Download Kabuki Theatre in Japan

Kabuki Theatre in Japan
Introduction:
For nearly four hundred years Kabuki theatre has been a popular entertainment among common
people in town areas in Japan. It is a rich blending of realism and formalism, of music, dance, mime
and spectacular staging and costuming. The Chinese word- compounds in current use by the 16th
century was kabu. At the beginning the Japanese added to this their own ending ‘su’ (meaning-‘to
do’), and arrived at a verb, meaning ‘to sing and dance’. Then the word used by the Japanese people is
kabusu,1 meaning is ‘to do singing and dancing’, can be considered as a verb. However, today what is
known as ‘Kabuki’ is a broad concept. In modern Japanese, the word is written with three characters;
‘ka’ signifying ‘sing’; ‘bu;’ ‘dance, and ‘ki;’ ‘skill’. So, Kabuki is the skill of sing and dance can be
considered as a noun. With the influence of the west and new types of theatrical performances in
Japan, the meaning of the word ‘Kabuki’ became more restrictive. It now refers to a specific and
particular type of classic theatre, and communicates the synthetic idea of a special and rarefied style
of acting, certain types of plays, and a set and inflexible repertoire.
There is evidence that the word ‘Kabuki’ was used as early as the ninth century to describe
actors.2 However, this use was not continued. The meaning of the word had changed completely by
the sixteenth century.
Kabuki is a type of acting based on the arts of singing and dancing, occurs during the course of the
development of a story characterized by dramatic elements. Kabuki’s roots lie in musical theatre.
Evidence of this ranges from the onstage accompaniment by singers and players of drums, flutes and,
most importantly, of the three- stringed sha misen to the offstage background music provided by the
geza musicians who add immeasurably to the atmosphere and emotion of any scene. In the case of
dances, of course, music and especially songs are of vital importance. Kabuki actors also have to
study traditional Japanese dance called Nihon buyo. Dances make up around one third of the existing
repertoire, and while some are more skilled than others. All Kabuki actors are to some degree also
dances. Kabuki, in fact, began as dance drama. Many Kabuki dances were created as part of longer
plays. Even when there is no particular story to tell, the dancer will still be in character. Kabuki dance
is never separated from acting. Acting also is the very essential part of Kabuki drama. All young
Kabuki actors, as part of their training, have to learn the basic movement patterns, postures, and
speech of typical male and female roles. While some clever actors can play both male and female
characters successfully. The whole performance is executed as a highly refined art. To be exact the
Kabuki may be described as a play more like a revue than a drama.3 However, the Kabuki is a kind of
classical drama for the masses and is rich in artistic qualities. Moreover, the Kabuki can be considered
as a very complicated dramatic form.
The Kabuki drama is so complicated in its nature that it is a difficult task to define it in a few
words.4 Kabuki plays are also known as kyageki or plays of the old school. Kabuki is referred to by
the Japanese as ‘Living pictures’ and ‘Living history’. Both terms convey, the colour, beauty, and
faithful representation of ancient customs and manners embodied in the art.5
Kabuki, the national theatre of Japan, is generally conceded by scholars, 6 both Asian and Western,
to be the most perfect and elaborate classical theatre extent. Kabuki theatre is so vivid, spontaneous
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and dynamic that it throws open a door and gives us a clear view of the Japanese people, customs and
art.7
Background for Kabuki
According the tradition, the first Kabuki performance was done in Kyoto in 1596, but it was during
the Tokugawa or Edo period (1603-1868) that Kabuki developed its distinctive form. Since the
evolution of Kabuki is unintelligible out of its historical context, a brief description of the
configuration of these centuries is necessary. During the Tokugawa regime, the society was organized
according to Confucian principles, stressing the importance of morality with particular emphasis on
filial piety and loyalty and the hierarchical ordering of the society. The emperor, who was believed
have descended from the Sun Goddess, was at the apex of the political system and represented the
ultimate authority, through most of Japan’s history, however, others wielded authority in his name.
The Fujiwara family (894-1068) were the first to rule, then the Taira or Heike (1068-1185), the
Minamoto or Genji (1185-1199), followed by the Hojo (1199-1333) and the Ashikaga (1336-1574).
Moreover, during the supremacy of the Tokugawa family, the Emperor in Kyoto had no political
power. He legitimised the authority of the Tokugawa and several as a ceremonial figurehead.8
Apart from the court nobility in Kyoto, the society was organized into four hereditary classes.
Warriors or Samurai (Bushi) belonged to the highest class, then came farmers (hyakusho), followed
by craftsmen (shokunin), and at the bottom the merchants and other townsmen (chonin). Merchants
were frowned upon because they did not produce anything, earning their living by buying cheaply and
selling dearly and profiting from interest on loans. Priests and nuns were regarded as a separate group.
Others, such as actors and prostitutes excluded from the four-class system. Each group was given a
separate identity by law. Not only were townsmen told what kind of clothes they could and could not
wear, but samurai were also commanded to dress and live in a style appropriate to their rank.
The Tokugawa shogun was the supreme head of Japan’s ruling military class. His ‘tent government’
(bakufu) kept the entire country under right control. Samurai were expected to behave according to
strict codes that governed all aspects of their life. Samurai usually dressed meticulously and always
wore two swords as a token of their privileged status. The sword was more than a weapon. It was a
symbol of honour and considered a sacred family treasure. At the other end of the social spectrum
were the farmers, craftsmen and merchants. In daily practice, there was no clear distinction between
merchants, shopkeepers, craftsmen, peddlers and day labourers. Townsmen were not permitted to take
surnames and samurai had the right to strike down a townsman if he did not show enough respect.
Generally townsmen were not allowed to attend the sophisticated pastimes of the samurai class, such
as Noh and Bugaku. Farmers, just below the samurai in rank, grew the rice that provided the
samurai’s income. They lived in villages and were obliged to form groups based on mutual assistance
and responsibility. Each village had a headman who mediated between the villages and the
supervising samurai class.
In the Tokugawa period, most Japanese were made of wood and plaster with standard-sized thick
straw mats (tatami) covering the floors. The houses were furnished with standing lamps, low tables
and small chests, all made of undecorated wood. Trade and commerce became more important and the
economy expanded throughout the Seventeenth and Eighteenth century. The non productive samurai
class did not profit from these developments. Their financial position, based on fixed stipends of rice,
declined because their income remained unchanged while the cost of living increased. They were
trained in martial arts, poetry and philosophy and not brought up to engage in any form of trade or
labour. While the economic power of the samurai class gradually declined that of the townsmen
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increased. At the end of the Seventeenth century, Kabuki, financially patronized by wealthy
merchants developed into an immensely popular form of entertainment where townspeople could
enjoy themselves.9
It is evident that Kabuki actors were frequently invited to the residences of daimyo and samurai
and sometimes even stayed overnight. In these circumstances, love was offered for a price without
regard for rank or status. Brothels operated in all the large cities in the first decades of the Tokugawa
period. Kabuki and prostitution were closely linked throughout this period. Both catered primarily to
the interests of the townsmen. Kabuki theatres were surrounded by teahouses (chaya). The Tokugawa
government regarded popular enthusiasm for kabuki and the high profile of brothels with suspicion. In
1668, prostitutes and Kabuki actors were forbidden to wear any material better than ordinary silk
clothes.
