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Part I: The Spanish-American War
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I
ro,d $ 1j.h would FventuaJly lead to Lhe lapanese attack on fearl H"rbor ln l94l and
Amedca's involvement in Vieham began in the hot
sugar cane fields of Cuba over a century ago.
Cuba, the lar8esi island in the Caibbearr held
special significance for policymakers in both Spain
he
Amedcans. extendiry U.S. conftol over the lush Gland
ninety miles from the tip of Florida seemed only logical. Cuba was often depicled as a choice piece of
and the United States at the end of the 19ih c€ntury.
lf
For Spain, Cuba n'as the last majof remnant of whai
debale lhe question.
had once been a huge empire in the New World.
N€arly all of Spain s possessions in ihe Westem Hendsphere had been lost in the early 1800s. and Spain itself
had sunk to the level of a third-raie European power.
Nonetheless, the government in Maddd refused to
Ameican
consider granting independence io Cuba
of the Antilles"
est
-
-
"the Pear]
or seliing the island to anoiher
At the time, the country with ihe geatest interin a.quirin8 Cuba wac LhF United Sidte-. For |rdny
ituit
which would naturally Iall into the yard oI iis powertul neighbor when tully iipe.
is aut dcshnv lo hauc Cuba and
ll naluftll!
it
is
folly
bplong< la
to
thp
continent.
-StEhen
Douglas, 1860 presidential
RevoLutror'r rt{
I
I
I
candidatu'l
Cual
In 186& a revolt against Spanish rule broke out
in Cuba. Many of ihe leading rebels hoped to eventu'
ally join the United Staies after breaking {ree fiom
Spain. Presideni Ulysses Grant was open io the
Nore ro Sruoelrs
iiself
was bdef and the casualties were comparatively tow, but ihe results of the conflict Iorever changed the lvay
Amedcans viewed their country, iheir values, and the role of the.United States in the world. The SpanishAmerican war and the policy choices that follow€d laid the foundation Ior America's intemational leadership
in the 20ih ceniut
As we enter the 21st century, Ame cans are ponde ng many of the same questions that gipped our
nation a century ago. We are again consideling who we are as a natior! what we are becomin& and which
values we most pdze. As at the turn of the last ceniury. divisions along the lines oI race, ethdc backgrourd,
and economic class coniinue to Eouble our society. Our stake in the global economy js growin& as it was in
the 1890s, and yet many ArIIe cans do not share m our couniry's prosperity. By Lookint into the mirror of
the Spanish-American Wal era, we can better understand how far we have come as a nation and gain a more
balanced perspective on the policy choices we face today.
In this uni!, you will view the events of ihe 1890s from a front-row seat. Using primary sources
you wil participate in the debate
stat€ments made alld docrments written during the pedod under study
over the values and policies which brouSht the United States into a new era. You, too, wil join generations of
historians in assessint the decisions made at the time. Did they betray the values upon which our county
"A splendid litt1e r{al." That
is how hisiory has remembered ihe Spanish-American war. The war
was Iounded? Or were they the inevitable results of America's "cominS of age"?
Finaly, the issue of lac€ in the unit deserves speclal note. As you will leam, race was a key element in
the events that yo11(.lI study. Racial stereotypes arld severe discrimination aJfected boih t1rc conduct of ihe
war and broader U.S. Ioreign policy. Sadly, racist attitudes and beliels were common at the ium of the century.
They are presented here to deepen your insight inio the history of the pedod.
Reluctaht Calass6: Anehd
Entets Lhe age at hpetiati.n
Choices lot the 21st Cehtury
Edua
an
Ptai*t
Waten lnstitute tat htehalianal judies, Btuen Uhiveciq
Cuba. Th€ eff€cts were immediately felt in Cuba. As
Cuba's economy spuitered, the cause of rebellion
again gained momentum. This time, much of the
funding and organization for the movement cane
from Cuban immigrants in New York arld Florida.
They helped buy weapons and smuggle them into
Cuba aboard ships sailing from southem U.S. pots.
Such "filibustering" expeditions were illegal under
international law, and U.S. coasial patrols blocked
How did Spaln rcspond to the Cuban rcvolt?
A tull-scale revolt erupted in Cuba in 1895 and
soon engxlfed the island. Spain responded evm more
harsNy than in th€ tust rcund of rebellio& sending
more than 120,000 troops to fight an estimated 60,000
Cuban insultents.
The military commander of the Cuban national-
" Spanieh
uatfare"
proposaL but he was persuaded by his secretary of
state to keep the United States a sale distance from the
conflict. After a d€cad€ of fighting and the loss oI
200,000 lives, the rebels put down their ams. Spanish
rule rcmained in place, althouth Spain pledged to
allow limited self -govemment.
ists, Marimo Gomez, aimed at the economic
foundation of Spanish rule. He attempted to cut off
Spanish gairisons in the cities fJom food supplies in
the countryside. Sugar groweE were ordered to siop
producin&.while small farmers w€re forbiddm #om
sellinS supplies to the Spanish. Gomez wamed that
violators would be severely punished. By 1898,
Gomez had indeed brouSht the Cuban economy to a
standstill. Of course,
i
rocent civilians paid a
healy
The Spanish also saw econorfc control as the
key to victory. Unable to pin down the nationalist
What wefe U.S, intercsts in Cuba?
