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LEGAL REDRESS FOR LOSSES SUSTAINED THROUGH BUILDING COLLAPSE IN NIGERIA
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Buildings are structures, which serve as shelters for man, his properties and activities. They must
be properly planned, designed and erected to obtain desired satisfaction from the environment. A
house has been said severally to be important to man and is the third in his hierarchy of needs,
that is, after food and clothing (Windapo 2006) as it plays a major role in the development of any
nation. Today, the incidences of Structural Failure have become major issues of concern in
development of the nation as the frequencies of their occurrence and the magnitude of the losses
both in terms of lives and properties are becoming alarming.
The need for legal redress for losses sustained through building collapse in Nigeria, precisely
Lagos as study area. According to Windapo (2006) “frequent types of buildings that collapse are
residential buildings which are either on two, three or four floors.” According to Dada (2002)
“Structural Failure has become recurring decimal, a worrisome menace nightmare and an
enduring embarrassment”. The horrifying scene of structural failure is no longer news – breaker
this time around. Really, incidents of collapsed buildings, collapsed bridges or collapsed
structures of various types are not peculiar to Nigeria alone. But the current situation is becoming
more rampant and embarrassing, most especially as it relates to Lagos State.
Structural failure is the inability of a building to carry out its structural duties. This may be in
form of loosening, twisting, buckling, cracking, distortion or shearing of structural members or
elements of a building. For instance, last year, along international Airport Road in Ajao Estate a
building that was still undergoing construction collapsed and killed seven people. The factors to
be observed in building construction include durability, adequate stability to prevent its failure or
discomfort to the users, resistance to weather, fire outbreak and other forms of accidents. The
styles of building construction are constantly changing with introduction of new materials and
techniques of construction.
Consequently, the work involved in the design and construction stages of buildings are largely
that of selecting materials, components and structures that will meet the expected building
1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES.
The aim of this research is to examine the role of professionals and legal redress in losses sustained
through building collapse, and factors responsible for effects of building collapse in Lagos State, and
as well aim to recommending remedies to cases of collapse structures.
The Objectives of the study are to:
i. identify common types of building collapse in Lagos State Nigeria;
ii. Investigate into major causes, factors responsible for and the possible effect of building collapse in
Lagos State
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iii. The role of Government and professionals in losses for sustained through building collapse in
Nigeria
iv. Recommend ways of reducing building collapse in Lagos State. Also to make it as a law for
builder, developer, and others construction companies. Starting with a model of a perfect ‘rule of
law’ system.
1.2
JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
Factors affecting building collapse in Lagos have been a major concern in Nigeria as it threats human
lives and properties in the state because of the high rate of building collapse at close intervals (e.g. the
collapse of the bank of the industries, Broad Street Lagos on the 23rd March 2006 & the block of five
flats at no 50 Bola Street Ebute-metta Lagos on the 18th July 2006) and rate of building construction
with substandard materials kept increasing. People erect buildings without considering some factors
and codes which are necessary to be put into place before embarking on any development and these
calls for a reason to emphasize on the legal action to put an end to those disasters.
One of the reasons for this study is to intimate the government by given them power to enforce
law and safe guard the lives and properties of the citizenry that lives in housing general and life
of the buildings by ensuring strict enforcement of housing and safety policies. It is also meant to
enlighten developers on the needs for them to involve professionals in construction in order to
avoid structural failure and collapse of buildings.
1.3
LAGOS STATE AS A STUDY AREA
Lagos lies on latitude 6.270N and longitude 3.280E. Its metropolitan district occupies the Lagos
Island and part of the mainland. It is a small state with a population of over 9 million (National
Population Commission, 2007) on a land area of 3,577sqkm making it the sixth populous in the
world and the second largest city in Nigeria and one of the most populous cities in Africa. Being
the industrial as well as commercial centre of the country the city has a high population density
and abundant economic opportunities, which in turn has lead to over utilization of available
utilities and resources.
The increasing rate of urbanisation has resulted in pressure on land use and it has also resulted to
the development of many high rise buildings examples of which include NET building, 1004
buildings at Ikoyi in Lagos, and so on.