In the Genroku period (1688-1704), a colourful, bourgeois culture developed among the
commoners of the three great cities. For the first time commoners enjoyed pastimes that had
previously been the preserve of Japan’s elite, such as reading books, writing poetry and playing music.
In this golden, cultural period, lavishly illustrated in paintings and woodblock prints, the brothel
districts and the Kabuki and Puppet theatres flourished.
Next centuries were engaged in civil wars over the country. At the beginning of the seventeenth
century, the Tokugawa Shogunate brought peace in the form of a centralized military dictatorship.
The shogun maintained his power by an unforgiving hierarchical control of nearly all aspects of
Japanese society. Since the samurai went up the top, the class system descended through farmers and
craftsmen and finally to merchants, the later despised particularly for their association with such
vulgar matters as usury and trade. Merchants, living in town came an underclass known as hinin (non
humans), or kawaramono (objects of the riverbed).10 These were people who had either dropped out
of society or whose professions were concerned with matters which were considered unclean, such as
butchers or tanners. Actors and prostitutes were included in this underclass as they, too were thought
to be no better than social pariahs. Shrines and temples had traditionally sent out groups of priests and
nuns for the purpose of spreading religion and collecting funds. By the end of the 16th century,
however, groups of these nuns had degenerated into travelling entertainers, and some were also
involved in prostitution.
Kabuki Performances:
Women (Onna) Kabuki :
The conventional account of the origins of Kabuki opens with the appearance in Kyoto of Okuni in
1603 or perhaps earlier. Some scholars express that Kabuki was appeared in 1597 or before, but there
are no historical records. An itinerant dancer who claimed association with Izumo shrine, she was said
to have performed suggestive dances and skits in the dry riverbed of the Kamo river by Gojoo bridge,
than the eastern edge of the city proper, which was given over to amusements and sideshows. Okuni’s
dances were probably standard contemporary skits dressed up with novel dramatic elements and a
farcical or erotic twist. Okuni should be a miko(young female shrine assistant) or shrine maiden from
the great shrine at Izumo. Her troupe may consist of female dancers. Okuni was also socially
provocative in that she sometimes dressed as a youth, and seems to have worn elements of Portuguese
dress adopted from early missionaries and even a crucifix. Her performances consisted of a Buddhist
ceremonial dance with original variations. The audience had seen Buddhist dances before what
impressed them were the variations.11 The performances were expanded, with flute and drum
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accompaniment. Okuni’s performances belonged to the type of entertainment which was of old called
shirabyoshi and originated in an adaptation of the Kagura- the earliest folk drama in Japan.
During the Eiroku period (1558-70) there was a man called Nagoya Sanzaemon. He had originally
been a samurai but had fallen on bad days. Later, he was in the capital and formed an intimate close
relationship with the dancer Okuni. They met each other, took counsel together, and evolved kabuki
performances; 12 other troupes also formed in imitation. However, unexpectedly Okuni was dead in
about 1610, according to the some sources.
Within a few years of Okuni’s death in Kyoto, there were imitations of her performance by troupes
of prostitutes. In 1612 Sadoshima Yosanji set up a stage on the riverbed at Shijoo. These shows were
known as Yuujo Kabuki (prostitute’s kabuki). However, their performances were known as Onna
Kabuki or women’s Kabuki, which Okuni had popularized, was largely due to its sensual dances and
erotic scenes. Performances forwarded by Okuni were considered disciplined and emotional. But the
prostitute’s Kabuki had not been controlled their erotic scenes. Many of the skits demonstrated
techniques used by prostitute to approach prospective clients. Occasionally male performers assumed
female roles, producing a great deal of sexually confused pantomime. 13 According to Hayashi Razan
(1583-1657), A contemporary Confucian scholar ‘the men and the women sing and dance together.
This is the Kabuki of today. Screens and hands scrolls of the time depict girls swinging their hips and
throwing their arms about with an abandon not to be seen in later dancing. Descriptions of
performances leave no doubt those they were prostitutes as well.’ Fights sometimes occurred among
the more hot blooded samurai or foot soldiers in the audience for keeping sexual connection with
beautiful prostitutes. Because of these circumstances, high class army officer, the Shogunate had to
prohibit women from appearing on the stage in 1629. This ban was repeatedly issued, and after a few
years actresses ceased to appear in the theatres of the principle cities. Later, their place was taken by
young male actors.14
Young Boy’s Kabuki or Wakashu Kabuki
With the disappearance of women from the theatre their roles were taken over by long-haired
handsome young boys. They had been performing Kabuki (Wakashu Kabuki) before women were
banned from the stage, incorporated the women dances into their own performances. These young
boys, not older than fourteen or fifteen, offered sexual services as well. Homosexual practices had
become extremely prevalent during the military campaigns of the 15th and 16th centuries and were also
common in Buddhist monasteries. During the 17th century some of the shoguns and feudal lords
exercised their preference for beautiful youths. Homosexuality was, moreover, widely practised
among commoners, following the example of their betters. Homosexual prostitution was banned in
1648, but too little effect. Finally, in 1652, the authorities seized upon an incident to close the theatres
in Edo and other cities. Youth’s Kabuki, or at least Kabuki, or other names of Kabuki by that name,
come to an end.15
Elder Men’s Kabuki or Yaro Kabuki
After much pleading by the Kabuki operators, the officials yielded and the theatres were allowed to
reopen under certain conditions, which included what was presumably intended to be a fundamental
requirement. Kabuki in the future, should restrict itself to representational drama, and also that
wakashu, who had hitherto used elaborate styles of hairdressing, should shave off their front hair (as
did the majority of males at the time) to make them less attractive. Then adult male actors had to
perform all the female roles (onnagata). This custom has been continued until today. Some actors
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performed as onnagata, which other became specialists in tachiyaku (male roles) or in comic roles
(dokeyaku). In the second half of the 17th century, Kabuki evolved from a variety show featuring
dance and music into a new form of drama. Actors were no longer appreciated for their sex appeal
alone but also for their acting abilities. The number of roles increased and their staging became more
complicated.
Development of Kabuki
The performers were now forced to compensate for their lack of physical charm by improved
technique and stranger scripts. Kabuki began to produce works in strict play form divided into acts,
and to develop its own playwrights. The history of Kabuki proper is usually divided into three main
phases. At the beginning, the art grew up in several centres independently, and distinct local styles
emerged. Kyoto preferred its acting realistic; Osaka developed the delicate, while Edo delighted in
aragoto playing, more romantic and highly emotional.