With the revolt over, $50 million woth oI
American investment flowed into Cuba. Most of
was channeled into th€ island
s
sugar indusEy/
it
which
forces, they sought to isolate them from the Seneral
population in the counEyside. spain's govemor in
Cuba, General Valeriano weyler, herded hundreds
of
represented four-fiIths of the Cuban economy. The
United States was also far and away the largest cus-
thousands of Cuban peasants into towns policed by
tomer for Cuban sugar. In 1890, th€ United States
ever, lacked adequate Iood, housin& a]ld sanitation.
rcmoved tariffs on Cuban sugar entering the Amencan
Disease and starvation took a ierrible
Spanish troops. The "reconcentration" carnps, how-
ioll.
market. The legislation boosted the fortunes ol both
the overall Cuban economy and American investors
How did the "ye ow press" sway U.S. public
on the island. Cuban-Amedcan trade soon ap-
opinion?
Foached $100 million annua y.
The depression of 1893, however, quickly spread
from the Unit€d States to Cuba. Pressure mounted in
ConSress to cut back on imports and proteci Ameri
can sugar Producers. In 1894, the United States
imposed a 40 percent tariff on sugar imports from
R e lbta ht Colo ssus : A n e d @
Enr36 |te Age ol lnperialkn
AB the war in Cuba intensided, coverage in the
Ame
can press increased. Many of the stones were
supplied by Cuban nationalists living in the United
States. Publishers of the so-caled "yelow press"
named because the newsprint used was slithdy yellow
soon found that news oI th€ Cuban revolt sold
-
WaEon
choi@s tot lh. 21sl Cqlury Educnon P@j@t
Brcwn UntueBtty
lBtitd. lu lntet@timl Snrdi6,
newspapeB. They were eater to print reports of Spanish ahocities, real or fictitious.
wii iam Randotph Hear,r andlre$lflilzsr
owners of two of the largest newspaper chaiff/ competed fiercely for news about Cuba. Both men sent
teams of reporters and atists to cover the revolt and
generaie suppo$ for U.S. intervention in the conflict.
Religious magazinet particularly ihose published by
Protesiant denominations, likewise called for the
United Stat€s to join the fighting on humanita an
I
Srounds.
the Spanish ambassador to Washington, Enrique
Dupuy de Lome, had sent to a fiend in Spain. The
letter included a biting critiqu€ oI the president.
"McKir
weal and a bidder for the admiration of
the crowd," Dupuy de Lome wrote, "besides L€ing a
would'be politician who tries to leave a door open
behind himself while keepint on good terms wiih the
jintoes of his party."
Publication oI the letter provoked outrage in the
ey is
United States. Many Amedcans took de Lome's comments as an insult against then counily. The Spanish
ambassador quickly resitned and Spain apologized.
Anei-
BFforp the eptode died down, however, Atrericans
cafl citizens afe imprisoned or slain without
prcpetty is destroyed atl aII
were again stunned by a much mo(e serious incident
in Cuba's Havana harbor.
No man's life, fio mafi's ploperty is safe.
couse. American
will sootl be a wildemess of blackfuins. mis year there is little to lioe upa11.
sides....Cuba
ened
How alid Ame cans "Remember the Maine?"
nothifig. The horrors of a
barbarous struggle for thc exlermination of the
On January 25, 189& the U. S. S. i"4rin e, a secondclass battleship in the U.S. fleet, dropped anchor in
natioe population are uitnessed in all parts of the
Havana harbor on a courtesy cali. Visits by foreign
warships in time oI peace were common in the late
19th century, and Madlid welcomed McKir ey's re-
Next year tJpre uiLI
be
country. Blood on the rcadsides, blood on the
felds, bload 011 the doorcteps, blood, blood, blood!
Is there no nation wise eno gh, braxte efiough to
aid this blood-stflitten land?
York World
-New
Despite the drumbeat Ior interuention in the
Ame cans werc divided about their country's
press,
role in ihe Cuban revolt. The business community and
the financial press of the nofiheast opposed going to
war with Spain over Cuba. ln Congless, advocaies of
yrar were in the minority, alihough they voiced their
opinions loudly. Most Congressmen sided wiih ihe
cautious policy of President McKir e, who favored
a peaceful settlement of the rcvolt. Meanwhile, calls
for U.S. intewention mng the loudest in many of the
same areas that were the sirontholds o{ William
Jennings Bryan. Suppot for strong action was olten
tied to a rcligious conviction that AmerG shodd help
a:<c c!!ffP'inq
i}l'o:J
How did the Spanlsh ambassador insult
tuesident McKlnley?
ln February 189& two events tuIned American
prblic opinion sharply toward war. On February 9,
t}].e Neu york loumaL p]ubLshed a private letter which
Ee\btant
EnE6
CotoM: anen@
the Age at
lnqedalisn
quest to send the Ma,r,e to Cuba.