1.4
LEGAL REDRESS:
Structures of inequality affect both the creation of justice sector institutions and the context
within which they operate; they are embedded in the rules, practice and norms that perpetuate
these institutions. Legal and regulatory institutions, in turn, affect the distribution of
opportunities and the processes by which these opportunities can be leveraged to enhance wellbeing. Within an idealized ‘rule of law’ system, equitable legal and regulatory institutions
operate under the building regulatory as safeguards against abuses of state and non-state power
while well-functioning regulatory frameworks are crucial for the effective delivery of public
services.
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A ‘rule of law’ system is generally characterized by multiple arms of government - the executive,
Legislature and judiciary - with each branch holding the others accountable through differing
‘checks and balances’. The separation of powers principle aims to combat the dangers of
investing state power in one person or group. The judicial branch, in particular, exists to protect
citizens against the arbitrary or inequitable use of political or economic power. Further,
predictable and fair ‘rules of the game’ and secure legal rights are seen as the basis for an
effectively functioning society. Arguably, the raison d’être of these institutions is to further the
common good by exercising power based on a sound balance between collective and individual
interests.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
INTRODUCTION
Building collapse is a familiar occurrence, even to the layman on the street in Nigeria. When part
or whole body of the structure has failed and suddenly gave way, the building, as a result of this
failure, could not meet the purpose for which it was intended, the building is said to have
collapsed. The occurrences of building collapse in the country nowadays, especially in the last
five years have reached a very disgraceful and embarrassing level, which are certainly
unacceptable. It is as a result of structural failure of the building and according to Windapo
(2006), Structural failure is the loss of sustaining capacity or stability of a structure,
characterized by a considerable increase in strain without a proportional increase in load.
Building collapse may result into a rupture or an essential component of the structure, which
increases more rapidly than the increase in imposed load. Building collapse occurs when a
building falls down or fall in suddenly, often breaking apart. On a heavy rainy day, may for
instance, cause one or two uncompleted buildings, somewhere to cave in, the scores of passers
taking cover from the rain under these buildings would fall victim. The lucky ones would be
maim for life while the unfortunate ones would die on the spot or later in hospital.
2.2
BUILDING FAILURE
Failure is an unacceptable difference between expected and observed performance. A failure can
be considered as occurring in a component when that component can no longer be relied upon to
fulfil its principal functions. Limited deflection in a floor which causes a certain amount of
cracking/distortion in partitions could reasonably be considered as defect but not a failure,
whereas excessive deflection resulting in serious damage to partitions, ceilings and floor finishes
could be classed as a failure (Roddis, 1993). Those who investigate and report on failures of
engineered facilities are in a good position to identify trends leading to structural safety problems
and to suggest topics for critical research to militate against this trend (Chapman, 2000).
2.3
CAUSES OF BUILDING COLLAPSE
A structure is said to have failed when it reaches limit state. That is the state when it becomes
unsuitable for its intended use (Mosley and Bungey, 1990). This could be as a result of excessive
deflection, cracking, or other circumstances, which will make it unsuitable. Salau (1996) has
attributed building failures to the four basic stages of building life (i.e. planning design,
construction and services). Sobotie (1996) added, natural causes to the list. This may however,
be described as circumstantial failure since it include causes like vehicular impact and fire
incidents, which are not natural. In Lagos State Nigeria, building failures have been attributed to
the following causes: design faults (50%), faults on construction site (40%) and product failure
(10%) (Oyewande, 1992). Hall (1984) ascribed faulty design, faulty execution of work and use
of faulty materials as major causes of structural failures.
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2.3.1 Planning
The planning stage involves considering several design option while bearing in mind the
function, which the structure will serve with a view to adopting the most cost effective option.
2.3.2 Design stage
Bad design does not mean only errors of computation, but a failure to take into account
the loads the structure will be called upon to carry, erroneous theories, reliance on inaccurate
data, ignorance of the effects of repeated or impulsive stresses, and improper choice of materials
or misunderstanding of their properties. The engineer is responsible for these failures, which are
created at the drawing board.
Structural design is concerned with transmitting the various forms of load, which a
structure will likely be subjected to, during its working life to the foundation. If this objective is
achieved, adequate foundation, three factors need to be considered. Foundation failures will be
further considered, Bockley (1980), has classified failure due to design as follows:
2.3.3 Construction stage
Faulty construction has been the most important cause of structural failure. The engineer
is also at fault here, if inspection has been lax. This includes the use of salty sand to make
concrete, the substitution of inferior steel for that specified, bad riveting or even improper
tightening torque of nuts, excessive use of the drift pin to make holes line up, bad welds, and
other practices well known to the construction worker.
