Download Villa Giulia：The Caprice of Pope Julius Ⅲ

Villa Giulia：The Caprice of Pope Julius Ⅲ
ヴィラ・ジュリアをめぐる諸問題
―建築プログラムにみる教皇ユリウス三世のカプリッチ―
Noriko Kotani
In his Vite, Vasari reports how the construction of
and his individual style within the building is
Villa Giulia in Lazio, Rome from 1551 had been
complicated indeed. My argument will follow the
overseen by different architects and how profoundly
generally accepted notion that the Villa Giulia was
its patron, Pope Julius Ⅲ, was involved in the
designed predominantly by Vignola, Ammanati and
process(1). Moreover, the death of the pope before the
Vasari with some advice from Michelangelo, and it
completion of the construction and the involvement of
will not attempt to challenge this attribution. Rather,
three architects―Giacomo da Vignola, Giorgio
the primary aim of this paper will be to situate Villa
Vasari, and Bartlomeo Ammanati―have left modern
Giulia within the social, cultural and political
scholars with the difficult task of sorting out the
circumstances at the mid-sixteenth-century Rome.
convoluted building history of the Villa Giulia. In
With patronage as a point of departure, I will pursue
order to attribute the design of Villa Giulia to a
the social background of Villa Giulia, the relationship
particular architect or several architects, one should
between the patron and his architects, and the gap
consider and differentiate between the construction
that exists between theory and practice in the
under Pius IV and the restorations under Clement
mid-sixteenth-century architecture.
XIV，Pius VI，and even the latest restoration in
Focussing on the classical language of Villa Giulia’s
1909-1911. Given such circumstances，to situate the
architecture, my paper will begin with a formal
Villa Giulia in the current of architectural history or
analysis of the villa as it stands today, including the
to demonstrate a certain architect’s contribution to
courtyard and the Nymphaeum. I will then proceed to
（1）Giorgio Vasari，Le Vite de più Eccellenti Pittori Scultori ed
Architettori, Gaetano Milanesi，ed．Firenze，1906，p.694,
“ io stato il primo che disegnasse e facesse tutta
l’invenzione della vigna Julia，che egli fece fare con spesa
incredibile; la quale，se bene fu poi da altri eseguita，io fui
nondimeno quegli che misi sempre in desegno i capricci
del papa，che poi si diedero a rivedere e correggere a
Michelangnolo: e Iacopo Barozzi da Vignola finì con molti
suoi disegni le stanze，sale ed altri molti ornamenti di
quel luogo; ma la fonte bassa fu d’ ordine mio e dell’
Ammannato, che poi vi restò，e fece la loggia che è sopra
la fonte. Ma in quell’opera non si poteva
mostrare quello che altri sapesse，nè far alcuna
cosa pel verso; perocchè venivano di mano a quel papa
nuovi capricci, i quail bisognava metter in esecuzione,
secondo che ordinava giornalmente messer Pier Giovanni
Aliotti vescovo di Forlì．
”
discuss the functional aspects of the building, while
also considering issues of patronage. Existing
scholarship will be addressed here along with three of
the major aspects of the building―the significance of
Acqua Vergine, museological experience, and
references to the teatro
(2).
Finally, I will attempt to
(2) In this paper, I use the Italian term “teatro” instead of the
English word “theater.” The former can be taken to refer to
the large, semicircular Roman theatrical buildings as
understood in the Renaissance. It encompasses a sense of
the larger spectacle, including the stage and the theatrical
setting.