McKinley's purpose in dispatching the Mar're
was two-fold. FirsL the ship's sailo$ would be in a
position to protect and even evacuate Amedcan citizens living in Havana if a threai to their saJ€ty arose.
Second, the warshils presence tave McKinley added
leverage in pr€ssing Spain to reach a just settlement
with the Cuban nationalists.
After passing tfuee unevmtful week in Havana
harbor, the Maine was ripped apart by a hemendous
explosion on the night of February 15. Two hundred
and sixty American sailors were killed. Alihouth the
Maine's captain, who suwived the explosior! Ufged a
careful investigation to determine ihe cause of the
disasier, the American press immediately blamed the
Spanish autho ties. A new slogan
"Remember ihe
Maine, to hell with Spain'"
- swept the nation. The
New Yark loumal e\tenofreted $50,000 in exchange for
the identity of the culprits. Wiftin the McKir ey administration, Assistant Secretary of the Navy
Theodore Roosevelt expressed certainty that "the
Mrire was surlk by an act of dity ueadrcry on the part
of the Spanish."
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Officers and Men at Key West Desribe the Mysterious Rending of the
Vessel and Say It Was Done by Design
and Not by An Accident.
Front page ol ihe New york Jaunal, Febtuary '17, 1896.
Wln wrrr
Cuba independenl and demandedihe wiihdrawal of
Spanish forces. Congress also granted McKinley the
SplrH
Regardless of his own doubts about the Maine
explosio4 McKinley did liiile to calm the war fever
ihat s'as building in the country. Wiihoul waiting for
the results of an official investiSation, he took sieps to
prepare the Uniied States Ior war. On March 9, 1898,
bothhouses of ConFess unanimously approved ih€
president's request to add $50 million to the delense
budget. \ Ihen U.S. investigators, working under in-
authority to go to war to enJorce theresoluiion.
what werc u.S. goals in Cuba2
Both McKir ey and Congess wanied to present
their stanc; stri.tly in terms of defending the rights of
the Cuban people. To thai end, Congress passeci an
amendment stating that ihe United States had no
interest in assertinS "sovereignty, jurisdiciion, or
politicrl pressure rFported Io lhe publr.
on March 28 that ihe Maire had been sunk by
dn uaderudrFr r''ine. \4.Kir ey hdd girounds
to take bolder measurcs.
tense
What did
Ame cans demand frcm Spain?
Meanwhne, U.S. diplomats were finding
thai Spain was increasingly anxious io avoid
war with the United Siates. They reported that
tl-e Spdni.h were orepared to dismanlle thF
reconcentrahon cdmps. is \.4.Kiniey hdd e"rijer demanded. On April o. Sprir dToun.ed
a
truce in its campaiSn against the nationalists
ard pledSed io expdnd ihe
self-govemmeni.
On
April
'(ope
oi Cuban
19, however, the United Siates
rr'.ed ihe.t.lec further. ?esponding lo a request from the president, Con$ess declared
Reluctant Cotassds: Aneid
Ente6 the Age at td2eiat6n
Chobe. lot lhe 21st Century Education Prcieal
watsan t.stitute tot lntehational studies, Btavn uhtue6ity
conirol" over Cuba and
promised to "leave the
government and control of
the island to iis people" once
Peace was restored.
The amendment named
for Senator H€ruy Teller, ad-
dressed
two
sources ol
criticism. First, anii-imPedalists worded that intewention
in Cuba disguised a larger
plan to acquire an Ameacan
empire at Spain's exPense
Second, sugar Srowels in
southern states feared Olai the
annexation of Cuba would
leave them unable io comPete
with the island
Dewey's tliumPh sParked an ouiPouring of
pide in the United States. In the months ihat fol'owed, more Lhan 220.000 volunteers siSned up lo
Iight the Spanish. Among ihe most Prominent of rhe
volunteers was Rooseveli, who resigned from the
McKiiley administraiion to form a cavalry regiment.
Joined by his diend, Colonel l,eonard Wood, an army
surg€on who had been awarded the Congessional
Medal of Honor, Roosevelt recruiied primarily ftom
the rutged tenitories of Arizona, New Mexico, and
Oklahoma as well as from North and South Dakota
The unit, nicknamed the "Rou8h Riders," also included a sprinklint of volunteers from elite Ivy
s sugar Plantations.
Werc IJ.S. torces Prcparcal lor war?
U.S. demands teft Spain with few choices. On
April 24, 1898, Madrid declared war on the United
Siates. Amedcan Preparations to liberate Cuba, however, were far from ready. At the ouis€t of the war, the
Army numbercd only 28,000 men. Most weie stationed at remote Posts in the southwest. In contrasL
U.S.