The leading Edo actor, Ichikawa Danjuro1 (1660-1704) introduce a bombastic, rough style of
called aragoto that reflected the dynamic samurai-dominated atmosphere of the New capital. In
Kyoto, the actor, Sakata Tojuro1 (1664-1709), developed a gentle more romantic style of acting
(wagoto), which was highly appreciated by the more educated and culturally refined theatregoers of
the Kamigata region.16 Other Kamigata actors like Yoshizawa Ayame 1 (1673-1729), and Mizuki
Tatsunosuke 1(1673-1745) developed acting standards that brought the onnagata to an artistically
high level. Towards the end of the 17th century, the urban societies of Osaka and Edo reached a peak
of material prosperity and commoners enjoyed an unprecedented level of wealth and freedom.
Successful merchants lived a life of luxury and patronized the theatre and other arts. In this fruitful
cultural climate, with star actors, such as Ichikawa Danjuro1 and Sakata Tojuro1, Kabuki was in its
heyday. Performances achieved a perfect balance acting, scripts and stage techniques, with several
theatres in all large cities.
By 1673 Ichikawa Danjuro 1(1660-1704) had made his debut on the stage of the Nakamura-za in
Edo. He created the aragoto plays which always featured courageous heroes who displayed
superhuman powers in overcoming evildoers. Danjuro 1’s portrayal of these bold, masculine
characters helped define and establish the basic taste for these plays possessed by the towns people of
Edo; the capital of the Tokugawa military government.
When the Genroku era began, the major division of Kabuki into Jidai mono (historical plays),
Sewamono (domestic plays), and Shosagoto (dance plays), Shosagoto was already established. From
1781 to 1850, era is regarded by some as Kabuki’s golden age, by others as the begging of its
decadence. The fusion of symbolic puppets and realistic actors had created a unique style, ornate,
magical and fantastic. Edo was now the acknowledged Kabuki centre. The spectacular success of
Kabuki in the Kyoto- Osaka area during the late 17th century was soon followed by a period of
comparative inactivity. It lasted until the middle of the next century. The immediate cause for the
doldrums was the rising influence of the puppet theatre.
With the issuing of licenses permitting the constructions of permanent theatres, the building
became gradually more substantial. The meet fence was replaced by solid board walls, and a row of
boxes (sajiki) was built along the two sides of the parquet (doma) for spectators who required more
comfort and privacy. The Nakamura-za first used the wheeling crane (maizuru) design. The Ichimuraza chose a rounded crane within an octagon. The early theatres had only one entrance, located in the
centre of the building under the drum tower. It was a small opening with a high threshold which the
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customer had to step over while ducking under a low overhead, aptly called the mouse entrance
(nezumi kido). The stoop entrance was abandoned and a short curtain (noren) hung across the top of
the doorway.17 Dressing rooms located directly behind the stage, were built in two stories by the
1670s. Before the end of the century the Morita-za in Edo added a third level. A passageway leading
to the dressing room section was constructed behind the boxes. Though intended for use by actors to
gain access to the end of the path of the flower (hanamichi), it was soon travelled by actors
summoned to boxes or patrons visiting dressing rooms. The usual arrangement called for baths and
quarters for musicians, writers, and wakashu on the first floor, onnagata on the second, and players of
men’s roles on the third. A large rehearsal area also occupied the third level. Leading players had
individual dressing room, although partitions had not received official sanction.
Some features of the Noh stage were gradually modified in the Kabuki theatre, although it is
surprisingly how long they persisted. The stage itself was only 19 feet square at the outset. At the
beginning of the 18th century, the popularity of Kabuki was threatened by the puppet theatre. In the
middle of the 16th century, puppeteers and minstrels began cooperating. These musicians, frequently
blind, recited war tales and romantic stories to the accompaniment of the Japanese lute (biwa) and a
fan struck rhythmically on a block. One of the most popular tales described the love story between
Ushiwakamaru and Prince Joruri. Thereafter all narrative music became known as joruri. In the
1560’s the lute (biwa) was replaced by a more expressive three- stringed lute, the shamisen,
introduced in Japan from the Ryuukyuu island (now Okinawa). Originally, a simple puppet was
manipulated by a puppeteer hidden from sight. By the middle of the 18th century, puppets became
more elaborate, with movable eyes and articulated fingers. Three puppeteers, now visible to the
audience all the time, were required to manipulate these heavy puppets. One man dressed in official
attire and standing on high clogs, handled the head and the right arm, a second man dressed in black
clothing and wearing a hood, handled the left arm, and a third man, also dress in black, manipulated
the legs. A chanter (tayuu), accompanied by a shamisen player narrated the sory.18 In 1684, the
chanter, Takemoto Gidayu (1651-1715) founded the Takemoto puppet theatre in Osaka. When the
great playwright Chikamatsu Monzaemon started to contribute his skills, the puppet theatre peaked.
Some plays were so successful that they ran for more than a year. Several Kabuki masterpieces were
originally written for the puppet theatre and some still have short scenes in which the actors mimic the
movements of puppets as a tribute to the origins of the plays. Not only the texts but also music was
copied. After enjoying immense popularity declined in the Kyoto-Osaka area and Kabuki recaptured
the support of the town’s people. Finally, consequently, Kabuki became more stylized and less
realistic. While Kabuki tried to recover from the threat posed by the popularity of the puppet theatre,
problems were not yet over. In the first decades of the 18th century, Ichikawa Danjuro 1 and Sakata
Tojuro 1, star actors of the Genroku period died, leaving behind an inexperienced group of young
actors. By now, Kyoto and Osaka had lost their leading cultural position and Kabuki innovation
shifted to Edo. New types of narrative music became popular and songs sung on the Kabuki stage
could be heard all over Edo. Japan experienced a period of social unrest in the first half of the 19th
century. Traditional Kabuki plays could no longer attract attention and the public demanded more
sensational plays. Tsuruya Nanboku iv (1758-1829) was attuned to the changing social attitudes. For
this purpose, he introduced a new genre of ‘raw’ contemporary plays called Kizewamono. Nanboku’s
best known work was ‘A Ghost story at yotsuya on the Tokaido. The playwright Tsuruya Nanboku iv
continually produced new plays for the Edo theatres. Danjuro was very interested in history plays
(Jidaimono), but in contrast to the traditional plays in which historical facts were subordinate to the
plot, he wanted to stage performances rooted in fact. Later, Kawatake Mokuami (1816-1893) wrote
several new history plays, but they generally foiled to attract large audiences. These living history
plays (Katsurekigeki) were incomprehensible and dull with far too many dialogues. Kikugoro was a
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versatile actor, excelling in naturalistic roles with psychological depth, and paid much attention to
refined gestures, make up, and costumes. Mokuami wrote several contemporary plays (sewamono) for
him based on daily life in the Meiji period. These plays were nicknamed ‘cropped-hair plays’
(zangirimono) because they reflected a civilized society. They are like Danjuro’s ‘living history
plays’. However, these cropped-hair plays were not successful either. One of the greatest moments of
Meiji Kabuki was undoubtedly when the leading actors were invited to perform for Emperor Meiji.19
The operating of Japan to foreign countries heralded the last days of the Tokugawa government. In
the Meiji Era (1868-1912), Japan went through a period of rapid social political and technological
modernization.