1
clarify the difference between theory and practice as
columns in the middle part of the façade, four
exemplified by Villa Giulia, and bringing forth
rusticated Doric engaged columns on the ground floor
different aspects of the architectural situation in the
and four Ionic ones on the upper level, emphasize the
mid-sixteenth-century Rome.
movement towards the center. Moreover, the main
Several elements help clarify the overall structure
entrance to the building is framed with rusticated
of the Villa Giulia. First，the notion of“triumph”is
columns and it is slightly projected forward, so that
crucial to an understanding of the building, as the
the center of the upper level has a balcony above
architecture exhibits a reference to the triumphal
it.The Casino is consistent in style throughout, and it
arch. Another useful way to understand the structure
seems to be the work of a single architect. In the faç-
of Villa Giulia is as a string of three parallel
ade, the horizontal elements seem to have received
semicircles, which was highly praised by John
the most attention. The entablature and the bottom
Coolidge(3). It is also significant to note that one can
parts of the windows create a strong sense of
perceive a strong sense of directionality and axial
horizontality. The windows are situated symmetrically,
alignment throughout the villa.
but are different in the two levels: those of the lower
Villa Giulia is a complex divided into four parts: the
level have triangular pediments broken up in the
Casino, the main courtyard, the Nymphaeum and the
center by a rusticated form; the upper ones have
walled garden beyond the Nymphaeum. The Casino,
decorative pediments and are crowned with three
which serves as the public front for the complex, is a
urns. The bottom part of the pediment here is not
massive two story structure facing northwest. It is
broken as in the lower level, but is rather supported
rectangular in the front but semicircular in the rear.
by two scrolls at both sides．It is significant that right
The frontal façade has an ABA rhythm, created by the
next to these scrolls, reliefs of similar scrolls are
arrangement of orders, windows and niches. Eight
placed, making one believe that they are shadows or
(3) John Coolidge, “The Villa Giulia,” Art Bulletin, 25, 1943, p.198.
reflections of the actual scrolls which structurally
support the windows. The treatment of the corners is
2
also intriguing, as they consist of four columns at each
center is also accentuated by a large arch flanked with
level. They give a sense of vertically to the corners and
two smaller arches on either side. The“A”part of
play the role of pilasters in the front plane and on the
B’ABAB’ in this semicircular façade is supported by
side. They also provide the massive building with a
free-standing Ionic columns, four in each part. The
sense of framing and enclosure. The three projections
repeated motifs on the edge of the rear façade form
on the roof also accentuate the ABA rhythm of the
incomplete echoes of the middle part. That is, the
building and give variation to the flat skyline of the
flanking elements have a combination of pilasters and
Casino.
arches，but contain only three Ionic pilasters, one
The rear of the Casino is a semicircular façade
large and one small arch.
which embraces the main courtyard. It has B’ABAB’
The main courtyard, Which is connected to the
rhythm, and a two story structure with a loggia on the
semicircular façade of the rear Casino, is enclosed by a
ground level. The contrast between the front façade
two story wall．The wall has a strong geometric
and the rear façade exemplifies the different functions
presence, as its upper part contains circles and
of each: one is the closed-in, rugged and almost
squares framed by plain Doric pilasters. The lower
forbidding public façade turned towards the world,
level is supported by a combination of engaged Ionic
and the other is an open, graceful and fanciful private
columns and pilasters. Here, the reverse replacement
façade facing the garden and the Nymphaeum. The
of the orders in terms of hierarchy of sophistication
upper level of the rear façade consists of windows and
creates a disturbing inconsistency. The disagreement
Composite pilasters, while the lower level is supported
of the hierarchy of orders only exists in these main
by a combination of Ionic columns and arches.
courtyard walls. They stand in three directions in
Throughout the Casino, the architect shows a
order to frame the courtyard bounded by the rear
consistent concern with the hierarchy of orders; thus
façade of the Casino. On the far wall, there are three
the more sophisticated one is placed above the more
open spaces supported by four columns which invite
robust one. In the middle part of the rear façade, four
the visitor to enter the Nymphaeum. It is yet another
Ionic pilasters divide the space into three parts, each
embedded triumphal arch that plays a significant role
containing an arch, so that one can see an application
for the orientation of the building. Four herms in the
of the altered triumphal arch here as well as in the
upper level and four balls crowning the top of the
central part of the frontal facade. The emphasis on the
structure accentuate the embedded triumphal arch in
3
what Richard J. Tuttle called a “ museological
the middle wall.
