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Shinto
Shinto is often regarded as the indigenous religion of the Japanese people. In spite of its being an ancient
tradition based upon certain prehistoric myths, with no identifiable founder, no clearly defined creed or
canonical scriptures, it nevertheless continues today to flourish in the highly modernized, technologically
advanced and sophisticated society of contemporary Japan. It is also controversial because of its ethnic
identification with the Japanese people and the manner in which it became an instrument of the state for
Japanese nationalism during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, culminating in the militarism leading
to World War II.
Prior to the introduction of Buddhism to Japan in the 6th century AD, there was no special term denoting
the web of indigenous religious practices and beliefs already in place in Japan. In order to distinguish the
indigenous tradition from Buddhism, the term “Shinto” (way of the kami) was coined. Shinto was thus
differentiated from Buddhism (butsudo, "the way of the Buddha").
Early Shinto was largely hostile to Buddhism, which was introduced to Japan from Korea. However,
during the 8th and 9th centuries Buddhism and Shinto were to achieve a remarkable rapprochement, in
which the original nature of the Shinto kami (deities) was said to be Buddha, and the kami were seen to be
the Buddha's manifestations in Japan. Shinto shrines were established within the confines of Buddhist
temples, and Buddhist chapels, in turn, were constructed on the outskirts of Shinto shrines.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as Shinto became an established instrument of the state and was
given a privileged status, other religions such as Buddhism and Christianity, and the many “new
religions”, were marginalized and in some cases severely persecuted.
Definitions of Shinto
"I define the word Shinto as the traditional indigenous religious practices of the Japanese people as well
as their worldview, based on their concept of kami."
[Naofusa Hirai]
Shinto is "the ensemble of contradictory and yet peculiarly Japanese types of religious beliefs, sentiments,
and approaches, which have been shaped and conditioned by the historical experience of the Japanese
people from the prehistoric period to the present."
[Joseph M. Kitagawa]
Kinds of Shinto
Folk Shinto is a broad category which includes within it the many practices and traditions, such as
divination and magical shamanistic rituals, associated with Japanese folk religion.
Shrine Shinto refers to the religious practices and beliefs which are centered upon the local shrines.
There are today over 80,000 shrines nationwide, most of which belong to the Association of Shinto
Shrines.
State Shinto In 1868 the Department of Shinto was established, and Shinto was officially distinguished
from Buddhism. State Shinto was said to be a non-religious, or supra-religious, cult of national morality
and patriotism, to which all Japanese, regardless of religious affiliation, must adhere. The
disestablishment of Shinto in 1945 marked the official end of State Shinto.
Imperial Household Shinto includes the special rites performed by the imperial family at the special
shrines set apart for this purpose.
Chronology on State Shinto
1868
After centuries of rule by feudal lords and shoguns, the Japanese emperor is “restored” at least
nominally to power (the Meiji Restoration).
The new Meiji government orders the separation of buddhas and kami, and thousands of Buddhist
temples are destroyed and monks defrocked.
The Department of Shinto Affairs (Jingikan) is established within the government, in an effort to
unify Shinto and the government; it is later replaced by the Bureau of Shinto (1872).
1869
The Yasukuni Shrine is established to enshrine the spirits of those who died fighting for the
emperor in various wars.
1889
The Meiji Constitution grants freedom of religion to Japanese so long as religious activities do
not interfere with fulfilling duties to the state. Increasingly, the state takes the position that
Shinto is not a religion but rather a non-sectarian ideological foundation of the state. Participation
in Shinto shrine rituals is not a religious activity but is obligatory on Japanese as loyal citizens.
1890
Imperial Rescript on Education issued, making exalted loyalty to the emperor obligatory.
1896
Interior Ministry drafts secret orders to suppress new religions, especially Tenrikyo.
1908
Ministry of Education promotes interpretation of the Imperial Rescript on Education which
depicts Japan as an organic “emperor-family state” that must be the supreme entity in the lives of
every Japanese subject.
1910
Korean peninsula is annexed by Japan and Japanese National Shinto Shrines are established in
Korea.
1931
Japan invades Manchuria.
1934
Bureau of Thought [Control] (Shiso kyoku) established within Ministry of Education.
1937
Ministry of Education issues official textbook on Shinto ideology (Kokutai no hongi).
Rape of Nanjing.
1939
Religious Organizations Law allows government to disband religious groups deemed
incompatible with the “Imperial Way”.
1941
Attack on Pearl Harbor.
1943
Soka Gakkai leaders are imprisoned for disrespect toward Ise shrines (Shinto imperial shrines).
1946
Japan adopts the new “Peace Constitution”, which guarantees freedom of religious expression
and the separation of state and religion. State Shinto is abolished, although non-formal (and
sometimes formal) links between Shinto shrines and practices and the imperial family and state
events continue to be controversial into the 21st century.
Kami (deities)
“Speaking in general, however, it may be said that kami signifies, in the first place, the deities of heaven
and earth that appear in the ancient records and also the spirits of the shrines where they are worshipped.
It is hardly necessary to say that it includes human beings. It also includes such objects as birds, beasts,
trees, plants, seas, mountains and so forth. In ancient usage, anything whatsoever which was outside the
ordinary, which possessed superior power or which was awe-inspiring was called kami.”
[Motoori Norinaga]
The 20th century Shinto scholar Sokyo Ono states that included within the concept of kami are the
qualities of growth and fertility; natural phenomena, such as wind, thunder, the sun, mountains, trees;
some animals; ancestral spirits; the imperial family; spirits of noble families; guardian spirits of certain
occupations and skills; and spirits of people who have demonstrated exemplary bravery or courage, or
who have made great contributions to society.
The kami are considered to be directly involved in the affairs of the living; they are the source of
blessings and prosperity.
Humankind
The picture of humankind found in Shinto is largely optimistic. The fundamental assumption underlying
Shinto's views on humankind is the idea that "human beings are children of the kami".
Ono states, “Man is a child of the kami, he is also inherently good. Yet there is no clear line of distinction
between himself and the kami. In one sense men are kami, in another they will become kami. Man owes
his life, which is sacred, to the kami and to his ancestors. He is loved and protected by them.”
"Evil" in Shinto is thought of in terms of pollution (kegare) and impurity, and has traditionally included
things which are regarded as abnormal, unclean, or unpleasant to the kami -- death, sickness, parturition,
menstruation, abnormal sexual activity, etc. The tendency in Shinto was to regard tsumi (sin) or ashi
(evil) as something caused by external factors.
Humankind is basically pure and good; it is contact with what is impure (blood, sickness, death), the
action of evil spirits, or failure to cultivate the inherent goodness within which results in disharmony and
requires ritual purification. Integral to proper observance of ceremonial purification rites is a general
attitude of reverence and worship of the kami. All of one's daily activities are to be performed in a spirit
of worship, as a service (matsuri) to the kami. More tangible expressions of worship are seen in the
offering of food to the kami (shinsen), offering of special sacred prayers by the priest (norito), or
participation in sacred feasts with the kami (naorai).