2.3.4 Service stage
At the service stage, it ought to be ensured that the structure is not used for such a
purpose that will lead to the imposition of load beyond the provision in design. This has been the
cause of certain failures. This was the cause of the failure of a building at Idunshagbe street in
Lagos Island in 1987 (Salau, 1996). Blockley (1980), also, recognised this as a source of failure
and described it as abuse of structure.
An aspect widely neglected at the service stage is maintenance. Usage of structures
results to certain deterioration like plumbing, electrical and sewage system, which require
periodic attention. Apart from these, there are other agencies, which cause deterioration and,
consequently buildings require to be given the necessary attention to avoid eventual failure. Such
agencies are:
2.4
DISASTERS
The major cause of collapse in the world scene is the occurrence of disasters. There are two
classes of disasters. These classes are Natural and Man-made disasters.
1. Natural Disasters: Building could collapse as a result of natural disaster-heavy rainfall,
volcanic eruption etc. failure could still occur after all concerned the client the consultants,
contractors and others, must have taken all precautions (Faworaja, 2004). No building is
design to withstand natural disaster such as earthquake, floods, thunder storm, seepage,
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hurricane, scour, extremes temperature, biological and chemical effect; one or
combination of these forced either manifest in foundation or structural failure, settlement
due to the compressibility of the soil could leads to collapse of building.
2. Man-made Disasters: They are those disasters caused by the action of Humans. They
include: wars, bomb explosions, plane crashes, vehicular accidents, mining activities, and
gas or chemical explosions. When these disasters occur, the effect is like that of natural
disasters except that buildings may not be buried into the ground, but they may be totally
grounded.
2.5 LEGAL REDRESS BY: CHAIRMAN OF LAGOS STATE CHAPTER OF THE NIGERIAN
INSTITUTE OF BUILDING (NIOB), MR. KUNLE AWOBODU
Lagos — Just on Sunday, June 28, Lagosians woke up with yet another incidence of building
collapse that led to the death of more than 12 people with many others sustaining varying
degrees of injuries.
This time it was a two-storey building that was formerly a warehouse but converted to residential
building and situated in Iddo in Ebute-Meta, Lagos Mainland Local Government Area. The over
40-year old building located at Iddo terminal compound of the Nigerian Railway Corporation,
was reduced to rubble after a downpour that started on Saturday night and lasted till Sunday
morning.
Chairman of Lagos State chapter of The Nigerian Institute of Building (NIOB), Mr. Kunle
Awobodu, attributed the collapse to the presence of salt on the concrete work which had left it
brittle while the iron rods had all rusted.
These, according to him, were the evidence of salinity that had remained a problem in the area
due to its closeness to the lagoon, adding that salt corrodes materials. Lagos State Government
on Monday laid the blame at the doorstep of the Federal Government. Lagos Commissioner for
Physical, Urban Planning and Development, Mr. Francisco Abosede alerted that there are still
more of such weak structured buildings whose bomb is waiting to explode in the near future. He
predicted that unless the Federal Government allows state to carry out its duty, there may be
other collapses involving Federal Government owned buildings in parts of the state.
"I want to call on the Federal Government to allow us carry out our duty on its properties in the
state to avert future occurrences. It's the fault of the Federal Government. They did not allow us
enforce the law to monitor the property. There are many of such properties of the Federal
Government in Lagos State," he was quoted as saying.
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According to him; 'If the Federal Government had allowed us to enforce the law, we would have
carried out an integrity test on the building and we would have discovered its status and pulled it
down before this incident'.
The question that is begging for answers is whether Lagos State Government has concluded
routine tests on all other buildings in the state except FG buildings. This is because sometimes
ago, Abosede announced that his Ministry had identified distressed buildings in Lagos Island
Local Government Area where 617 buildings have been recommended for renovation, 346
recommended for test and 13 recommended for removal. He continued that in Ajeromi-Ifelodun
Local Government Area, 320 buildings have been recommended for renovation, 233
recommended for test and 103 recommended for removal while in Somolu and Kosofe, 214
houses have been recommended for renovation and 77 recommended for removal.