The second loggia leads into the second courtyard
experience.”(5) Presumably, elements such as hidden
dominated by the Nymphaeum. The floor level
entrances to the passage ways, secret spiral stairs to
changes at this section, as two lower stories of the
the upper loggia and the private garden beyond the
Nymphaeum are sunken below the ground level. Two
loggia produce dramatic surprises which contribute to
curving staircases from the projected triumphal arch,
the attraction of the Nymphaeum. This effect of the
situated in the rear wall of the main courtyard, lead
museum-like placing of ancient objects in niches is
the visitor to the middle floor of the second courtyard.
explicitly discussed by David R. Coffin in his book on
The Nymphaeum is semicircular in plan and consists
Roman Renaissance villas. He notes that, while the
of three floors. One side of this courtyard has a high
single axis through the villa conveys to the visitor a
wall with two loggias in it, making it three stories
clear sense of directed experience, by the time he or
high. In short, this courtyard can be described as a
she encounters the Nymphaeum, actual accessibility
sunken court with a terraced garden. In the middle of
has diverged from the visual experience, causing
the terrace, there is a large semicircular opening
many “surprises” and “temporary frustrations” which
framed by a balustrade where six Caryatids stand in
impel him or her to explore every detail of the complex(6).
the lower level. Four of them support a small
Beyond a small courtyard, there is a rectangular
semicircular section projected from the diameter of
walled garden. One can catch a glimpse of the hidden
the larger semicircle. The second floor of the
garden through the loggia of the Nymphaeum.
Nymphaeum is supported by Doric pilasters with
The particular fascination about Villa Giulia is the
three foil-like decorations, and contains a gateway
fact it illustrates the artistic development of Vignola
similar to a triumphal arch. In the upper level, the
Vasari and Ammannati, Who were rather
triumphal arch motif is adopted in a more obvious
inexperienced at the time when they worked on this
manner, but the columns here are Ionic and agree
project. Their creative spirit is visible throughout the
with the hierarchical rule applied in the Casino.
building with the use of orders and embedded
Numerous empty niches on the wall recall the rich
triumphal arch motifs. The marvelous frescoes by
display of ancient statuary when the building was
（4）Rodolfo Lanciani, Storia degli Scavi di Roma, 3, Rome, 1990,
P.29.
（5）Richard J. Tuttle，
“Vignola e Villa Giulia，
”Casabella，646，
1997，p.52．
（6）David R.Coffin，The Villa in the Life of Renaissance Rome，
Princeton，1979，p.156.
first built, most of which were moved to Belvedere
during the pontificate of Pius IV (1559-1565)(4).
To a certain extent, the Nymphaeum thus displays
4
Vigna(8) was purchased by Julius Ⅲ ’s uncle and
brother, Cardinal Antonio del Monte and Balduino(9).
Before his accession, pope Julius Ⅲ inherited the
vigna in 1533 and shortly after his accession, Vasari
Taddeo
Zuccaro
also
reinforce
the
triumphal
proceeded to commit the pope’s first idea and caprices
iconography of the villa with narratives such as
for Villa Giulia to paper(10). According to Vasari, his
Triumph of Vulcan and Janus, Triumph of Flora,
own design underwent the revision and criticism from
Triumph of Apollo and Ceres, and Triumph of Bacchus
Michelangelo. Because Julius Ⅲ had known him
and Ariadne. The painted decorations complete the
while he was legate in Bologna, Vignola was hired as
harmonious ensemble with the triumphal arches and
a supervisor for the construction(11). He had some
Acqua Vergine, demonstrating the power and the
experience with hydraulic problems. Given such
artistic taste of the villa patron.
information, the importance of Acqua Vergine to Villa
In the history of Rome, Acqua Vergine has played a
Giulia is almost undeniable, even though Pope Julius
crucial role as a symbol of political and cultural
Ⅲ had just inherited the vigna before ascending to
legitimacy. It was the water first brought into Rome
the papal throne. Although originally intended to be
by Marcus Agrippa in 19 B.C.E. and since the reign of
a papal guest house, the project to build the complex
Augustus, it has supplied the city. Acqua Vergine was
involved a collaboration of major artists, including
an almost iconic presence, symbolizing history,
Michelangelo. Especially because it incorporated
tradition and legitimacy of the political elite from the
Acqua Vergine, Villa Giulia manifested a clear desire
ancient
for confirmation and demonstration of political power
Roman
Empire.
