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Salters Advanced Chemistry Data Sheets 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 363 M ▲ ? Data Sheets Contents Table Data ▲ 1 Fundamental constants and other useful constants 2 Standard temperature 3 Units of pressure 4 SI prefixes 5 Definition of billion 6 Use of parts per million (ppm) 7 The Periodic Table 8 Physical and thermochemical data for the first 36 elements 9 Standard enthalpy changes of atomisation for some elements 10 Electronegativity values for some elements on the Pauling scale 11 Ionic radii for some gaseous ions 12 First ionisation enthalpies for the first 36 elements 13 Electron affinities 14 Standard enthalpies of hydration of some positive ions (cations) 15 Lattice enthalpies for some ionic compounds 16 Standard molar enthalpy changes of formation of some inorganic compounds and ions 17 Solubility products 18 Ka and pKa values for some weak acids 19 Organic compounds: physical and thermochemical data 20 Bond lengths and bond enthalpies 21 Standard electrode potentials 22 Characteristic i.r. absorptions in organic molecules 23 Chemical shifts for some types of protons (1H) in n.m.r. spectra 24 The electromagnetic spectrum Introduction These Data Sheets contain some basic information that you will use throughout the Salters Advanced Chemistry course. For more detailed information you will need to consult a data book such as The Elements by John Emsley (Oxford, third edition, 1998) or S I Chemical Data by Gordon Aylward and Tristan Findlay (Wiley, fourth edition, 1999). The information in these Data Sheets is taken from these books, from where primary references can be found, and from Inorganic Energetics by W E Dasent (Cambridge, second edition, 1982) and the Salters Advanced Chemistry course. „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions 363 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 365 DATA SHEETS: TABLES 1 – 6 M Table 1: Fundamental constants Quantity ▲ ▲ ? Symbol Value Unit 8 speed of light in a vacuum c 3.00 ¥ 10 m s–1 Planck constant h 6.63 ¥ 10–34 J Hz–1 23 Avogadro constant L 6.02 ¥ 10 mol–1 gas constant R 8.31 J K–1 mol–1 Other useful constants ▲ Symbol Value Unit molar volume of an ideal gas at s.t.p. (273 K and 1 atmosphere) Vm 22.4 dm3 mol–1 specific heating capacity of water cp 4.17 J g–1 K–1 Table 2: Standard temperature For thermodynamic measurements, such as enthalpy and entropy changes and standard electrode potentials, the standard temperature used is 298 K (25 °C) unless stated. For measurements of gas volumes, the standard temperature used is 273 K (0 °C). Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.) is 273 K and 101.325 kPa. Table 3: Units of pressure Pressure is measured in pascals (Pa): 1 Pa = 1 N m–2. An atmosphere (atm) is the pressure needed to push a column of mercury in a barometer to a height of 760 mm (standard atmospheric pressure): 1 atm = 101.325 kPa. Table 4: SI prefixes The following prefixes are used to indicate decimal fractions or multiples of SI units: 10–12 10–9 10–6 10–3 10–2 10–1 pico nano micro milli centi deci p n m m c d 103 106 109 1012 kilo mega giga tera k M G T Table 5: Definition of billion Throughout the course a billion refers to a thousand million: 1 billion = 1 ¥ 109. Table 6: Use of parts per million (ppm) Parts per million are frequently used to express low concentrations. It is important to know exactly what the measurements refer to. For mixtures of gases, parts per million by volume are usually used: ppm (by volume). For example, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere at the time of publication is 367 ppm (by volume). This means that in 1 million molecules of air there are 367 molecules of CO2; 367 ppm (by volume) is the same as 0.0367% (by volume). For solids and liquids, parts per million by mass are usually used. For example, the concentration of pesticide residues in a plant may be measured in ppm (by mass) of plant tissue. A pesticide concentration of 1 ppm means that 1 g of plant tissue contains 1 ¥ 10–6 g (1 mg) of pesticide. „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions 365 366 „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions Ca K (226) Ra 88 (223) Fr 87 actinium Ac 89 (227) lanthanum La 57 138.9 yttrium protactinium thorium relative atomic mass symbol Pa 91 (231) praseo– dymium Th 90 232.0 cerium Pr 59 140.9 140.1 Ce 58 dubnium Db 105 rutherfordium (262) Rf 104 tantalum hafnium (261) Ta 73 Hf 72 181.0 niobium zirconium 178.5 Nb 41 92.9 V 23 vanadium 50.9 Zr 40 91.2 Ti 22 titanium 47.9 Tc 43 (99) Mn 25 manganese 54.9 Pm 61 (147) bohrium Bh 107 (264) rhenium Re 75 186.2 uranium U 92 238.1 neptunium Np 93 (237) neodymium promethium Nd 60 144.2 seaborgium Sg 106 (266) tungsten W 74 183.9 molybdenum technetium Mo 42 95.9 Cr 24 chromium 52.0 Mt 109 Hs 108 plutonium Pu 94 (242) samarium Sm 62 150.4 americium Am 95 (243) europium Eu 63 152.0 meitnerium (268) (269) hassium iridium Ir 77 192.2 rhodium Rh 45 102.9 Co 27 cobalt 58.9 osmium Os 76 190.2 ruthenium Ru 44 101.1 Fe 26 iron 55.9 d block unununium berkelium Bk 97 (245) terbium Tb 65 158.9 f block curium Cm 96 (247) gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 (277) mercury Hg 80 200.6 cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Zn 30 zinc 65.4 californium Cf 98 (251) dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 ununbium Uuu 112Uub 111 (272) gold Au 79 197.0 silver Ag 47 107.9 Cu 29 copper 63.5 f block ununnilium Uun 110 (269) platinum Pt 78 195.1 palladium Pd 46 106.4 Ni 28 nickel 58.7 einsteinium Es 99 (254) holmium Ho 67 164.9 thallium Tl 81 204.4 indium In 49 114.8 Ga 31 gallium 69.7 Al 13 aluminium 27.0 B 5 boron 10.8 fermium Fm 100 (253) erbium Er 68 167.3 ununquadium Uuq 114 (285) lead Pb 82 207.2 tin Sn 50 118.7 Ge 32 germanium 72.6 Si 14 silicon 28.1 C 6 carbon 12.0 6 mendelevium Md 101 (256) thulium Tm 69 168.9 bismuth Bi 83 209.0 antimony Sb 51 121.8 As 33 arsenic 74.9 P 15 phosphorus 31.0 N nobelium No 102 (254) ytterbium Yb 70 173.0 ununhexium Uuh 116 (289) polonium Po 84 (210) tellurium Te 52 127.6 Se 34 selenium 79.0 S 16 sulphur 32.1 