Spain had 150,000 tired. but seasoned, troops on Cuba
Thousands of Amedcan volunteers were needed to
defeai ihe Spaniards.
l€ague colleges in the northeast
Armin& clothin& transPortin& and training the
volunteers taxed the caPabil;ties of the army. The
ships that had been assembled in TamPa, Flonda, to
sail for Cuba even lacked space for the horses of the
How did victory in the Philippines lead to victory
ln Cuba?
Fortunaiely foi the Am€tican war effo4 rhe U.S.
Navy provided the country with an early taste of victory. Nearly two months befor€ ihe war began,
Assistant S€crclary of the Navy Roosevelt had instructed the commander oI the Pacilic fte€t,
Commodore George Dewet to draw up Plans io at-
Rough Riders. Nonetheless, a U S force of 12000 soldiers landed in southeasiem Cuba on June 22, 1898.
The Ameicans set their siShts on Santiago, the
pdncipal Spanish garjson in Cuba. Ovel the next ten
days, the Amencans steadjly advanced against deter-
tacl the Spanish fleet based in the PhiliPpineq
when Spain declared war Dewey had already led
Lhe A
mined Spanish resistance Casualties were heavy on
both sides. Among the U S forces, 10 Percent of the
mprican fleet lrom its home Porl in Hong KonS
to the mouih of Mdnila harbor' On Mdy l, he atiacked. Dewey's squadron first knocked out the
Spanish cannons on shore, then sank every ship in
hoops involved in the off€nsive against Santiago were
killed or wounded. Neaily al1 of the 345 Americans
who died in battle dudng the eni e war were killed
the Spanish fleet.
R e t u.lant C o
Ente6
hs u s : An. n e a
the Age ot
tfrPeiatisn
'Il
chaici lot lhe 21.t cdnltry Ed@tjan Prci*I
watsah tretitute tat lntdnathna! studies Btuwn univeEity
had been fighiing the
Spanish since 1896.
The main attack
against Spain's
de-
fenses in Manila took
place on Autust 1s,
1898, one day after a
preliminary
peace
treaty was si8ned between Washington and
Madrid. A commulxica-
tions delay left both
sides w€re unaware oI
ihe atreement. From
iheir positions outside
Manila, U.S. and Filipino forces quickly
in the Santiago campaign. (More than 2,500 U.S. servicemen died from disease. food poisoning, and
accidents
du nt
tuly
2, when the Amedcans captured two
a
brief show of resistance,
Spain's commander surrendered. At the same time,
Filipino units were strengthening their hold in ihe
the Spanish-Amedcan War.)
The decisive battles oI the offensive took place
on
Eapped the Spanish. AJter
countryside.
heavily
forlified hiils overlooking the rcad io Saniiago. Spearheading the assault up Kettle Hill were Roosevelt's
Rough Riders and two regiments of black soldiers.
the s:nle time, other U.S. rcgiments charged San
At
luan
HiL By the end of the da, the Americans conholled
rhaT^'rb rn q'nri.d^
What did Filipino nationdlists alemand?
As in iuba, the st uggle against Spanish colonialism in the Philippines had built up slowly. Initially,
Filipino patdots did not press for
fi
independence.In-
stead they caled for political, economig and religious
reforrns. Their demands included full equality before ttle
The following day, Amedcan war-
ships met the Spanish Caribbean fleet
outside of Santiato harbor. As in the Philippines, the Spanish ships were
outgunned. They were either sunk or
forced to shore. on July 17, the Spanish
surrendered Santiago. The war in Cuba
was all but over.
RevolurtoH
tN THE PHtLtpPrNEs
world away in tlrc Philippines,
Spanish defenses in Manila were likewise
crumblint. U.S. troops did noi reach the
Haff
a
Philippines
until two months
after
Dewey's naval victory. Once there, they
joined forces with Filipino insurgents who
RetucEnt C olassrs: Ameha
En.6E the Aqe .l lnpeiali.n
U.S. troops in Cuba sutf€ring lrcm tropical diseases, by Charles J. Post.
Chaiw ,or the 21sI Century Eduatbn Prcjqt
WaEon lnstilLie lot lntenanonal Studies. Btuwn U.ive6ir,
law, local seff-rule, ieedom of the prcss, equa.l pay for
equal h'ork, and the return of land which had been
talen zro-n native Fiiiphos by Spanish relr8iou. authodties.
The first round of rcbellion ended in a stalemate
in December 1897. The Spanish promised to make
modest reforms and. in tum, the rebels ageed to a
cease-fire. The leader oI the naiionalists, Emilio
Aguinaldo, went into exile. ln March 189& however,
the nationalists rcsumed their revolt, complaining thar
the Spanish had failed to live up to iheil promises.
Their goal was now lull independence. The national-
ist cause received a boost when Dewey sank the
Spanish fleet at Manila. Ttuee weeks lai€r, Aguinaldo
retumed to the Philippines to again take command of
the struggle.