The prayer of everyone is that the state government takes immediate action in ensuring that those
houses for renovation really undergo the necessary renovations and most importantly that those
earmarked for total removal are done away with in the interest of society. It is also hoped that in
the case of those houses marked for demolition, occupiers have been evacuated and not sitting
akimbo in ignorance until the unexpected happens.
Good enough, the Lagos State Government revealed its intention to create a Building Control
Authority in its bid to eradicate incidence of building collapse and regulate quality of buildings
erected in the state. According to Abosede the bill for the establishment of the authority was
before the State House of Assembly even as he added that it would partner with such bodies as
the Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) to vet the kind of building materials to be used.
During that time, state government had set up a technical committee for the state-owned Material
Testing Laboratory charged with the responsibility of uniform tests on buildings and civil
engineering materials in line with the Standard Organisation of Nigeria (SON) policy; issue
certificate for tests carried out as well as perform analysis on samples submitted.
Many people are blaming officials of the state government for the unfortunate loss of lives and
injuries sustained resulting from building collapses in the state for inefficiency and apparent
bending of the rules to satisfy their personal motives
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2.5.1 REDRESS FROM FEDERAL GOVERMENT FOR LOSSES SUSTAINED
THROUGH BUILDING COLLAPSE IN NIGERIA
1. Council for Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria COREN, the Nigeria Institute of
Builders
NIOBS, the Nigerian Institute of Architects NIA, the Planning Authorities etc. and the
Government should jointly work together.
2. Demolition exercise should be carried out on the buildings that had gone beyond repairs
and where possible, they should rehabilitate the ones that need rehabilitation.
3. Quackery and non-professionals should be faced out by professional bodies, Federal,
state and local govt. agencies.
4. Mass housing units should be provided by the government and parastatals so as to assist
the less privileged.
5. More funds, vehicles, personnel, updated maps and the security of monitoring and
enforcement staff should be ensured.
6. The general public should be as well sensitised on the issue and incessant increase of
building collapse and to avoid staying in a dilapidated structures.
7. Clients and the general public should as well be sensitised to construct their buildings to
standard, consult professionals and avoid substandard materials for the construction of
their abodes to avoid collapse building.
2.6
POOR IMPLEMENTAION OF HOUSING POLICIES
Ineffective implementation of the building regulation and planning control have not achieved the
desired technical, social and economic result, all the building professionals and controlling
agencies are waiting to have a collapse before implementation of controls (Yusuf, 2003).
Apart from the effect of developmental control functions of some government agencies as felt in
very few houses, most houses in our urban and rural areas were built without approved plans or
the actual construction has actually deviated away from the approved plan. While buildings in
developed countries retain their structural stability for many centuries, this is not the case for
many buildings in Nigeria that show signs of failure within decades of their construction.
Proper implementation and enforcement of housing policies will require that only plans that are
certified to be structurally stable be approved. It will also require that inspections be carried out
to see to it that deviations from what was approved are not made, but that approved plans are
followed to the details. Proper enforcement of housing policies still goes further to regulate the
condition of buildings in the society. Inspections are carried out to note the condition of the
already existing structures on regular basis. Recommendations that expose structures that are on
the way to failure are made.
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2.8 UNPROFFESSIONAL CONDUCT
This is the national cankerworm of the ‘egunje syndrome’ which has permeated the total
national fabric and involves improper demands made on contractors’ payments by the CR’s
merely to certify quality test results (even when they satisfy specifications), payment certificates,
additional works obtain payments, etc. Such unprofessional conduct inevitably force increases in
the cost of contractors’ production which he must recover, somehow, to stay in business.
2.9 EFFECTS OF BUILDING COLLAPSE IN LAGOS STATE
Failure is an unacceptable difference between expected and observed performance. A failure can
be considered as occurring in a component when that component can no longer be relied upon to
fulfil its principal functions.
(1) ABRUPT LOSS OF LIVES AND PROPERTY: when a building suddenly caves in is
no doubt very serious because it is always accompanied to unpreventable loss of innocent
lives and their properties as well e.g. the last occurrence of building collapse in Ojerinde
Lagos State accounted for 9 losses of lives and property running into millions of Naira
was destroyed.
(2) CASUALTY: The bitter lamentations at the scene were quite touching and thoughtprovoking but these have been the tradition for years now because there has been n
record of a building that collapse in Lagos state that has not resulted to serious injuries.