O 8 oxygen 16.0 p block 14.0 5 7 nitrogen An entry in brackets indicates the mass number of the longest-lived isotope of an element with no stable isotopes lithium Li 3 6.9 KEY Actinide elements Lanthanide elements radium barium caesium francium 137.3 Ba 56 132.9 strontium Cs 55 rubidium 88.9 87.6 Sr 38 85.5 Rb 37 Y 39 21 scandium Sc 45.0 20 calcium 19 potassium 40.1 39.1 Mg 12 magnesium Na 11 sodium atomic number 7 6 5 4 3 24.3 23.0 Be 4 beryllium Li 3 lithium 9.0 6.9 s block 4 Lr 103 lawrencium (257) Lu 71 lutetium 175.0 astatine At 85 (210) iodine I 53 126.9 Br 35 bromine 79.9 Cl 17 chlorine 35.5 F 9 fluorine 19.0 7 ? 1 hydrogen 3 Uuo ununoctium 118 (293) Rn 86 radon (222) Xe 54 xenon 131.3 Kr 36 krypton 83.8 Ar 18 argon 39.9 Ne 10 neon 20.2 He 2 helium 4.0 0 ▲ H 1.0 Group M 2 Period 1 2 ▲ 1 ▲ 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 366 DATA SHEETS: TABLE 7 Table 7: The Periodic Table 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 367 DATA SHEETS: TABLE 8 ▲ ▲ ? Table 8: Physical and thermochemical data for the first 36 elements ▲ Z Atomic number St Normal physical state at 298 K and 1 atm pressure (s, solid; l, liquid; g, gas) A Molar mass of the element (the mole applies to single atoms) r Tm Tb DHfus! DHvap! S! Density at 298 K and 1 atm pressure (or density of liquid at Tb for gases) sub Melting point Boiling point Ï Ì Ó M at 1 atm except where stated otherwise Standard molar enthalpy change of fusion at Tm and 1 atm Standard molar enthalpy change of vaporisation at Tb and 1 atm Standard molar entropy at 298 K and 1 atm sublimes; ign ignites; * variable; † uncertain Z Element St A/ g mol–1 r/g cm–3 Tm /K DHfus! / kJ mol–1 DHvap!/ kJ mol–1 S!!/ J K–1 mol–1 0.46 0.08 134.7 308.8 538.9 130.7 126.2 29.1 9.5 5.9 105.0 – 0.72 0.44 5.10 710.9sub – 5.58 6.82 6.55 5.7 2.4 191.6 205.1 202.8 27 1156 1363 2740 2628 0.32 2.64 9.04 10.7 39.6 1.74 89.0 128.7 293.7 383.3 146.3 51.2 32.7 28.3 18.8 683 553 718 718 239 – 2.51 – 1.23 6.41 – 51.9 – 9.62 20.40 22.8 41.1 31.8 – 223.1 154.8 64.1 41.4 34.6 30.6 Tb /K 1 2 3 4 5 hydrogen helium lithium beryllium boron H He Li Be B g g s s s 1.0 4.0 6.9 9.0 10.8 0.0720K 0.154K 0.53 1.85 2.34 14 126atm 454 1551±5 2573 6 6 7 8 9 carbon (graphite) carbon (diamond) nitrogen oxygen fluorine C C N O F s s g g g 12.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 19.0 2.26 3.51 1.0321K 2.0055K 1.5285K 3925–70sub >3820 63 55 54 10 11 12 13 14 neon sodium magnesium aluminium silicon Ne Na Mg Al Si g s s s s 20.2 23.0 24.3 27.0 28.1 1.4429K 0.97 1.74 2.70 2.33 15 15 16 16 17 phosphorus (red) phosphorus (white) sulphur (rhombic) sulphur (monoclinic) chlorine P P S S Cl s s s s g 31.0 31.0 32.1 32.1 35.5 2.20 1.82 2.07 1.96 2.03113K 18 19 20 21 22 argon potassium calcium scandium titanium Ar K Ca Sc Ti g s s s s 40.0 39.1 40.1 45.0 47.9 1.6640K 0.86 1.55 2.99 4.54 84 337 1112 1814 1933 87 1047 1757 3104 3560 1.21 2.40 9.33 15.9 20.9 6.53 77.5 150.0 304.8 428.9 23 24 25 26 27 vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt V Cr Mn Fe Co s s s s s 50.9 52.0 54.9 55.8 58.9 6.11 