Why did
Ame can leaderc disagree over Filipino
T]le Filipino war Ior independencg however,
arous€d little interest in the United States. ln laie 1892
the McKinley administration responded wirh
indifference to an appeal by ASuinaldo for U.S. support.
President McKinley was scarceiy exaggeratint when
h€ Iater told a g.oup of clergymen that, betore
Dew€y's victory he was not ev€n sure where rhe PhilDewey was the lirst American to take the Filipino naiionalists se ously. Althou8h he destroyed
Spain s naval capability, he rcalized that U.S. gound
lloops would not rcach the Philippines for at leasi two
months. Dewey saw Aguinaldo's forces as allies in ihe
war against Spain, and supplied ihem with rifles, ammuniLion. and small .aJDon.. Dewey's srraLeSy, for
which he has laLer criticjzed, was bdsed on his e\perience as
a
War. He recalled ftat freed black slaves were a key
asset in defeating the ConJederacy.
I said tllese people [the Filipinos] wete our
frimds
and. ue haoe corfte here afid the! uill help us j1lst
exactly as the negroes helped us in the Cioil
-Commo
W 4/.
dote Geor ge D atey
Aguinaldo assumed that Deyr'ey's gesrure reflected official U.S. policy. On May 24, 1898, he
proclaimed himself the head oI a temporary revotutionary govemment aJtd pledged to hold etections.
Aguinaldo expressed his special grariiude to ihe
United States.
The gTeat North American nation, the cradle
af
genuine liberty, a1ld therefore tfu ftiend of out
people, Wressed and. enslazled b! the tlrafiny
ond des?otism ol ils rulers. has come lo ut mani-
IestinE o protcrtion as de.isiue as
it
is
ufldoubtedly diginterested lowords our inhabit-
suffcimtly cioilized and
of gooerning outseloes and out uflfortu-
ants, consid.eting us
capable
as
-Emilio
Ag
inaldo
In fact U.S. officials at the time were wary of
Filipino independence. Most were inclined ro ma(e
the islands a U.S. "protectorate" (a country thai is
administered and largely controlled by a stronger
power) for an indefinite period of time. ln the next few
months, leaders in both the United Srares and the
Philippines would begin io appreciate rhe exrent of
the gap in communications between them.
Union soldier in the South during rhe Civil
B el\da nt C o I a s s u s: Ah e tua
EhtcE the Age al ldp.nalisn
waL;on
Chai@ Lt L\e 21st CentuM Ed@non patect
lnstitd. lot lntehati,chat studies, &aM untueiity
Epilogue
-
lmperialism's Bitter Fruit
caused by the war.
n February 6, 189, the U.S. Senate apFoved the
-just
Treaty of Pads of 1898 by a margil]. of 57 to 27
The war in the Philippines was far dilferent
one vote mole than the required two-thirds ma-
than any conflict in which Americans had previously
Iought. Raiher than con&onting an ortanized army,
as they had in Cuba. U.S. soldiers faced a quickstriking guerrilla movement. The rules of war that
generally prevailed in battles involvinS Westem nations were largely iSnored. Both sides tortured and
executed prisoners and commitj:ed other atrocities- As
would be lhe case in the Viebam War, the Filipino in.
suigents, known as ins!.rscfos, easily melted into the
civilian population in the counftyside.
jority. An amendment to grant the Philippines
independence once a stable tovemment was estab-
lished was defeated when Vice Presid€nt Carett
Hobaf cast his tie-breakint vote.
The heays mtification was due as much to tactical political maneuve ng as to long-term strateFc
thinkint. William lennin8s Eryar! McKinley's opponent in the 1896 presidential race and a vocal loe of
imperialsm, urged Democrats to back the ageement.
The Filipinos were commanded by Emilio
Atuinaldo, the same nationalist fi$re who had led
He hoped that his oppositlon to the ann€xation of the
Philippines would win him votes against the RePublicans in his plaru!€d campaign for the prcsidenry in
the shrggle against Spain and had paised the Unit€d
1900.
States as "ihe 6jend of our people." Aguinaldo's cap-
ltsunnscnou
ture in March 1901 marked a turning point in the
conflict. He agreed to declare his allegiance to the
United States and, in tum, was awarded a pension by
tN Ttte
PttLtpptHes
Even as the Senate was debating the
treary, many of lhe worstfears of the anti-imperialists were becominS realiry. Two ddls
before the Senate vote, an An eri.an soldier
tued on a lilipino pahol that retused to halt
Tensions between U.S. and Filipino forces had
been buildint for months. The Filipinos had
assumed t}|at they would be $anted independence aJter ihe departure of the Spanish
Meanwhile, U.S. troops had been ordered to
esrablish control over the islands. Wilhir'
hour" of the shootint incident, fithtint hJd
sprcad to much of the area around Manila.
Howdid Ame can torces adapt to a new
kind ol wartarc?