Unlike
most
Roman
aqueducts, the AcquaVergine entered the city from the
on part of julius Ⅲ and del Monte family.
north(7).Villa Giulia is located east of the Via Flaminia,
（8）Since John Coolidge and most of the scholars distinguish
between“villa，
”the building complex proper and“vigna,”
the entire property including all land and minor building
as well as the villa, I shall follow this terminology.
（9）David R.Coffin，The Villa in the Life of Renaissance Rome,
Princeton, 1979, p.151.
(10) John Coolidge, “The Villa Giulia，
”Art Bulletin，25, 1943,
p.211.
(11) Giorgio Vasari，Le Vite de più Eccellenti Pittori Scultori
ed Architettori, Gaetano Milanesi, ed. Firenze, 1906,
pp.106-107.
about a half mile north of the Porta del Popolo, by the
Acqua Vergine.
The importance of this aqueduct for the Villa comes
from the events proceeding its construction. In 1519, a
(7) John Pinto, “The Trevi Fountain and its Place in the Urban
Development of Rome,” Annals of the Architectural
Association School of Architecture, 8, 1985, p.9.
5
remarkable
Giulia was through the museological experience of the
changes during the execution. The nature of this
sculptural collection, conspicuously placed in the
transformation is suggested by three clues: the
Nymphaeum. Politically speaking, this idea was
archaeological discovery of two kiosks(12), which were
based on a desire to demonstrate power through
hidden on the wall of the top story of the
possession.
Nymphaeum; the “White plan”(13), which was recently
undoubtedly played a part as well, but if one considers
discussed by Richard J. Tuttle; and sixteenth century
how deeply Villa Giulia was associated with Julius
medals(14), which depict different versions of the Villa
Ⅲ’s life, a demonstration of political power can be
Giulia. Most scholars agree that changes were caused
understood to be the most important driving force
by either the caprice of Julius Ⅲ
behind its construction. In addition, a sense of the
However,
the
project
underwent
or by the
An
appreciation
of
arrangement of Vasari who introduced Ammannati to
Kunstkammer
the pope. Presumably, along with the structural
museological aspect of Villa Giulia.
changes,
the
villa
was
also
transformed
was
made
ancient
manifest
in
art
the
to
Another interpretation relating to the villa is
communicate humanistic ideas. In contrast to the
suggested by John Coolidge―the idea of the teatro(15).
earlier interest primarily in the symbolism of the
Coolidge points out Ammannati’s description of the
Acqua Vergine, the pope later tended to emphasize
main court as a stage-set, and emphasizes the fact
more humanist themes, such as museological or
that Pope Julius Ⅲ was an enthusiastic patron of
teatro experiences.
drama. The first theatrical performances of the
Without a doubt, Vasari and Ammannati submitted
Renaissance took place in the courtyards of palaces(16),
the new proposal to the pope, who enthusiastically
and the idea of building a structure for theatrical
gave the two charge of the new Nymphaeum project.
performances appears quite early in the Renaissance
However, Vasari left for Florence in 1553, so that most
architecture. Coolidge refers to the examples of the
of the project was done by Ammannati. That he cared
theater designed in connection with Villa Madama,
extremely about the recognition of his artistic identity
the theater at Ferraro built in 1528, and Palladio’s
is proclaimed by the inscription on the pilaster
Teatro Olimpico of 1582. Moreover, he points out the
overlooking the Nymphaeum: “ BARTHOLOMEO.
fact that Vignola designed a great theater for the
AMANNATO. ARCHITETTO. FIORENTINO.”
courtyard of the Farnese palace at Piacenza. All these
As said earlier, the new meaning added to the Villa
buildings were motivated by the idea of recreating the
(12）John Coolidge，
“The Villa Giulia，
”Art Bulletin，25，1943，
pp.186-187.