The destruction of the old feudal class system left both Noh and Kyogen bereft of their daimyo and
samurai patrons. Kabuki, however, remained as popular as ever, and its actors found new status and
modern-day stardom. Edo period audiences had clamoured for new and exciting plays, and the theatre
was an integral part of the lives of many men and women. While the established dances and dramas
remained the principle bulk of the repertoire, new plays were also added with varying degrees of
success. In the 20th century, first decade new drama called Shinpa was bloomed, did, however, make a
significant contribution to the repertoire through the works of playwrights such as Tsubouchi Shoyo
(1859-1935), Okamoto Kido (1872-1939),and Mayama Seika (1878-1948), but it lost momentum
when in the 1910’s traditional Kabuki regained popularity.
During the world war 11 many young Kabuki actors were drafted into the armed forces and
attempts were made use Kabuki plays that focussed on loyalty and unquestioning self sacrifice for
propaganda purposes. In last year of the war, Kabuki was suspended and in March 1945, bombing
raids destroyed all theatres in Tokyo. After Japan surrendered, three-quarters of the most popular five
hundreds plays were banned. Edo had been famous for its three great theatres known as the Edo sanza, Nakamura-za and Morita-za, all were destroyed. The Kabuki-za became the main Kabuki theatre.
In 1951, the Kabuki-za bombed during the war, was rebuilt and reopened.
Today, Kabuki is the part of Japan’s entertainments. Several Kabuki actors are celebrities and
receive major attention from the media. The Kabuki flourishes in the performance of many fine actors.
Reputed actor, Nakamura Ganjiro 11 has dedicated a major part of his carrier to performances and
revivals of the classical works of Chikamatsu Monzaemon, and his theatre troupe operates in a variety
of venues under the title of the Chikamatsu-za. At the other extreme, in 1986 the popular and
renowned actor Ichikawa Ennosuke 111 launched his so-called Super Kabuki, which has had
considerable success with people who are not usually attracted to classical theatre. These plays,
mostly rewritings of traditional themes or stories, are all designed to highlight Ennosuke’s talents’
often in many different roles written the same play. They use elaborate costumes and modern
recorded music, and are in a mixture of styles with heavy Chinese, Indian and other Asian influences.
The first was ‘Yamato Takeru’.
Yamato Takeru is an adventure of love and warfare. Ousu no Mikoto (later called Prince Takeru)
was a son of Keiko Tenno, who ruled an area extending from Nara to Osaka and known as Yamato. A
legendary figure, Takeru is believed to have lived during the fourth century, and is referred to in the
Kojiki (The Chronicles of Ancient Japan) compiled in A.D. 712. His story was adapted for the stage
by Takeshi Umehara, a philosopher and an authority on Japan’s ancient history, which used his vivid
imagination to heighten the tale and fashion the role of the young hero to Ennosuke 111, then
considered a rebel in the Kabuki Theatre.
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With a script adapted by Koji Ishikawa, this new version of Yamato Takeru is performed amid
extraordinary stage sets by Setsu Asakura and other designers, and includes exciting scenes using
keren Kabuki tricks, such as a revolving stage. There are even some elements of the elaborate
Kyageki( Chinese Theatre) used for a climactic fighting scene in Act 11.
The musical accompaniment for Yamato Takeru also differs from the usual Kabuki music, replacing
the live shamisen and drums with a taped orchestration of traditional string instruments (which
includes the shamisen but also the koto and biwa), wind instruments such as the flute (fue) sho and
shakuhachi, and various percussion instruments. And to match this entire spectacle is a veritable
fashion show of elaborate costumes designed by Tamio Mori. Luxurious mixes of Japanese, Chinese,
Korean, Persian and South Asian styles and motifs, their array of colours, fabrics and textures could
almost upstage the actors themselves.
This is a beautiful and fantastic drama that is not only familiar to older generations, but through the
enthusiasm and original efforts of Ennosuke, bright and energetic, makes a handsome Yamato Takerua splendid gift of a role from his uncle. Expect to see more from him, too, as he plans to work on
updating and giving new life to other Super Kabuki plays with the help of his cousin Ichikawa Chusha
ix (Teruyuki Kagawa) and the members of the Kabuki Circle for the 21st century, who was also
trained by Ennosukeii.
Yamato Takeru may be a warrior endowed with superhuman powers, but he is also a lonely man
who is essentially misunderstood by his father, the head of the Yamato court (here played by Ichikawa
Chusha ix). After accidentally killing his own brother, Takeru, under the instruction of his grieving
father, leads dangerous expeditions accompanied by a warrior named Takehiko (played by Ichikawa
Ukon). They are sent to subdue the kumaso tribe of southern Kyusu, and the Ezo people of northern
Japan.
Successful in his missions, on his final expedition to conquer a group of demons living on mount
Ibuki between Shiga and Gifu Prefectures, Takeru is attacked by a giant white boar (the manifestation
of the head of the demons). He kills the boar but is cursed by a female demon and falls ill.
On his return trip, as he reaches Nobuno in Mie Prefecture, Takeru dies while lamenting his long
separation from and his longing for his wife Tachibana-hime (played by Ichikawa Emiya), and young
son Wakatakeru (Ichikawa Danko). This whole tragic chain of events begins when Takeru loses a
magic sword that was entrusted to him by his aunt Yamato hime (Ichikawa Emisaburo) , and was
supposed to protect him. In the final act of the play, Takeru transforms himself into a gigantic white
bird, and emerges from his tomb to glide, in mid air, over the audience, before disappearing into
‘heaven’.
Famous leading onnagata actor, Bando Tamasaburo V has also shown him receptive to foreign
influences, both traditional theatre and new theatre. While preparing for the modern play Gensho to
Yokihi, staged at the shinbashi Enbujou Theatre in 1987, Tamasaburo travelled to China to study
female role acting of Peking Opera from the specialist of female role, Mei Baojin who taught him the
well known role of Yokihi. More recently, the playwright and director Noda Hideki, has also achieved
great popular success with his adaptations of Kabuki plays.