7.19 7.44 7.87 8.90 2160 2130±20 1517 1808 1768 3650 2945 2235 3023 3143 17.6 15.3 14.4 14.9 15.2 458.6 348.8 219.7 351.0 382.4 28.9 23.5 32.0 27.3 30.0 28 29 30 31 32 nickel copper zinc gallium germanium Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge s s s s s 58.7 63.5 65.4 69.7 72.6 8.90 8.96 7.13 5.91 5.32 1726 1357 693 303 1211 3005 2840 1180 2676 3103 17.6 13.0 6.67 5.59 31.7 371.8 304.6 115.3 256.1 334.3 29.9 33.2 41.6 40.9 31.1 33 34 35 36 arsenic (grey) selenium bromine krypton As Se Br Kr s s I g 74.9 79.0 79.9 83.8 5.78 4.79 4.05123K 2.82117K 109028atm 490 266 117 24 371 922 934 1683 68343atm 317 386 392 172 20 4 1620 3243 3931 5100sub – 77 90 85 0.12 0.02 4.60 9.80 22.2 889sub 958 332 121 „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions 27.7 5.1 10.8 1.64 31.9 26.3 30.0 9.05 35.1 42.4 152.2 164.1 367 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 368 DATA SHEETS: TABLES 9–11 M Table 9: Standard enthaply changes of atomisation for some elements ▲ The standard enthalpy change of atomisation (DHat!) is the enthalpy change that occurs when 1 mole of atoms in the gaseous state is formed from the element in its standard state, eg: ? ▲ Na(s) Æ Cl2(g) Æ Na(g) Cl(g) The values given are 298 K. ▲ Element D Hat! /kJ mol–1 D Hat!/kJ mol–1 Element H +218 Al +330 Li Na K Rb Cs +159 +107 +89 +81 +76 Cu Zn Ag Hg +337 +130 +285 +61 Be Mg Ca Sr Ba +324 +147 +178 +164 +180 C (graphite) Si +717 +450 N P +473 +317 O S +249 +277 Element D Hat!/kJ mol–1 F Cl Br I +79 +121 +112 +107 Table 10: Electronegativity values for some elements on the Pauling scale The electronegativity of an element is a measure of its ability to attract the electron pair in a covalent bond, relative to that of other elements. H 2.2 Li 1.0 Be 1.6 B 2.0 C 2.6 N 3.0 O 3.4 F 4.0 Na 0.9 Mg 1.3 Al 1.6 Si 1.9 P 2.2 S 2.6 Cl 3.2 K 0.8 Ca 1.0 Br 3.0 Rb 0.8 Sr 1.0 I 2.7 Table 11: Ionic radii for some gaseous ions Positive ions Ion Radius/nm Li+ 0.078 + 368 Ion 2+ Negative ions Radius/nm Ion 3+ Radius/nm Ion Radius/nm Ion Radius/nm O2– 0.132 F– 0.133 – Na 0.098 Mg 0.078 K+ 0.133 Ca2+ 0.106 Br – 0.196 Rb+ 0.149 Sr2+ 0.127 I– 0.220 Al 0.057 „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions Cl 0.181 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 369 DATA SHEETS: TABLES 12–13 M ▲ ? Table 12: First ionisation enthalpies for the first 36 elements The first ionisation enthalpy (DHi(1)) is the enthalpy change under standard conditions at 298 K for the reaction X(g) Æ X+(g) + e– Element DHi(1)/kJ mol–1 1 H 1318 2 He 2379 3 Li 519 ▲ Z ▲ Element DHi(1)/kJ mol–1 19 K 425 20 Ca 596 21 Sc 637 Z 4 Be 905 22 Ti 664 5 B 807 23 V 656 6 C 1092 24 Cr 659 7 N 1407 25 Mn 723 8 O 1320 26 Fe 765 9 F 1687 27 Co 766 Ne 2087 28 Ni 743 10 11 Na 502 29 Cu 751 12 Mg 744 30 Zn 912 13 Al 583 31 Ga 585 14 Si 793 32 Ge 768 15 P 1018 33 As 953 16 S 1006 34 Se 947 17 Cl 1257 35 Br 1146 18 Ar 1526 36 Kr 1357 Ionisation energy represents a change in the internal energy (DU ) of the process. The data given in this course have been corrected so that the values are given in terms of enthalpy changes. Table 13: Electron affinities The first electron affinity (DHEA!