(13) Richard J. Tuttle，
“Vignola e Villa Giulia，
”Casabella，646，
1997，
p.52，
“White plan”
（152×122cm，
executed with stylus，
brown ink and brown wash）is a hitherto unknown ground
plan of the Villa Giulia which was published by Gorham
Phillips Stevens，Director of the School of Fine Arts at the
American Academy in Rome，in Journal of the American
Institute of Architects in 1914. Stevens confidently
identified the plan as an early general scheme for the villa
by Vignola．The original sheet was owned by Lawrence
Grant White.
(14）Frances Land Moore，“A Contribution to the Study of the
Villa Giulia，
”Romiches Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte，
12，
1969，pp.180-184.
ancient theater according to Vituvius’s descriptions.
6
Perhaps this idea of teatro is the most humanist type
of interpretation of the Villa Giulia, indeed reflecting
sixteenth-century architectural theory.
When these three ideas―aqueduct, museum, and
teatro―are all taken into account, the student of the
Villa Giulia is faced with a truly difficult task of
(15)John Coolidge，
“The Villa Giulia，
”Art Bulletin, 25，1943，
pp. 215-218.
(16)John Coolidge，“The Villa Giulia，”Art Bulletin, 25，1943，
p. 215.
understanding one complex so loaded with a variety of
sixteenth century(18). Generally, the solution of
meanings.
these
structural problems had to be left to masons and
interpretations account for some of the formal
carpenters. For example, Bramante, in spite of some
inconsistencies in the villa, for perhaps each architect
thirty years in the practice of architecture, never
had his own preferred theory and pride in his
gained much competence in technical matters, and
particular skills. The mid-sixteenth century was a
after his death Antonio di Sangallo was kept busy
time of “ rugged individualism ” in architectural
patching up his errors(19). While this does not imply
practice, as Ackerman has clearly described(17). Villa
that the Villa Glulia is the work of masons and
Giulia is a perfect example to examine the
carpenters, one should not over-emphasize the
relationship between an architect and his patron. It is
important role played by artists such as Vasari and
very similar to the famous case of the competition
Michelangelo in the context of the real architectural
between Antonio Sangallo and Michelangelo for the
situation of the mid-sixteenth century. Maestro di
cornice of Farnese Palace, even though Sangallo had
remote control(20), a term used by Wolfgang Lotz for
been in charge of the entire palace. This earlier clash
Galeazzo Alessi，can equally be adopted to figures
is quite notorious, but here one should realize that the
such as Michelangelo and Vasari who worked on the
patron, Pope Paul Ⅲ, promoted such a conflict and
Villa Giulia.
The
intricate
interaction
of
even enjoyed the competition between the architects
Richard J. Tuttle concludes his article by stating
in order to obtain the much-debated masterpiece. The
that the stylistic contrast in the Villa Giulia－i.e．
situation is almost the same in the Villa Giulia.
Vignola’s plan and elevation versus Ammannati’s
Although conflicts between the architects are not
revised project of the sunken courtyard－is what
recorded, there must have been a certain amount of
makes the work enthralling and memorable for the
tension when the pope approved the new proposal of
visitors．He continues:
Ammannati in 1552, and when the construction had
Ammannati’s contributions，openly antagonistic
to go through a major structural change. Even the
towards Vignola’s in both plan and elevation，were
departure of Vasari before the completion of the
accepted by Julius, who apparently enjoyed retaining
building leads us to believe that the conflict between
the contrasts．As such，the building offers a didactic
the architects or the conflict between theory and
demonstration of an on-going（and unresolved）battle
practice in a broader sense, occurred during the
between Michelangelisti and Sangalisti. Vignola’s
execution.