The Evolution of Kabuki:
At the beginning Kabuki was staged in the open air and sometimes used the temporary wooden
structures in the Kamo riverbed. But later, they decided to built permanent theatres in the near by
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Shijo area. By 1617, the authorities in Kyoto were issuing licences for it. When the constructions of
the early Kabuki theatre, which were influenced by the Noh theatre. The main acting stage (hon butai)
located slightly off-centre to the audience’s right, was an elevated wooden structure measuring about
8 metres square. The main stage was attached to the dressing room on the audience’s left by a roofed
passageway (hashigakari) used for entrances, exits and as an auxiliary performing area. By the middle
of the 17th century, a forestage was added that extended beyond the roof into the auditorium. Around
1664, when plays with several acts were first performed, a stage curtain (hikimaku) was introduced. A
raised wooden walkway traversed the auditorium at an oblique angle, connecting the main stage to a
curtained exit (agemaku) at the left, behind the auditorium. This raised walkway, known as the
Hanamichi (flower path), soon became a common extension of the main stage in all the theatres.20
The Hanamichi was divided lengthwise into ten sections. By the end of the 18th century, small
Hanamichi was built on the right side of the audience. It was called Kari Hanamichi and also used for
actor’s entrances and exits. In the beginning of the 18th century, large theatre could have
accommodated about 800 spectators. In the second half of the 18th century, the Kabuki stage was
equipped with several technical innovations, such as a revolving stage (mawaributai), introduced by
the creative Osaka playwright Namiki Shozo (1730-1773) in 1758.Large stage properties, such as
boats, were fitted with hidden wheels so that they could be moved over the stage without the audience
seeing how it was done. At the back of the theatre, the dressing rooms (gakuya) for actors and other
assistants were remained. However, the modernization o f the Meiji period, Kabuki lost much of its
former intimacy and cosiness.
The plots of Kabuki:
Kabuki has a repertoire more than five hundred plays exclusive of new works (shin Kabuki).The
masterpieces nearly all belong to the 18th century. Kabuki falls into three major classifications:
Historical plays (Jidaimono), Plays of contemporary domestic life (Sewamono) and Dance plays
(Shosagoto).
Historical plays (Jidaimono):
Jidaimono is the general name for Kabuki plays with historical backgrounds. Most of these plays are
those of puppet-play origin. Historical plays are period plays set in real or legendary past of Japan
prior to the Edo period (1600-1868). The great plays of the Bunraku and Kabuki repertoires all fall
into this category. A full-length jidaimono play usually consisted of five acts and took the greater part
of a day to perform in its entirety.21 Historical plays generally dealt with warriors and aristocrats from
the pre-Tokugawa period, but many so-called history plays were based on actual conflicts and power
struggles between members of the ruling Tokugawa clan. In the Tokugawa period referring to political
leaders or actual incidents was forbidden. To evade this, names of characters were changed slightly
and action occurred in a different historical setting. Many Historical plays are set in the Heian or
Kamakura periods. The atmosphere of these early periods is emphasized by using spectacular scenic
backdrops and splendid costumes. With respects to the contents of Historical plays, playwrights were
more concerned with dramatic effect than historical accuracy. Historical plays did not appear in the
Kabuki repertoire until many years after Domestic plays (sewamono) like the prostitute-buying and
love –suicide pieces. Eventually they fell into two different categories, the earlier of which oiemono,
or ‘feudal house’ plays- seen likely to have developed from the use of imitate to disguise
contemporary scandals in samurai families.22 Historical plays set and costumes are generally colourful
and sometimes spectacular, which the acting style is less realistic and more stylized. Unlike the
spoken language used in Domestic plays, which is basically that of the time in which it was written,
the spoken language of Historical plays is more classical and formal. What particularly appeared to
9
the Kyoto audience seems to have been the contrast between the delicate wagoto style of acting and
the more active samurai scenes, even though these did not yet employ the exaggerated aragoto style.
Particularly bravura style of acting was reserved for the other kind of history play- the ‘court history’
or odaimono. These were often set in the world of the ancient Heian court. Danjuro 1 created a
sensation when he entered the stage wearing bold black and red kumadori-make up rampaged up the
side of a mountain and single handily demolished eight or ten opponents.
Domestic or Contemporary plays (Sewamono):
In 1703 Chikamatsu Monzaemon wrote the first Sewamono or Domestic play called Sonezaki Shinju
for Bunraku Drama. The plots of double suicide plays, like the events themselves are all basically
similar. They usually involve a young man of good family who has fallen in love with a prostitute but
leaks the means to buy her out of her profession. In such a situation the two lovers decide to die
together. This is a kind of romantic love over the harsh realities of life. This kind of love-suicide plays
were simply a tragic variation of the prostitute play. It was set at the time of writing and dealt with a
true incident from the everyday life of town people of feudal Japan. While some earlier 17 th century
Kabuki plays set in the pleasure quarters could also be called Sewamono. They depict nothing of the
more difficult sides of real life and were only concerned with the floating world of the pleasure
quarters. Depending on the subject matters Domestic or Contemporary plays may be further divided
into subcategories; such as plays of the lover’s double suicide and plays about thieves and bandits.
Some plays about everyday life can be considered as the realistic plays, in which depicts common
people’s life activities, customs and some kind of abstract activities.23 In this kind of plays, were
created and developed by the actors who were living in the Osaka area, using simple realistic settings
and costumes, and had special talents and skill for performing them. The Tokugawa Shogunate was
not prepared to accept this kind of dramas any longer and banned all of them with the word Shinju in
1722. This banning was strictly enforced for many years and it severely undermined the Kabuki
theatres in Osaka and Kyoto, where love-suicide plays had formed a major part of the repertory.
Dance Plays (Shosagoto):
The dramatists in Edo began to create a new style of dramatic dance plays in 1770s, called a buyo
geki, in which it was possible to handle plots and conflicts. Dance scenes were soon being added to all
the standard pieces in the Kabuki repertory and one or two of the older plays were almost completely
reworked in terms of dance. One play of this kind was ‘A Letter from the Licensed Quarter’, first
staged in 1780, which was a dance adaptation of the well-known Yugiri-Izaemon story from the
Genroku Period. Most of them, though, derived either directly or indirectly from the Noh.24Other kind
of dance play used the general pattern of the Nohgaku, which consisted of two narrative sections,
borrowing from it indirectly. In the first act, the main actor who dances, appears as a normal human
being although often suggests that he is really some kind of spirit or animal. He appears as his true
self, a serpent or a fox spirit in the second act. Dance plays of this kind can be varied striking in the
second part the actor appears as the lord of the jungle himself and dances sensational sequence. This
kind of dance requires a strong and well-tied mask. Although the dramatic contents of these dance
plays are always interesting. Their principal aim is to delight the audience with beautiful singing and
music, elegant costumes and attractive styles of acting. Most Kabuki actors commence learning dance
before the age of ten and continue to take lessons until they are nature. During the time they will come
across nearly every work in the vast repertoire, and it is arguable whether a Kabuki actor trained in
this way is ever completely free from the influence of dance movement. Specially dancing is very
important part of the male act female role (onnagata role), and all the talented actors have to get
experience in practice as much as possible.25
10
True-to- life Domestic plays (Kizewamono):
The plays written and presented in Edo at the beginning of the 19th century are called true-to- life
plays or Sewamono. After two hundred years, what had happened to the Tokugawa feudal society
reflected by those plays? At that time many powerful Samurai families were in debt to the merchant
classes who are powerful and well-to do. They had always despised and could no longer afford to
support their retainers. Because of this situation the number of people who were no jobs became
dangerously large and many of them turned to crime. Bribery and corruption were to be seen
everywhere and traditional loyalty seemed to have died the death. Based on this background, Tsuruya
Namboku commenced writing ‘true-to-life’ plays. He who wrote plays of all kinds for thirty years
was considered as the originator of this kind of Kabuki and he had great practical experiences. At the
age of fifty three, he achieved the rank of chief playwright in 1807 finally. 26 The Meiji restoration of
1868 opened up Japan to the west shortly after Namboku’s death. Because of western influences new
trends introduced into Japan and his works were ignored and forgotten.