Over rhe ne\t three years, U.5. forces in
the Philippines Ioutht one of our (ountry s
most brulal and least remembered wars. Before it ended in mid-1902, 4,200 Americans
had been killed in battle and by disease
nearly fwice the death toll of lhe SpanishAmerican War. Amont the Filipinos. 20,000
soldiers were killed and as many as 200,000
civilians died lrom starvatron dnd disea6e
Belucad Cal@@: Anefix
Entets the Age at trPena
6n
.?24
"Wonder ifhe can see the point?
A U.S. soldier conJronls a Filipino insurgenl wilh a"peacd trsaty.
31
Aoi6s lot the 21st Centutv Edu@n@ Ptui*t
Watson tnslitutB lot lnt matiotul Sltdis, Brcm Unive6il
barbet shops, and other facilities marked "whire
only." Filipino nationalists oPenly Played on the !acial divisions within the U.S army. They distributed
poste$ addressed to the "Colored Amedcan Soldier"
the U.S. govemment.
By then, however, relations between the Amencans and the Filipinos had been deePly scatred. To Put
down the insurrection, the United States adoPted
tha! reminded black of the discrimination they su-f-
many of the same iactics used by the Spanish in Cuba
U S. conmanderr routjnely Punished civilians in re-
{ered. In Iact, the rate of desettion amont black
soldiers in the PhiliPPines was unusualy high. Many
sponse to attacks by FiliPino Suerrillas In one of the
wals bloodiest episodes, U.S. forces imprisoned vir-
of the deserters joined the FiliPino insugence. In 1903,
a year aJter the fithting had ended, there were
roughly 500 Alrican-Ameticans iiving in the PhniP-
tually the entire population oI the small island of
Samar after $eni,lds had wiPed out an ArnPriran
gallison. U.S. troops werc given orders to kill all
males on the island above the age oI ten who had not
pines.
Dld impe alsm intluence the election of 1900?
Although the war in the PhiliPPines was gmerally unpopular amont Americans, anti-imPenafism
faded as a potent political issue. ln the Presidential
race of 1900, Democratic nominee Wiliam Jelmints
Bryan chose to dgain emPha'ize economi' i<sues
surrendered. In other areas, FiliPino Prisone$ were
executed at random whenever an Ame can soldier
was killed.
What was the role of black Ame can soldiers?
As in Cuba, black soldiels Played a Prcminent
role in the Philippines. Among the neaiy 70,000 U S.
troops who foutht in the conflict werc fi^ro tegiments
of black volunteers. ln resPonse to demands from the
African-Ameican community, the War Department
rather than hjs corunitment io gtant indePmdence to
the Philippines.
Meanwhile, the RePublicans had nominated
Theodore Roosevelt as McKinley's rulDing mate.
appointed blacl officers to command the voluniee$.
In addition, all four of the re4lar army's all-black
Roosevelt remained an outspoken chamPion ot imPe'
rialism. Playint uP his lePutahon as a war herc, he
regimentB saw action in the PNipPines
The conflict in the PhiliPPin$, however, tenerated tittle of the pride among black soldie$ that was
seldom missed
a
chance during the camPaign to boast
evident in Cuba. At home, African-Ame can lead€rs
were at the forefront oI the backlash agairBt the war.
Th€y were especially cdtical of the mcist attitudes that
b?Aed the milita{'/s view oI the FiliPinos. Among
white trooPs, officers and enlisted men alike, the Frlipinos were often ref€red to as "niggels."
lh
As lon| as thc imprcssion Pr@ailed in lhis rcuntry thit the Filipinos werc fghtiflS to thtot,
I
of
the Spenish yoke afld. seek
Ameican LLnexation,
theywere called patriots anil rnarFgrs, but when
the! danandedpurc and ufiadulterated indepen'
dence, they became a set of blood-thirst!
batbaians.
Recordet (black nabs?aPer)
-Irrdianapolis
Moreover, black soldi€F in the PhiliPPines were
subjected to the same disdimination they {aced in the
Uncle Sam is shown babysitling his new possessons,
United States. They were barred from restaurants/
netuctant Col6sw: AneM
Enta6 the Age ol lryEklkh
32
Prci*t
Btun u.ieeltty
Cll4;c6 td ths 21st Cennrry Edeatioh
w.|lan
lretjlo,€ lot tnleftathnal sludies,
oJ U.S. achievements overseas. Roosevelt argred thai
the United States was jusrified in pressing ahead v,/fth
ihe war against ihe lilipinos "because they were
suppo{ in the United States lor repeating America,s
experience in ihe Philippines. Even Theodore
Roosevelt came to regiei amexing the islands, calling
them "Am€rica's Achilles heel" in 1907.
Thomy legal quesrions abour rhe status of th€
Philippines and its inlabitants {urher complicared
America's fust steps toward empke. Should ihe Fili
pinos be given the same ghrs of citizenship granted
to the inhabitants of the wesiem tenitones? Shouid
they be protected by the Bill of Rithts? Shoutd goods
from the ?hilippines be alowed ro enter ihe Unired
States fiee of tariffs?