(1)) of an element is the enthalpy change that occurs when 1 mole of atoms in the gaseous state each gain a single electron to form singly charged ions under standard conditions at 298 K: C(g) + e– Æ C–(g) The second electron affinity (DHEA!(2)) refers to the process: C–(g) + e– Æ C2–(g) Element DHEA!(1)/kJ mol–1 DHEA!(2)/kJ mol–1 H –73 Li Na Element DHEA!(1)/kJ mol–1 DHEA!(2)/kJ mol–1 –60 –53 O S –141 –200 F –328 K –48 Cl –349 Rb –47 Br –324 Cs –46 I –259 Be –18 Ne +29* Mg –21 Ar +35* Ca –186 Kr +39* Sr –146 Xe +41* Ba –46 +753 +545 * Calculated values „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions 369 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 370 DATA SHEETS: TABLES 14 –15 Table 14: Standard enthalpies of hydration of some positive ions (cations) M ▲ The enthalpy of hydration (DHhyd!) is the enthalpy change for the reaction Xn+(g) + aq Æ Xn+(aq) ? ▲ The values quoted refer to formation of a solution of concentration 1 mol dm–3 at 298 K. Ion DHh yd! / kJ mol–1 Ion ▲ DHh yd! / kJ mol–1 Ion DHh yd! / kJ mol–1 Al3+ –4680 Li+ –520 Na+ –406 Mg2+ –1926 K+ –320 Ca2+ –1579 Rb+ –296 Sr2+ –1446 Table 15: Lattice enthalpies for some ionic compounds The lattice enthalpy (DHLE!) is defined in this course as the standard enthalpy change when 1 mole of solid is formed from isolated gaseous ions at 298 K. For singly charged ions, it is the enthalpy change for the reaction M+(g) + X–(g) Æ MX(s) Using this definition, lattice enthalpies are always negative quantities. (You may see lattice enthalpy defined for the reverse reaction is some books. In this case, it is a positive quantity.) Compound 370 DHLE!/kJ mol–1 Compound DHLE!/kJ mol–1 Li2O –2806 Na2O –2488 MgO –3800 K2O –2245 CaO –3419 Rb2O –2170 SrO –3222 LiF –1047 NaF –928 MgF2 –2961 KF –826 CaF2 –2634 LiCl –862 MgCl2 –2523 NaCl –788 CaCl2 –2255 KCl –717 Compound Al2O3 „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions DHLE!/kJ mol–1 –15 916 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 371 DATA SHEETS: TABLES 16–18 M ▲ ▲ ? Table 16: Standard molar enthalpy changes of formation (DHf!) of some inorganic compounds and ions The values given are at 298 K and 1 atm pressure. Compound/ ion State DHf!/kJ mol–1 Compound/ ion State DHf!/kJ mol–1 ▲ CO CO2 CO32– g g aq –111 –393 –675 NO NO2 HNO3 g g l +90 +33 –174 CaCO3 Ca2+ s aq –1207 –543 H2O H2O HF HCl HBr HI l g g g g g –286 –242 –273 –92 –36 +26 SO2 SO3 H2SO4 S2– SO42– g l l aq aq –297 –441 –814 +33 –909 Table 17: Solubility products For a sparingly soluble salt M+X– in contact with its saturated solution, the solubility product Ksp is given by Ksp = [M+(aq)] [X–(aq)] The values given are at 298 K unless stated otherwise. Compound Ksp /mol2 dm–6 AgCl AgBr AgI 1.8 ¥ 10 5.0 ¥ 10–13 8.3 ¥ 10–17 BaCO3 BaC2O4 BaCrO4 BaSO4 2.0 1.7 2.1 1.1 CaCO3 CaC2O4 CaSO4 3.3 ¥ 10–9 2.3 ¥ 10–9 2.4 ¥ 10–5 ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ Ksp /mol2 dm–6 Compound –10 10–9 10–7 10–10 10–10 FeS 8.0 ¥ 10–19 MgCO3 2.0 ¥ 