Acting of Kabuki:
Acting of Kabuki comes in a variety of styles. Two main styles of acting can be distinguished
generally; a bombastic rough (Aragoto) style that originated in Edo, and a gentle (Wagoto) style
initiated in the kamigata area (Kyoto and Osaka).
Aragoto Style:
This style was introduced in about 1673 by the first Ichikawa Danjuro (1660-1704). It is said that he
based this exaggerated style of acting on kinpira, a violent heroic character from the puppet theatre
and it was also called wild warrior style of acting. Kinpira, a puppet character, whose violent antics
was very popular; considered as dangerous, among common people. He adopted some of the fearsome
poses when playing aragoto characters which were almost certainly also influenced by Buddhist
statuary like the frightening deity, Fudoomyoo.
Danjuro used the style to portray superheroes and villains, and he made his whole performance
costume, makeup, vocal delivery, and acting style larger than life. Typically, aragoto characters paint
their faces with broad lines of makeup called kumadori to increase their fearsome appearances, and
some wear outlandishly large padded costumes and fantastic wigs. At the same time, Danjuro also
invented wildly exaggerated modes of acting such as the glaring, stop-motion poses called ‘mie’ in
Japanese, and the dramatic, swaggering entrances and exits called roppoo. The Kabuki play,
Shibaraku can be considered as one of the greatest plays in the aragoto style. In this play central
character, now called Kamakura Gongoroo and other character Kagemasa is considered one of the
most fantastic. Kabuki Eighteen plays (Kabuki Juuhachiban) selected by the veteran actor Danjuro
vii in the 17th century; include aragoto style of plays mostly. 27 Other actors of the Danjuro line
further refined the aragoto style, which became a speciality of the family. The aragoto style is
exemplified by exaggerated posturing, extravagant speech, exotic costumes and distinctive makeup.
Onnagata (women roles played by males) Acting:
The lack of realism in the acting style of the onnagata was not a deficiency in the eyes of a
Tokugawa audience. One of the more popular styles of male acting, aragoto, which was characterized
by the exaggerated movement and bombastic language appropriate to the superhuman prowess of
11
warrior heroes, was equally unnatural. Some players of women’s roles even after they reached
onnagata status and were no longer indentured, continued to have homosexual relationships. If they
were prominent actors, they would of course be selective. In as much as they were trained and
experienced homosexual partners and since their stage roles as onnagata depended on assumed
femininity, it was their practice to lead rather feminine lives, to live their art. The many stories
concerning the practices of onnagata in the Tokugawa period include accounts that they dressed like
women when off the stage. The appeal of onnagata was not merely to the men of the audience. They
were admired by the ladies for the elegance of their gestures and the gentleness of their dispositions
since they played women in an idealized manner. Occasionally they became involved in love affairs
with ladies of higher status.
The prominent players of male roles were also admired for their sexuality and were more openly
idolized than the onnagata. Sakata Tojuro (1647-1709) specialized in playing the part of the great
lover and big spender in the prostitute quarters. He was called the ‘Original master of love scenes’ and
‘the first in the line of the engagers of prostitutes’. His contemporary, actor from Osaka, Arashi
San’emon (1635-1690), held a similar title; ‘pioneer of lovemaking in the west’. His biological sketch
in a critical booklet states, “There is not a prostitute with whom he is not intimate. Ikushima Shingoro
was much admired by the ladies for the way he played love scenes. The god of Izumo sends a shower
which causes him to enjoy love scenes on the stage, pleasing the ladies of the audience. Actors set
fashion in some sectors of society. Another actor, Matsumoto Koshiro iv is seated in his shop which
offered a special wafer, writing a poem on a fan for a young woman. Some shops are still associated
with the name of famous actors, for example, Takashimaya for Ichikawa Sadanji and his disciples.
Edo’s first great actor, Ichikawa Danjuro, a hero was referred to as ‘The Flower of Edo.’ Excitement
shot up to a high pitch when a great star made his entrance on the passage way (hanamichi), paused,
and slowly turned his face toward the audience; ‘One glance, a thousand ryo- kikunojo on the passage
way.
Wagoto Style
This kind of acting is more realistic and gentle. The popular actor from the areas of Kyoto and
Osaka (Kamigata), Sakata Toojuuroo 1 (1647-1709) is eradicated for this more sophisticated type of
acting that suited the tastes of the theatre audiences in the commercial (Osaka) and cultural (Kyoto)
centres of Japan. Wagoto roles usually feature somewhat silly young lovers under difficult
circumstances, torn between social obligations and heart rending emotions.28 ‘The Soga Brothers’
Revenge’ where the role of the young passionate Goro is performed in Aragoto style and that of the
more sensitive elder brother Juro in Wagoto style.
Besides those two styles of acting, another style of acting was inspired by the puppet theatre. The
text for puppet plays was always set to music and the puppets were manipulated in accordance with
the narrative music. Kabuki actors quickly found out that they better adapt their acting to the character
and the shamisen player. In this way, they followed the movements of the puppets. Gradually Kabuki
actors became subordinate to the script and music. Actors spoke most of the dialogues themselves, but
the narrator directed the acting. The aragoto and wagoto acting styles lacked these additional
functions because there was no narrator.
Another quite peculiar form of acting was a five to ten minute pantomime in which several
characters appeared on stage in succession and struggled in slow motion and complete silence for a
precious object. Dancing is also an essential part of Kabuki. In the early days, Okuni and her
companions were more occupied with dancing than acting. By contrast to the stately no dances (mai)
12
with slow circling foot movements made without lifting the heel, most Kabuki dances more resemble
lively folk-dances (odori), with rapid energetic vertical movements and jumps.
The acting and Scripting:
A type of Japanese dance called furi influenced a lot for originating the Art of theatre, Kabuki.