rationality，sobriety，and equilibrium，ultimately
Equipped with a knowledge of perspective and
derived from the High Renaissance design principles
mathematics and an acquaintance with the Roman
of Bramante，Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and
Ruins, an artist could become an architect in the
Peruzzi，were pitted against Ammannati’s restless
(17)According to James Ackerman ， Italian Renaissance
architecture can be divided into three different stages in
terms of practice and profession.“Rugged individualism” is
his description for the second period, which is from 1500 to
1546. If one can classify the building according to this
chronological division，Villa Giulia does not belong to this
period of“Rugged individualism”，however，details of
patronage and experimental designs suggest elements of it.
(18) Catherine Wilkinson, The New Professionalism in the
Renaissance，
”Kostof，Spiro, ed. The Architect, New York
1977, p. 135.
(19) James S. Ackerman，
“Architectural Practice in the Italian
Renaissance，
”Distance Points，Cambridge，1991，P. 363.
(20) Wolfgang Lotz，
“Introduzione ai lavori del Convegno，
”in
Galeazzo Alessi e l’architettura del cinquecento, Genova,
1975, p.10.
7
p.170. ]
(23) M．Mercati，Instruttione sopra la peste，Rome，1576，
115,and G. Mercuriale ，Medicina Practica ， Frankfort,
1601,465. [cited by David R. Coffin, The Villa in the Life of
Renaissance Rome, Princeton, 1979, p.170.
inventiveness and impulsive celebration of materials
based on the example of Michelangelo(21).
Here the inconsistency of the building is rather
celebrated and appreciated as adding contrasts and
his
capricious
personality.
Accordingly,
the
variety to the structure. However, Tuttle neglects to
significance of the work can be best understood from
consider the significance of Acqua Vergine in his
the point of view of patronage. It signifies the triumph
conclusion, though he had mentioned it earlier. We
of Julius Ⅲ’s political power and it may also contain a
should recall that Vignola was appointed as a
hope of triumph over his malady. Repeated use of the
supervisor, as he had some experience in hydraulic
embedded triumphal arch motif throughout the
construction and Acqua Vergine was the initial trigger
complex is not only a reference to the ancient Roman
for the whole project. In mid March 1555, Pope Julius
architecture but is, along with the Acqua Vergine, an
Ⅲ, suffering a severe attack of gout, went again to his
explicit reference to legitimate power. Therefore, while
villa where he died in the early afternoon of March 23,
previous scholars have emphasized such aspects of
1555(22). He certainly enjoyed the pleasure of the
the Villa Giuila such as teatro (Coolidge) or museum
countryside in Villa Giulia until the last moment of
(Tuttle), they tend to downplay or completely overlook
his life, but his frequent visits to the villa may have
the important symbolic significance of the Acqua
been caused by also his malady. He constantly
Vergine. A closer examination of the history and
suffered from gout both in his hands and feet. The
context of this aqueduct in relation to the villa, as well
best known cure for gout at that time was the water
as the social context of patronage, are certain to
cure in which water, preferably with alum or iron or
contribute to a more nuanced understanding of this
salt, was used to bathe the inflamed limbs; and
complex structure.
Girolama Mercuriale, one of the leading physicians
of the period, recommended that those of warm
humor bothered by gout should choose the water of
the Acqua Vergine(23). It is therefore quite intriguing to
point out that the Acqua Vergine was not only a
symbol of the pope’s political power，but also an actual
prescription believed to be able to cure his
health-related problem.
Villa Giulia was executed during Julius Ⅲ’s
pontificate. It is not an exaggeration to say that it
manifests in stone the pope’s political character and
(21）Richard J.Tuttle，
“Vignola e Villa Giulia，
”Casabella，
646, 1997, p.68.
(22）BAV，Ms Urb．Lat．1038，fol．47r．[cited by David R.Coffin，
The Villa in the Life of Renaissance Rome，Princeton，1979，
8