10–5 PbCO3 PbCrO4 PbSO4 PbS 7.4 2.5 1.6 3.0 SrCO3 5.4 ¥ 10–10 ZnCO3 1.4 ¥ 10–11 ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ 10–14 10–14 10–8 10–28 Table 18: Ka and pKa values for some weak acids For a weak acid HA, the acidity constant Ka is given by Ka = [H+(aq)] [A–(aq)] and pKa = –lg Ka [HA(aq)] The values given are at 298 K. Acid methanoic ethanoic propanoic 1-butanoic benzoic chloric(I) hydrocyanic nitrous (nitric(III)) Formula HCOOH CH3COOH CH3CH2COOH CH3CH2CH2COOH C6H5COOH HClO HCN HNO2 Ka /mol dm–3 1.6 1.7 1.3 1.5 6.3 3.7 4.9 4.7 ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ –4 10 10–5 10–5 10–5 10–5 10–8 10–10 10–4 pKa 3.8 4.8 4.9 4.8 4.2 7.4 9.3 3.3 „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions 371 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 372 DATA SHEETS: TABLE 19 Table 19: Organic compounds: physical and thermochemical data ▲ St ? ▲ M r Tm Tb DHc! DHf! Normal physical state at 298 K and 1 atm pressure (s, solid; l, liquid; g, gas) Molar mass of the compound Density at 298 K and 1 atm pressure (or density of liquid at Tb for gases) Melting point at 1 atm pressure Boiling point Standard molar enthalpy change of combustion at 298 K Standard molar enthalpy change of formation at 298 K ▲ Compound 372 Ï Ì Ó M Formula St M/g mol–1 r/g cm–3 Tm /K Tb /K DHc!/ kJ mol–1 DHf!/kJ mol–1 Straight-chain alkanes methane ethane propane butane pentane hexane heptane octane nonane decane undecane dodecane eicosane CH4 CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3 CH3(CH2)2CH3 CH3(CH2)3CH3 CH3(CH2)4CH3 CH3(CH2)5CH3 CH3(CH2)6CH3 CH3(CH2)7CH3 CH3(CH2)8CH3 CH3(CH2)9CH3 CH3(CH2)10CH3 CH3(CH2)18CH3 g g g g l l l l l l l l s 16.0 30.1 44.1 58.1 72.1 86.2 100.2 114.2 128.3 142.3 156.3 170.3 282.5 0.466liq 0.572liq 0.585liq 0.601liq 0.621 0.655 0.680 0.698 0.714 0.726 0.737 0.745 0.785 90.5 89.7 85.3 134.6 143.3 177.7 182.4 216.2 219.5 243.3 247.4 263.4 309.4 111.5 184.4 230.9 272.5 309.1 341.7 371.4 398.7 423.8 447.1 468.9 489.3 616.8 –890 –1560 –2220 –2877 –3509 –4163 –4817 –5470 –6125 –6778 –7431 –8089 –13300 Branched alkanes 2-methylpropane 2-methylbutane 2-methylpentane 2-methylhexane 2-methylheptane 2,2-dimethylpropane (CH3)2CHCH3 (CH3)2CHCH2CH3 (CH3)2CH(CH2)2CH3 (CH3)2CH(CH2)3CH3 (CH3)2CH(CH2)4CH3 C(CH3)4 g l l l l g 58.1 72.2 86.2 100.2 114.2 72.2 0.551liq 0.615 0.649 0.679 0.698 0.585liq 113.4 113.1 119.3 154.8 164.1 256.4 261.3 300.9 333.3 363.1 390.7 282.5 –2868 –3504 –4157 –4811 –5465 –3514 –135 –179 –205 –230 –255 –190 Cycloalkanes cyclopropane cyclobutane cyclopentane cyclohexane cycloheptane cyclooctane (CH2)3 (CH2)4 (CH2)5 (CH2)6 (CH2)7 (CH2)8 g g l l l l 42.1 56.1 70.1 84.2 98.2 112.2 0.720liq 0.689liq 0.740 0.774 0.810 0.835 145.6 182.3 179.1 279.6 261.1 287.4 240.2 285.5 322.3 353.7 391.6 421.1 –2091 –2746 –3291 –3920 –4598 –5267 +53 +27 –107 –156 –157 –168 Alcohols methanol ethanol propan-1-ol propan-2-ol butan-1-ol pentan-1-ol hexan-1-ol heptan-1-ol octan-1-ol ethane-1,2-diol propane-1,2,3-triol 2-methylpropan-2-ol cyclohexanol CH3OH CH3CH2OH CH3CH2CH2OH CH3CH(OH)CH3 