Dancer of furi mimes the actions described in a ballad or song. And it has always been involved with
storytelling. It uses movements that are closely based upon the actions of real life. However, the
dancer strongly emphasises the rhythmical quality of those movements. The Kabuki actors use the
selective and highly-stylised movements which are elegant and effective. They form a generally
accepted ‘code’ by means of which the action and feeling of the story can be easily and clearly
communicated to the members of the audience. Kabuki play breaks down into a number of separate
sequences of action, each of which involves a gradual acceleration of both the movement and the
vocal delivery. On the other hand, Kabuki is a very physical and visual kind of theatre, which moves
from pose to pose. This term is used for Kabuki dance pieces, Shosagoto- dance drama.
Kabuki actor is consciously playing his role and capable of commenting on it by the style of his
performance. It is significant that he has borrowed the Noh practice of sitting in front of a mirror for
some time before making his entry. In order to concentrate on the outward appearance of the character
he is about to present and thus absorb its inner nature. Each of the Kabuki actors will specialise in a
particular type of role, for instance that of leading man called ‘tachiyaku’, leading woman called
tateoyama, elderly woman named kashagata, villain named katakiyaku, comedian introduced
dokeyaku, adolescent boy called wakashugata, fighter named yoten and so on. When the actor plays a
leading male-role, he is introduced as tachiyaku, it may be written in a wagoto (gentle) style, an
aragoto (rough) style, or a jitsugoto (realistic) style, and so on.
The actor is merely a tool that is used to present the narrative, but he seeks to be as efficient a tool
as he can make himself. His fitness is very important for some roles. In aragoto roles, he needs to
create an impression of sheer muscularity. But in most of his roles he is more in need of delicate and
subtle muscular control and the crucial test of his art is his ability to handle properties with grace and
ease. The greatest Kabuki actors all exhibit great skill in painting and calligraphy, because their hands
and fingers are so supple. Kabuki actor is basically a dancer; this expressive skill needs to extend to
every part of his body.
The mie ( mee-ay) is seen as an opportunity for the actor to impress himself on the audience with
all the resources at his command. It can be undertaken while he is sitting but it is considered much
more effective when he is standing. From the audience’s point of view, however, this is a high point
of the actor’s performance and the pose is welcomed with the ecstatic cries of his supporters
(yago).Onnagata playing female roles may also ‘cut a mie’, but the rolling of the head is much
reduced and they never glare and cross their eyes, which would be inelegant for a woman. Their poses
are called ‘kimari’. The ‘mie’ is, of course, in no sense realistic, it is expressionistic.
In the Genroku mie, this is said to have been invented by Ichikawa Danjuro for using in aragoto
pieces. The position of the legs in this mie is similar to their position in the separated feet ‘mie’.
Stage
The important contribution of Genroku to present day Kabuki is the special stage and its several
related mechanical devices.29 Okuni started in a river bed of Kyoto and progressed from there to lawns
and finally to Noh stage. At the beginning Kabuki was mainly performed on the Noh stage. But later
13
it was developed through Onna and Wakashu Kabuki so, too, became developments in the
performance space, moving gradually away from the Noh model. On stage right and stage- left it is
approximately six feet wide, sharply angled in toward the centre of the stage. It is extending upward
to the height of the outer proscenium, which in most theatres is about twenty feet high. These two
vertical sections are joined at the upstage edge at the top by a horizontal piece about three feet wide
and parallel to the front of the stage. The whole is of wood and is painted a flat black. The vertical
sections on either side of the stage consist of two stories each. On the stage-right side, the lower story
is the geza, or as it is sometimes called Hayashibeya (orchestra room) which is occupied by musicians
and sound affects men. The upstage edge of this structure is called the metsukebashira. But in the
performance of certain plays a platform six feet wide, three feet high and three feet deep is placed
against this structure on the stage level, on this platform is seated samisen player and a narrator-singer.
In the upper surface of the platform is a small revolving stage. It helps a new pair of performers to
appear during the course of a long play without undue delay. The invention of the revolving stage
(mawari-butai) is also credited to Namiki Shozo. The Shosabutai (dance stage) which is used both for
pieces which are purely dance and also for those which although they are not pure dance, contain
considerable dance movement. The shosabutai consists of platforms about five inches high made of
highly polished Japanese Cypress which are laid down the permanent stage floor and on the
Hanamichi completely covering both areas.
In 1687 walkway called Hanamichi or Flower path introduced, set at ninety degrees to the main
stage. It was set up at the left side of the main stage. In fact the hanamichi fulfils a very similar
function to the hashigakari of the Noh theatre. Hanamichi is about five feet wide, along which most
of the actors make their exits and entrances. This runs from the back of the theatre on the left-hand
side and joins the stage at right- angles. In this walkway is used by the actor particularly reveals his
skill. The hanamich came to be used for entrances and exits and at the same time it was used for selfintroduction or a dramatic roppo exit. Sometimes a second narrower hanamichi was erected parallel to
the main one and attached to the right side of the stage. This was called Kari-Hanamichi. It enabled
actors to walk around the main part of the audience. The Kari- Hanamichi was used, for instance, to
allow the members of two rival clans to line up on opposite sides and exchange insults and challenges
over the heads of the audience. The hanamichi always brings the actor as close as possible to his
audience, which is very appropriate for the Kabuki. The hanamichi, ran from the rear stage-right side
of the doma, where the entrance to it was hung with a curtain and joined the front edge of the stage at
an obtuse angle of about 110 degrees. From about 1772 on another passage way through the pit to
the stage, was used by the actor. This was the ayumi ita, a raised wood passage way at right angles to
the front of the stage. This was little lower than the level of the stage- flooring. This is called above
mentioned Kari-hanamichi or right hanamichi. The naka no ayumi’(centre passageway) was, in
reality the wooden partition which separated the second class seats from the third class seats.
The hanamichi is always lit when it is used. The lighting of the hanamichi is purely arbitrary and its
only purpose is to illuminate the actor. When the hanamichi is not used, it ceases to exit theatrically
and the stage becomes the only acting area.30
Important characters do not always enter the hanamichi alone. They are frequently accompanied by
a retinue. Exits and entrances on the hanamichi have a similar feeling of filmic; fading-in and ‘fadingout’. Kabuki is commonly known as the shibai a term that may mean ‘play’ or ‘theatre’. In the early
out-door Kabuki shibai referred to the broad, open space directly in front of the stage. Later it come to
be identified with the theatre structure itself. Originally most spectators sat on carpets or mats spread
on the ground. When it brained, the performance was cancelled.
14
The proscenium opening of the present Tokyo Kabuki-za is approximately ninety feet wide. The
depth of the auditorium is about sixty feet. The shape of the auditorium is rectangular. The first and
second balconies are built around three sides of the auditorium as they are in the European opera
house. The spectator in the side sections of the balconies is seated not facing the stage, but facing the
opposite side of the house.31
The present Kabuki curtain of alternating vertical bands of black, rust and green was not generally
adopted by Kabuki theatres until after the Meiji period.
