a clinical management algorithm (e.g.: flowchart) explaining the current approach
(see (6) Comparator section) to management and any downstream services (aftercare) of
the eligible population/s in the absence of public funding for the service proposed preferably
with reference to existing clinical practice guidelines.
Provide a clinical management algorithm (e.g.: flowchart) explaining the expected
management and any downstream services (aftercare) of the eligible population/s if public
funding is recommended for the service proposed.
Practitioners would perform the proposed medical service under the same circumstances as
they would order the existing HbA1c tests and hence the clinical management algorithm will
remain the same as current practice.
Figure 1Figure 1 presents the diagnostic algorithm using HbA1c testing for diabetes. Patients
who are referred for an HbA1c test (either via laboratory or PoC device) may present to the
GP with known issues related to diabetes, or may present to the GP for unrelated issues.
15
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
Figure 1 Diagnostic algorithm using HbA1c testing (laboratory or point of care) for diabetes
Note: a Whilst the confirmatory HbA1c test is recommended in the NHMRC practice guidelines (Colagiuri et al, 2009), this is not routinely
performed in practice and confirmatory testing is not MBS funded.
16
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
Figure 2 presents the algorithm for the management and review (cycle of care) of patients
with diabetes using HbA1c (either laboratory or PoC).
Figure 2 Management algorithm using HbA1c testing (laboratory or point of care) for patients with diabetes
Note: This figure is adapted from the NHMRC practice guidelines (Colagiuri et al, 2009)
10. Regulatory Information
Please provide details of the regulatory status. Noting that regulatory listing must be finalised
before MSAC consideration.
There are several HbA1c PoC tests available in Australia that meet the defined acceptable
performance criteria comparable to laboratory based testing as described in Section 4.
In Australia, HbA1c tests are Class 2 in vitro diagnostics and must be included on the ARTG
by the TGA before being supplied in Australia. All PoC instruments undergo mandatory
technical review by the TGA which assesses the test’s analytical performance and suitability
for use at the point of care.
Below are examples of ARTG listed PoC test devices that meet the proposed performance
specifications:


Afinion Test System:
o ARTG identifier 204479: Instrument/analyser IVD
o ARTG identifier 204476: Clinical chemistry substrate IVDs
cobas b 101system
17
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
o
o
ARTG identifier 202785: Instrument/analyser IVD
ARTG identifier 201876: Clinical chemistry substrate IVDs
11. Decision analytic
Provide a summary of the PICO as well as the health care resource of the comparison/s that
will be assessed, define the research questions and inform the analysis of evidence for
consideration by MSAC (as outlined in Table 5 Error! Reference source not found.).
Table 5Error! Reference source not found. and Table 6 provide a summary of the PICO
criteria for the proposed medical service. Patients are reflective of the criteria currently
funded for HbA1c testing for the diagnosis and management of diabetes (MBS items 66551,
66554, 66841). Intervention options include usual practice laboratory testing or PoC
HbA1c testing with a system of appropriate analytical performance. Patient outcomes reflect
the pivotal trial evidence described in Section 7.
Table 5 Summary of PICO to define research question for the diagnosis of diabetes
PICO
Is HbA1c POC testing for the diagnosis of diabetes in at risk patients safe and effective, and cost-effective compared to
HbA1c analysed in a pathology laboratory?
Patients
Patients who are judged to be at risk, either through a score of ≥12 on the AUSDRISK assessment tool,
or are in one of the following population groups with a known higher risk:
• people with impaired glucose tolerance or impaired fasting glucose;
• women with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus;
• women with a history of polycystic ovary syndrome;
• people presenting with a history of cardiovascular disease event (i.e. myocardial infarction,
stroke); and
• people on antipsychotic medication.
Intervention
HbA1c point of care test analysed in clinical PoC setting
Comparator
HbA1c testing analysed in an accredited laboratory
Outcomes
Claim of non-inferiority based on PASC advice
• Safety (adverse events of test procedure).
• Diagnostic accuracy, sensitivity, specificity in proposed setting (GP).
• % coefficient of variation, trueness, imprecision.
• Clinical effectiveness:

Test adherence

Diagnosis of diabetes

Health outcomes: patient-relevant health outcomes including retinopathy, limb amputation,
ischaemic heart disease, stroke), patient satisfaction, acceptability and convenience, quality
of life).