Other effects of building collapse are; Homelessness and, insecurity to affected persons,
theft at scenes
2.10 SUPERVISION/INSPECTION
(ENFORCEMENT
ON
SITE)
though supervision can only be carried out by the Builder whiles the architect or engineer
engage in the inspection of the work. Supervision involves the intricate knowledge of
workmanship and materials while inspection is only to ensure adherence to contract
documents especially the drawings. According to ADEBAYO Aqua group stipulates that
the object of supervision is primarily to ensure that employers requirements as
expressed in the contract documents are correctly interpreted and the problems which are
bound to arise are satisfactorily resolve. Averting building collapse depends largely on
effective supervision of work..
2.11
PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINST BUILDING COLLAPSE
These are measures taken to avoid the development of failure in any residential building
structure. These measures will help make residential building structures continue to remain in
their structurally stable state; the following measure will have to be taken:
1. Underground Moisture Management
2. Protection Against Biological Attacks
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3. Regular Maintenance
2.12.1 REGULAR MAINTENANCE
The universe is dynamic and so is everything in it including our earth and the things in it. Some
sets of universal laws are the guiding principles that will not allow the dynamism of the universe
to get out of hand. Some natural laws keep our ever-dynamic earth not to digress from its orbit.
An example of such law is the gravitational pull. Apart from that the earth regenerates and
recycles its components as a natural means of maintaining itself.
2.12.2 REMEDIES TO BUILDING COLLAPSE
When a building has already shown a feature or some features of structural failure, what remedy
can be offered to correct such anomalies? Any measure taken to redeem such situation is termed
corrective measures or remedies to structural failure. These measures will be discussed below
under 3 different headings:
1. The Role of Federal Government
2. The Role of Building Regulatory Authority
3. Remedies to Cracks.
4. Remedies to Foundation Settlement
2.12.3 THE ROLE OF BUILDING REGULARTORY AUTHORITY
Building regulatory authorities have the role of carrying out a vocation exercise of the Structural
stability of houses in their areas of authority with a view to advising on the possible rectification
where possible, while those beyond repairs should be demolished before causing more havoc to
the society. Owners of buildings that are not structurally stable should be served notices that
would make them know the structural stability of their building and what measures to be taken
within a specified period. When such buildings are slated for demolition, arrangements should be
made without delay to evacuate all occupants and demolition should follow. Monitoring of the
situation of residential buildings should be carried out regularly and punishments or fines should
be meted on building owners of structures that were found wanting.
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CHARPTER THREE
3.0 OCCURRENCE OF BUILDING COLLAPSE IN LAGOS.
3.1 CASE STUDY ONE
Building Type: Bank of Industries.
Location: Broad street, Lagos.
Date of Collapse: Thursday, 23 March 2006, 12:03 GMT
Casualty: No casualty due to precautions.
Causes of Collapse: - Combination of fire out-breaks in some floors and thunder storm which is a
natural disaster. There is also a continuous leakage from a water tank placed on the buildings
which weaken the structural stability of the building materials used for the construction of the
top-most floors.
Plate 1 showing Partial collapse of the Building
Plate 3 showing Partial collapse of the Building
Plate 2 showing surrounding structures
Plate 4 showing surrounding structures
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3.2 CASE STUDY TWO
Building Type :-
A four storey building
Location:-
No. 42 Ojerinde Street, Idi-Araba. Lagos
Date of Collapse:-
25th March, 2009.
Casualty:-
9 dead, several others injured
Plate 5 showing Total collapse of a building
Plate 6 showing collapse structures
(Source: Researcher’s fieldwork)
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3.3 CASE STUDY THREE
Building Type: - Two storey building
Location: -
Fasasi Street, Ajegunle- Apapa Lagos.
Date of Collapse:-
22nd May, 2009.
Casualty:- no death recorded, residents injured and hospitalised.Causes of Collapse:-
Plate 7 showing collapse structure
Plate 9 showing low quality of its iron bars
Plate 8 showing low quality of its iron bars
Plate 10 the total collapse of the building
(Source: Researcher’s fieldwork)
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
This research has posited that various factors responsible for the incessant causes of building
collapse in Lagos state to be the use of substandard materials in the construction industry
coupled with the activities of quacks have inexorably contributed to the incidence of
building collapse.