CH3(CH2)2CH2OH CH3(CH2)3CH2OH CH3(CH2)4CH2OH CH3(CH2)5CH2OH CH3(CH2)6CH2OH CH2(OH)CH2OH CH2(OH)CH(OH)CH2OH (CH3)3COH CH2(CH2)4CHOH l l l l l l l l l l l l s 32.0 46.1 60.1 60.1 74.1 88.2 102.2 116.2 130.2 62.1 92.1 74.1 100.2 0.787 0.785 0.799 0.781 0.806 0.811 0.816 0.819 0.822 1.109 1.260 0.781 0.962 175.3 158.9 146.8 184.5 183.7 194.8 228.4 239.0 258.1 257.4 293.1 298.7 298.2 337.7 351.3 370.2 355.3 390.7 411.0 430.1 449.2 468.2 471.1 563.1 355.6 434.0 –726 –1367 –2021 –2006 –2676 –3331 –3984 –4638 –5294 –1189 –1655 –2644 –3728 –239 –277 –303 –317 –327 –354 –378 –403 –427 –455 –669 –359 –349 Carboxylic acids methanoic (formic) ethanoic (acetic) propanoic butanoic HCOOH CH3COOH CH3CH2COOH CH3CH2CH2COOH l l l l 46.0 60.1 74.1 88.1 1.214 1.044 0.998 0.952 281.4 289.7 252.3 267.3 373.6 390.9 413.8 436.3 –254 –874 –1527 –2183 –425 –485 –511 –534 „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions –74.8 –84.7 –104 –126 –173 –199 –224 –250 –275 –301 –327 –351 – 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 373 DATA SHEETS: TABLES 20 –21 M ▲ Table 20: Bond lengths and bond enthalpies L Bond length E(X–Y) Bond enthalpy at 298 K and 1 atm pressure Bond ▲ ? ▲ Br—Br Br—H Cl—Cl Cl—H F—F F—H I—I H—I H—H H—Si H—N H—P H—O H—S N—N N=N N∫N O—O (in H2O2) L/nm E(X–Y)/kJ mol–1 0.228 0.141 0.199 0.127 0.142 0.092 0.267 0.161 0.074 0.148 0.101 0.144 0.096 0.134 0.145 0.120 0.110 0.148 192.9 366.3 243.4 432.0 158 568.0 151.2 298.3 435.9 318 391 321 464 364 158 410 945.4 144 Bond L/nm E(X–Y)/kJ mol–1 O—O (in O3) O =O Si —Si O—Si P—P (in P4) P∫P (in P2) C—C* C =C* C ∫C* C —H* C —F* C —Cl* C—Br* C —I* C —O* C —O (in CH3OH) C =O (in CO2) C =0* 0.128 0.121 0.235 0.161 0.221 0.189 0.154 0.134 0.120 0.108 0.138 0.177 0.194 0.214 0.143 0.143 0.116 0.123 302 498.3 226 466 198 485 347 612 838 413 467 346 290 228 358 336 805 745 * Average bond enthalpies Table 21: Standard electrode potentials The values given are at 298 K. E!!/V Half-reaction least oxidising Ø Li+(aq) + e– K+(aq) + e– Ca2+(aq) + 2e– Na+(aq) + e– Mg2+(aq) + 2e– Al3+(aq) + 3e– Zn2+(aq) + 2e– Fe2+(aq) + 2e– Ni2+(aq) + 2e– Sn2+(aq) + 2e– Pb2+(aq) + 2e– 2H+(aq) + 2e– Sn4+(aq) + 2e– Cu2+(aq) + 2e– O2(g)+2H2O(l) + 4e– Cu+(aq) + e– I2(aq) + 2e– Fe3+(aq) + e– Ag+(aq) + e– Br2(aq) + 2e– O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e– Cr2O72– (aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e– Cl2(aq) + 2e– MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– ≠ most oxidising most reducing Ø Æ Li(s) Æ K(s) Æ Ca(s) Æ Na(s) Æ Mg(s) Æ Al(s) Æ Zn(s) Æ Fe(s) Æ Ni(s) Æ Sn(s) Æ Pb(s) Æ H2(g) Æ Sn2+(aq) Æ Cu(s) Æ 4OH–(aq) Æ Cu(s) Æ 2I–(aq) Æ Fe2+(aq) Æ Ag(s) Æ 2Br –(aq) Æ 2H2O(aq) Æ 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) Æ 2Cl–(aq) Æ Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) ≠ least reducing –3.04 –2.92 –2.84 –2.71 –2.36 –1.68 –0.76 –0.44 –0.26 –0.14 –0.13 0.00 +0.15 +0.34 +0.40 +0.52 +0.54 +0.77 +0.80 +1.07 +1.23 +1.36 +1.36 +1.51 „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions 373 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 374 