Impact of false negative- side effects of taking medication unnecessarily, captured in health
outcomes

Impact of false positive- unnecessary treatment, side-affects from treatment, unnecessary
visits to GP and specialists
• Health care resources: number of HbA1c tests, total tests per year, number of GP consultations,
other healthcare resource use
18
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
Table 6 Summary of PICO to define research question for the management of diabetes
PICO
Is HbA1c POC testing for the monitoring of diabetes control in established diabetes patients safe and effective, and costeffective compared to HbA1c analysed in a pathology laboratory?
Patients
Patients with established diabetes.
Intervention
HbA1c point of care test analysed in clinical PoC setting
Comparator
HbA1c testing analysed in an accredited laboratory
Outcomes
Claim of non-inferiority based on PASC advice
• Safety (adverse events of test procedure).
• % coefficient of variation, trueness, imprecision.
• Clinical effectiveness:

Test adherence.

Intermediate outcomes (test adherence, change in patient management including changes
in intensification of therapy if above range; frequency of intensification of therapy at
baseline; amount of change in dosage of oral agents only, oral agents plus insulin, insulin
only), time from testing to intervention or treatment change; medication adherence; HbA1c
levels at follow-up (% within range, mean HbA1c), hospitalisations (any major
complications)).

Health outcomes: patient-relevant health outcomes including retinopathy, limb amputation,
ischaemic heart disease, stroke), patient satisfaction, acceptability and convenience, quality
of life).

Impact of false negative- side effects of taking medication unnecessarily, captured in health
outcomes

Impact of false positive- unnecessary treatment, side-affects from treatment, unnecessary
visits to GP and specialists
• Health care resources: number of HbA1c tests, total tests per year, number of GP consultations,
other healthcare resource use
19
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
12. Healthcare resources
Using Table 7, provide a list of the health care resources whose utilisation is likely to be impacted should the proposed intervention be made
available as requested whether the utilisation of the resource will be impacted due to differences in outcomes or due to availability of the
proposed intervention itself.
Table 7 List of resources to be considered in the economic analysis
Provider of
resource
Setting in which
resource is
provided
Proportion of
patients
receiving
resource
Number of units of
resource per
relevant time
horizon per patient
receiving resource
Disaggregated unit cost
MBS
Safety nets*
Other
government
budget
Private
health
insurer
Patient
Total
cost
Resources provided to deliver proposed intervention (HbA1c PoC test)
Initial GP consultation.
(Treatment initiated if POC test
indicates diabetes)
GP
Outpatient
1
37.05
37.05
HbA1c test
GP
Outpatient
1
Approx. $27
Approx.
$27
GP
Outpatient
1
37.05
37.05
Patient episode initiation feeb
Pathology
Laboratory
1
6.00
6.00
HbA1c test
Pathology
Laboratory
1
16.80
16.80
GP
Outpatient
1
37.05
37.05
Resources provided to deliver comparator
Initial GP consultationa
GP consultation for results and
initiation of treatment if
appropriate.
Notes: aFor diagnosis only. bPatient episode initiation item (from Group 10 of the pathology services table) Fees range from $2.40 to $17.60. For the purpose of this protocol a fee of $6.00 is used.
20
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
13. Questions for public funding
Please list questions relating to the safety, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the
service / intervention relevant to this application, for example:



Which health / medical professionals provide the service
Are there training and qualification requirements
Are there accreditation requirements



Will this service meet an unmet clinical need?
What will be the primary health benefits to patients?
What will be the key benefits to the health sector?
PASC noted that consultation feedback was received from one GP practice manager, one
specialist, one QAAMS program manager, one organisation from the IVD industry, three
peak bodies and one medical student. Overall positive feedback was received regarding:







Greater accessibility (particularly in regional/rural areas);
Decreased GP visits;
Decreased loss of patients to follow-up;
Increased patient convenience;
Education and management;
Increased health outcomes; and
Improved quality of life.
Uncertainties were noted regarding:





Increase in practice time;
Increase in patient costs;
Changed model of care;
Requirement for other pathology tests; and
Potential duplicate testing.
21
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
Reference List
(1) Diabetes Australia. Diabetes in Australia: Facts. 2015(29 September 2015)
(2) RACGP. General practice management of type 2 diabetes 2014-15.
(3) Australian Bureau of Statistics. Australian Health Survey: Biomedical Results for Chronic
Diseases, 2011-12. 2013 Jan 1.
(4) Valentine N, Alhawassi T, Roberts G, Vora P, Stranks S, Doogue M. Detecting undiagnosed
diabetes using glycated haemoglobin: an automated screening test in hospitalised patients.
MJA 2011 Feb 21;194(4):160-4.
(5) Colagiuri, Davies D, Girgis S, Colagiuri R. National Evidence Based Guideline for Case
Detection and Diagnosis of Type 2 Diabetes. Canberra; 2009.
(6) Shephard M. Point-of-care testing comes of age in Australia. Australian Prescriber 2010 Jan
2;33(1):6-9.
(7) Miller CD, Barnes CS, Phillips LS, Ziemer DC, Gallina DL, Cook CB, et al. Rapid A1c availability
improves clinical decision-making in an urban primary care clinic. Diabetes Care 2003;26(4).
(8) Bubner T, O Laurence C, Gialamas A, Yelland L, Ryan P, Willson K, et al. Effectiveness of
point-of-care testing for therapeutic control of chronic conditions: results from the PoCT in
General Practice Trial. MJA 2009 Jan 6;190(11):624-6.
(9) Cagliero E, Levina E, Nathan DM. Immediate Feedback of HbA1c Levels Improves Glycaemic
Control in Typr 1 and Insulin-Treated Type 2 Diabetic Patients. Diabetes Care 1999 Jan
11;22(11):1785-9.
(10) Gialamas A, Yelland L, Ryan P, Willson K, O Laurence C, Bubner T, et al. Does point-of-care
testing lead to the same or better adherence to medication? A randomised controlled trial:
the PoCT in General Practice Trial. MJA 2009 Feb 2;191(9):487-91.
(11) Kennedy L, Herman W, Tideman P, Harris A, for the GOAL A1c Team. Impact of Active Versus
Usual Algorithmic Titration of Basal Insulin and Point-of-Care Versus Laboratory
Measurement of HbA1c on Glycaemic Control in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes
Care 2006 Jan 1;29(1):1-8.
(12) O Laurence C, Gialamas A, Bubner T, Yelland L, Willson K, Ryan P, et al. Patient satisfaction
with point-of-care testing in general practice. British Journal of General Practice 2010 Jan
3;DOI: 10.3399/bjgp10X483508:e98-e104.
(13) Thaler L, Ziemer DC, Gallina DL, Cook CB, Dunbar V, Phillips L, et al. Diabetes in Urban
African-Americans. XVII. Availability of Rapid HbA1c Measurements Enhances Clinical
Decision-Making. Diabetes Care 1999 Jan 9;22(9):1415-21.
22
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
(14) Khunti K, Stone MA, Burden AC, Turner D, Raymond NT, Burden M, et al. Randomised
controlled trial of near-patient testing for glycated haemoglobin in people with type 2
diabetes mellitus. The British journal of general practice : the journal of the Royal College of
General Practitioners 2006;56(528).
(15) Australian Government. Point of care testing in general practice trial: Final Report. Canberra;
2009.
(16) Lenters-Westra E, Slingerland RJ. Three of 7 hemoglobin A1c point-of-care instruments do
not meet generally accepted analytical performance criteria. Clinical chemistry 2014;60(8).
(17) Schwartz KL, Monsur JC, Bartoces MG, West PA, Neale AV. Correlation of same-visit HbA1c
test with laboratory-based measurements: a MetroNet study. BMC family practice 2005;6.
23
Final Protocol 1431 – HbA1c PoC testing in diabetes
Appendix 1
Australian Government Point of Care Trial in General Practice (2009)
Conclusion in relation to clinical effectiveness of point of care testing in general practice for
diabetes (Section 9.6).
24