Irom 1901 to 1904, the Supreme Court ad-
kill-
ing Americans."
ln the end, the return of economic prosperity
was most importani with voiers. McKinley again defeated Bryan, slightly increasint his margin oI victory
over ihe 1895 elections.
The rejection of their cause Ieft many arlti-impe-
rialists bitter. Leading figures in rhe movement
continued to express their views in th€ press. Among
the most effective critics of imperialism was Mark
Twair! Ame ca's most famous living writer at the
time. Twain used his biting irony and wit to ddicule
the stance of the imperialists.
dress€d these and other questions in {ourteen separate
decisions known as the "Insular cases." The court held
that the Filipinos, as w€il as the inhabitants of
We haoe bem treacherous,
order tha| real good
etil.
fiight
but thal
@as
otlly in
America's other ove$eas possessions, were entiiled to
the "fundamental righrs" of life, liberty, and properry,
come out of apparent
True, ue haoe crusheil and deceioed a con-
but could not be guaranteed the procedural righrs of
the constitution without specific action by Congress.
fding people [the Filipinos]; we haoe tumed
against the ueak and the friendless uho trusted.
us; we hape stomped out o just afld intelligent
and uell-ordereil republi
c;.
befote the
raorld; but each detail
We knozo
for the best.
Ph ippines gdin independence?
Politically, the lilipinos remained intent on
How did the
lhis. The H?ad of eery State and Souerei|nty in
Christendoln...including out Congress and our
...sfate kgislafures, are merftbers not oltly of the
church bat olso af the Blessings-of-Cipilization
achievint indep€ndence even after their insunecoon
was defeated. At the same time, the United States rap-
idly lost its appetite for adminisrering a cotony.
Ame can officials quickly turned ove! much of the
responsibility for goveming the istands ro lilipinos.
Trust. This uorhl-girding accwnulation of
bained morals, high ptinciples, 41rd justice cannot do qn untight thing, an unfab thing, an
unSenerous thing, afl unclean fhing.
-Marl
By the 1910s, Filipinos formed a solid majority of
their
country's bureaucrats. In 1934, the united states
granted the Philippines commonwealth status. Under
the new arrangement, the Filipinos had nearly complete authority over locat issues. Iull independence
was promised within ten years. Although Wortd War
II inte upted the transfer of power rhe philippines
Iinally did gain independence in 1946
- fifty yeais
aJter the outbreal of rh€ revolt against Spain.
Iaa in
What legal complications came with Dew
territoties?
What neither the imperialists nor the anti'mperial;sls couid foresee was thdt rhe age of empire
was drawing to
a close
in the early 20th century.
\
4d1e
the United States established a protectorate over
Panama in 1903 to pave the way for buitding th€
Dotvttt.llrron oF THE CABTBBEAN
Panama Canal and acquired several smatl pacific island groups aJter World War L there was liBte public
Rdluctant Colosg anena
Ente6 the Age ot tnpena sn
in
America's newly \^ron empire and in Hawaii did not
enjoy the protection ot U.S. law.
-.W e haoe debaucfud
Ameica's holror and blackmed her fsce
rnas
In other words. rhe local population Iiving
In rhe Caribbean, the aJtermath of the Spanishcan War produced disappointment among
Ame
33
Choies lat the 21st Century Ed@tim ptujecl
wa6oh lBftute lot tntenationel studies, Bnvn uhiveci,
Cubans and Pueto Ricans, but no violence
against the United States. The U.S.
military
occupation of Cuba and Pueto Rico began
soon afier Spain's surrender. U.S. policy re-
volved around safeguarding American
business and security interests in ihe Caribbean. At the same time, American
iechnology and administative experiise
contributed to mpid develoPment on the is. lands. Roads and telegaph lines were built,
finances reorganiz€d, schools oPened, sani-
tation improved, and yellow fever stamped
In ?uefio Rico, local l€aders and U.S.
officials rr'ere often at odds over the extent
of self-govemment on the island. In 1912
Presideni Theodore Rooseveit is depicled as'1he world's conslable "
Congtess made Puerto Rico a terdtory and
ganied iis people U.S. €iiizenshiP. Puedo Ricans,
howe\ er, would not win lhe right to elect Lheir go\ emor and other top officials until 1947. (Ihe Paci{ic
individual liberLy." The Unired State" w"s a'co alIowed to build a naval base on the southeastem tiP of
island of Guam, another former Spanish colony trar6fered to the United Statet was administered by a U.S
News of the proposed amendment sParked
demonstrations and protests in Cuba. Nonetheless,
the McKinley administratron insisted ihat the Platt
Amendm&t was *re price Cubans would have to pay
naval officer until 1950.)
How did the United Stabs limit Cuban
inalependence?