The legal have not being properly follow and federal government are not enforcing law
on losses for sustained through building collapse. Age of most buildings in Lagos Island and
mainland coupled with the issue of lack of sub-soil investigation equipment to determine the
soil carrying capacity before erection of storey building has in no measure contributed to the
continuous incidence of building collapse in the state.
4.2 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
4.3.1 CONCLUSION
Building development in all its ramification is more than shelter. It entails processes evolve
in stages. The stages involved include; the planning, designing, costing, and execution of the
project by professional in accordance with the legal provision, bye-laws, standards and
specifications.
The urban space system is noted for its juxtaposition with urban development and activities. In
Lagos and in major urban cities in Nigeria, it is not uncommon to the find decay and dilapidation
in physical development (buildings). This trend extends not only to residential building but to
other land uses. The level of decay and dilapidation is traceable to poor planning, faulty designs,
poor implementation, ineffective monitoring and enforcement, high level of corruption and little
or corruption and little or lack of proper maintenance just to mention but a few.
The above scenario has contributed in no small measure to the continued incidence of incessant
building collapse being witnessed not only in Lagos but across the country (Abuja, Ibadan, and
Port Harcourt e.t.c). A situation where buildings are erected without the involvement of profient
professionals, and without recourse to the enabling laws, and the inability of the control
department which is empowered to control the design and construction of buildings, alteration,
repair, quality of building materials, use and occupancy and other related factors of building
within their jurisdiction, in which they are supposed to ensure functionality, compatibility,
sanitation and public health, welfare, safety and aesthetics spells doom for the built environment.
In conclusion, from the foregoing it is clear that building failure occur as a result of the
following: Lack of proper planning, Lack of proper design, and Lack of proper construction
procedures and observance of the necessary quality control measures required for construction
works. And it is only the provision of quality physical development closely monitored from
reliability and effectively from the design stage through implementation using the appropriate
proficient professional would provide good live ability, adequate safety as well as reduce the
eventual maintenance cost, dilapidation, distress and eventual collapse.
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This research has sheds more light on the types, causes, factors responsible for the causes and
remedies to structural failures. The research has shown that crack, buckling, deformation,
sagging, settlement, soft storey, deterioration, bending are all features of structural failures that
can climax into a partial or total collapse.
4.3.2 RECOMMENDATION
From this research work it is my belief that the following will significantly help policy
makers in their quest to finding lasting solutions to the menace of building collapse in
Lagos state.
1 The development control department should be made of professionals with high degree
of integrity who would place ethical standards above other considerations.
2 Builders and developers should be kept abreast of recent developments in the building
industry by attending workshops and forum also there is a need for re-certification and
re training of stakeholders in building environment.
3 Proper structural design calculations and drawings should be presented to planning
offices before approval for construction is given.
4 Planning authorities should ensure a client employs a qualified engineer for the
supervision of his project.
5 All sectors of the building and construction industry should limit themselves to their
areas of specialization to forestall occurrence of failure.
6 Qualified engineers should be employed by planning authorities to properly check
structural calculations and drawings to ensure proper design.
7 Planning authorities should insist on soil investigation where there are doubts as regards
the data used for the foundation design of a building.
8 Professional societies in the building industry should produce training programme aimed
at integrating young graduates into their various societies and sound professional
practice.
9 There should be a compensation for losses of properties and making of provision for
them
10 Creating an insurance scheme for the owners of building properties etc.
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5.0 REFERENCES
1 Aigbokhan, M. A (2004). Minimizing the collapse of Building in Lagos, Unpublished
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Amusan, J. 0. (1992) Strategies for Enhancing Local Governments Roles in Minimising
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BLIOGRAPHY
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Akintola D. (2005). The construction policy. The Environmental and
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11 Chudley, R.(1988): Building Construction Handbooks. Reed Educational and
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Ltd.,
ADEREMI ADEBAYO. E ARC-03-1889 & OYEYEMI OLUBUKOLA .F ARC-03-1954
Oxford.
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LEGAL REDRESS FOR LOSSES SUSTAINED THROUGH BUILDING COLLAPSE IN NIGERIA
ADEREMI ADEBAYO. E ARC-03-1889 & OYEYEMI OLUBUKOLA .F ARC-03-1954
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