DATA SHEETS: TABLE 22 Table 22: Characteristic i.r. absorptions in organic molecules M ▲ M S * ▲ ? Medium Strong hydrogen-bonded Wavenumber/cm–1 Intensity alkanes 2850–2950 M–S alkenes, arenes 3000–3100 M–S alkynes ca 3300 S alkenes 1620–1680 M arenes several peaks in range variable Bond Location C— H ▲ C= C 1450–1650 C∫ C alkynes 2100–2260 M C= O aldehydes 1720–1740 S ketones 1705–1725 S carboxylic acids 1700–1725 S esters 1735–1750 S amides 1630–1700 M C— O alcohols, ethers, esters 1050–1300 S C∫ N nitriles 2200–2260 M C—F C—Cl fluoroalkanes 1000–1400 S chloroalkanes 600–800 S C—Br bromoalkanes 500–600 S O—H alcohols, phenols 3600–3640 S *alcohols, phenols 3200–3600 S (broad) *carboxylic acids 2500–3200 M (broad) N—H 374 primary amines 3300–3500 M–S amides ca 3500 M „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 375 DATA SHEETS: TABLE 23 M Table 23: Chemical shifts for some types of protons (1H) in n.m.r. spectra ▲ Chemical shifts are for hydrogen (1H) relative to TMS (tetramethylsilane). Chemical shift (d) in ppm from TMS is given by where B is the strength of the applied magnetic field at resonance. R represents an alkyl group R— CH3 0.8–1.2 R— CH2— R 1.4 Chemical shift (d) in approximate region of Type of proton — O— CH3 (alcohol) 3.3 — O— CH2— R (alcohol) 3.6 R— C— O— CH3 (ester) 3.7 = R 1.5 C= C— CH3 1.6 C= C— CH2— R 2.3 2.3 R— C— CH3 2.2 = — CH3 O O R— CH2— Cl 3.6 R— CH2— Br 3.5 R— CH= CH— R 4.5–6.0 R— CH= CH— C— 6.0–8.0 = R— CH— R O —H R— C= O R— C— CH2— R 2.4 = 6.0–9.0 (aldehyde) 10.0 H O 2.6 = — C— CH3 R— OH 0.5–4.5* — OH (amine) 2.3 N— CH2— R (amine) 2.5 4.5–10.0* R— NH2 (amine) 0.5–6.0* R— C— NH2 (amide) 5–12* (acid) 9–15* = N— CH3 O R— C— N— CH3 O (amide) 2.9 R— C— OH = ▲ Chemical shift (d) in approximate region of Type of proton = ▲ BTMS – Bsample ¥ 106 BTMS O ? O * Signals from hydrogens in — OH and — NH— groups in alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids, amines and amides are very variable and often broad. The chemical shift is sensitive to temperature, nature of the solvent and the concentration. The stronger the hydrogen bonding the larger the chemical shift. „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions 375 10509-29P363-376-GECKO.LTD 7/3/02 4:27 pm Page 376 DATA SHEETS: TABLE 24 Table 24: The electromagnetic spectrum radiofrequency ▲ ? 106 Frequency /Hz 107 108 103 109 1010 1 infrared 1011 1012 1013 1014 10 ultraviolet 1015 1016 10 X-rays 1017 1018 -rays 1019 1020 10 ▲ Wavelength /m microwave visible M Enlargement of visible region 5 violet invisible ultraviolet Converting frequencies to wavelengths λ= c 3.00 ¥ 108 m s–1 = n n For l measured in nm and ν in s–1(Hz) l= 3.00 ¥ 1017 nm s–1 n Relationship between energy, wavelength, frequency and wavenumber Regions of ultraviolet radiation u.v. (A): u.v. (B): u.v. (C): 376 400 nm–320 nm 320 nm–280 nm < 280 nm „ Salters Advanced Chemistry 2000 – see Copyright restrictions invisible infrared 6 7 n /1014 Hz 700 red 600 yellow orange 8 500 green 450 blue-green 400 blue Frequency 390 blue-violet Wavelength l /nm 350 360 370 380