In Cuba, the long naiionalist sh-uggle against
Spain tueled greater resenhent toward U S ru1ewlen Cuba's national assembly issued a cal for im-
mediate independence in 1900, the McKinley
administmtion sought to slow the momentum oI
the island at Guantanamo Bay.
for ending the U.S. military ocdpation of theit island.
ln 1901, the amendment pass€d ihe Cuban assembiy
The Platt Amendmeni oPened the door to an uP-
surge of American mvestment in Cuba's economy By
1928, U.S. compani€s produced 75 perceni of CubJs
Cuban nationalism. Under a formula crafted largely
sugar. Cubans who had fought in the indePendence
struggle found few opportunities in an economy domi-
by tle U.S. State Department, Cuba was to receive in_
nated by Amedca.rrs and receni irrunigants from SPairL
dependence only after accepting a number of
limitations.
The plan which lormed the basis of rhe Platt
Amendmen! gave the United States the ritht to oversee the cuban economy/ exercise veto power over
They came to re6ent the allialxce beiwe€n
forei$ busi.
nesses and wealthy Cuban Plantation or''ners Their
i1lsiration would later energe as a powedul for- in Cu-
Cuban foreign policy, and intewene whenever neces-
tud a rcvG
lution that brought Fidel Casho to powei in 1959 Wiihin
two yedrs. Casfro had seized American businesses in
sary "for the prctection of liIe, Properry, and
Cuba and established
n e I u ctaht c a lo s so s : Anetu a
EnL6 h\e Age of tnpeiansn
ban politics. Anti-American feelinSs helPed
a
cornmunist regime.
Cnoicas lat lhe 21st Century Educatjah Pbiect
watsan lnstitu|B lot lnt nationat studies, Brcwn univets v
Optional Reading: Poetry and Politics
-,,The
White Man's Burden,,
efore the era of ielevision and talk radio, newspapers and maSazines were the rnain forums of potitical debate
in the United States. Editorials, political cartoons, letters to the editors, and even poerrs were the primary
vehicles of opinion. Ironically, the piece of wdting ihat most inJluenced rhe debate on American imperiatism was
tien by an Englishman, Rudyard Kipling. Kiplin& whose novels enjoyed enormous populariiy in the English_
w
stront supporter of B tish imperialism and the superiodty of westem culture. tn early 1899,
Kipling composed a poem titled "The \4hite Man s Burden', that reflecied his views on imperiatism and lace.
As Kiplint had intended, "]he lvhite Man's Burden, made an impact on the d€bare over ihe Treaty of paris
of 1898. The poem appearcd n\ Mcclurc's Magarir? only days before the Senate voted on ihe ireaiy and gained
immediate attention from u.s. policymake$. In the senate, the po€m was fiequenrly quored in defens€ oI the treaiy.
AIter the treaty was approved, "The White Man,s Burden,, continued to spark controversy. Antlimperialists
published numerous responses to ihe poem, typically in poetic verse. political cartoonisis &ew dozens oI cartoons
speaking world, was
a
based on the images suggested by Kipling. Newspape$
Kipling's views. seldom has
a
work of ar become such
p
nred hundreds oI letterc ro the ediror prompted by
a political iithtning rod. Betow is ihe poem in its enti,ety.
The White Man's Burden
by Rudyard Kipling
Take up the White Maris burden
fo*h the best ye breed
The ports ye shall not enter,
The roads ye shall not Eead,
Go, make them with your living
And mark them with your dead.
Send
Go, bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives' need:
To wait, in hea\,T hamess,
On fluttered folk and witd
Your new-caught sullen peoples,
Haff devil and half child.
Take up the Wtrite Man's burde&
And reap his oid reward
The blame of thos€ ye better
The haie of tnose ye Suard
The cry oI hosts ye humour
{Ah, slowly!) toward the Lightl
Take up the l^rhite \4an's burd€n
In patience to abide,
To veil the thrcat of teror
And check the show of pridej
By open speech and simple,
"Why brought ye us flom bondage,
Our loved Etyptian night?"
Take up the White Man's burden
Ye dare not stoop to less
An hundred times made planr
To seek another's profit
Arld work another's gain.
Nor call too loud on Freedom
youl weariness.
By all ye will or whisper,
By a[ ye leave or do,
To cloak
Ta.ke up the White Man's
burd€n
The savage wars of peace
Fi[ tull the mouth of Fanline,
And bid the sickness cease;
And when your goal is nearest
(The end for othe6 sought)
Watch sloih and heathen folly
Bring all your hope to naught.
Tale up the lvhite Man's burden!
Have done wiih childish days
The lightly-protrered laurel
Take up the White Maris burden
No iron rule of kinF.
But toil of serl and sweeper
The tale of common things.
The easy ungrudted praise:
Comes now, to seaich your manhood
Through aI the thankless years,
Cold, edged with dear-bought wisdom,
The judgment of your peers.
RehEIa Cola'sus: Ameia
E4l3E the Age ot lnpena
6fr
The silent sullen peoples
Shall weiSh your cod and you.
35
choi.4
tat th. 21.t century Ed@non Ptujecr
wat an treUtuE lq lntenatonat StMes. &own Univdtstu