The curtains behind the apron are the draw curtain (joshikimaku or hikimaku) and the scene curtain
Kabuki stage certain.32.
Large stage properties (odogu)include a special platform (yatari or nijubutai). For plays adapted
from the puppet theatre, a chanter’s platform (choboyuka) for the musicians. The small stage
properties (kodogu) are those held by the actors. A row of cherry blossoms strung from the ceiling is
an odogu, whereas the cherry branch which can be broken is a kodogu. Among the many other small
properties is the long, stiff wire (sashigane), that has a butterfly or bird on the end and is manipulated
by the stage assistant (koken). Swords appear everywhere in Kabuki. Almost all male characters of
any rank at all carry the customary pair of long and short swords at their waist 33. And nearly all
Kabuki murders are committed with a sword. In the Kabuki ki or wooden clappers invariably
accompany the pulling on and off the curtain. Ki or Hyoshigi are a pair of square shaped sticks made
of hard kashi wood. The clapper is about three inches thick and about a foot long.
Costume 34 wig and make up are carefully matched in a accord with the nature of a role. Kabuki
costumes are not only dazzlingly colourful, but they also express the social status and the personality
of the character they adorn. In general, the costumes in historical dramas are more stylized and
elegant, befitting the members of the nobility and the feudal (samurai) class. By contrast the
prevailing fashions of society at large during the Edo period are portrayed rather realistically in the
Sewa-mono plays. The costumes appearing in the shosagoto dance pieces are especially noted for
their colour /design and workmanship35.The costumes of Kabuki are of course one of its most
attractive aspects. The patterns and colours for each role are set to the extent that a character can
easily be recognized by his costume. The red princess roles all wear basically red robes with a ‘fan
shaped’ silver tiara in their hair. Male servants dress in bright colours, with a loose thin overcoat. The
acrobatic government officials who always appear in groups are normally dressed entirely in black,
sometimes dressed in silver, in good or in red. Towns people both men and women normally wear
plain coloured kimono. The colour and pattern indicates the age and social status of the character. The
high class courtesans called keisei wear particularly luxurious costumes. .
The wigs are divided into male and female. Further into subclasses according to age, historical
period, social status, occupation and other considerations. Some wigs are made for special effects. As
a part of their costume, all characters in Kabuki wear wigs. In contemporary plays (sewamono), the
costumes worn onstage are close to the everyday wear of the lower and middle classes of the
Tokugawa period. In palace scenes, high-ranking persons may wear long trailing trousers ( nagabakama). This is much longer than the legs and the garment, covering the feet, drags behind along the
floor.
During the long history of Kabuki costumes were designed that have become standard for specific
roles. Theatre devotees have no problems recognizing a role from the costume alone.
15
‘Make up’ in Kabuki is also treated as an important part of the colour aspect of spectacle. 36 In the
Sewamono as a rule, the makeup is more realistic than the jidaimono. The onnagata wears, heavier
make up in roles of young women, court ladies and courtesans. The roles of older women requiresless
make up in both jidaimono and sewamono. The actors playing the roles of a young .man in a sewamono and a dashing military hero in a jidaimono are heavily made up the one to accentuate his
handsome features the other to underscore the nobility and virtue of his character. When the Ichikawa
Danjuro 1 introduced the rough style of acting (aragoto), perhaps inspired by the painted faces of the
Chinese opera, he decorated his face with red and black stripes. This distinctive make up called
kumadori deliberately enhances the facials muscles and thus the expressiveness of the face.
Traditionally, red kumadori is associated with virtue and strength, blue with fear and evil.
Stage sets and props (odogu) are important elements of Kabuki. Most theatres used a curtain made
of vertical tripe. Sometimes, when the main curtain is opened, the scenery and the actors are partly
concealed by an auxiliary curtain.
In a contemporary play (sewamono) the scenery is quite simple. It shows for example the interior of
a house or shop, placed on a raised platform with three steps leading from the stage proper to the front
of the room. The scenery is never intended to be realistic or naturalistic, but merely serves as a
minimal background against which actors stand out more clearly. A white cloth on the stage indicates
the presence of snow; a blue cloth changes the hanamichi into a river. The scenery is usually more
elaborate in history plays, with splendid temple facades and impressive outdoor views of, for example,
the Sumidagawa, Mount Fuji and Blossoming trees. In dance plays, adapted from Noh, the stage is
empty, except for the musicians. The backdrop shows only a huge pine tree and the scenery is left to
the imagination of the spectators. Revolving stages and other ingenious constructions enable
continuous acting in a play with several scenes.
Besides spectacular stage techniques, actor make extensive use of small hand props (kodoogu), such
as fans, swords, hats and umbrellas. The actors for women role (onnagata) sometimes carry a wad of
paper which they put in their mouth to suppress their cries at moment of great emotional stress. Actors
who have to stand for long periods are given a stool to lean on. For plays where animals appear on
stage, low ranking actors are dressed as horses, wild boars or rats. Small animals, such as birds or
fluttering butterflies are represented by toys, attached to long flexible rods, manipulated by stage
assistants.
Music
Some scholars categorize Kabuki as a Japanese form of opera, except that the actors do not sing. The
variety and complexity of Kabuki music cannot easily be compared to any other known musical form.
Music has always been at the heart of Kabuki. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Shamisen
often in combination with other instruments, became the dominant accompaniment to actors on stage.
Sounds and music are heard almost continuously throughout a performance. They may come from
varied parts of the stage and the style of the music may be different. At the beginning and the end of a
performance, the sounds mainly made by drums and wooden clappers, have a ceremonial function.
Wooden clappers about twenty five centimetres long and five centimetres across are struck together to
produce a clear, dry ‘clack.’ When the curtain is drawn aside, a stage assistant strikes the clappers
with increasing speed. The same clappers also accompany the closing of the curtain. Other special
sound effects are made offstage by musicians concealed from the audience in a small room with a
latticed window. The offstage music uses a variety of instruments such as shamisen, drums, bells,
gongs and flutes to create a whole range of mood, gentle falling snow to lapping waves.
16
Music known as debayashi is played onstage in view of the audience. The musicians are dressed in
formal costumes and seated on a raised platform covered with red felt at the back or along one or both
sides of the stage. Around 1740, a style of debayashi known as ‘long songs (nagauta) was introduced
to accompany lengthy dances. The lyrical ‘long song’ is now the most common style and used in a
great many plays and dances. Another style of debayashi is the joruri, a highly narrative style of
music accompanied by the shamisen. It was first used in the puppet theatre and later, when puppet
plays were adopted for the Kabuki stage, it became popular in the Kabuki theatre. Usually one or
more chanters and one or more shamisen players sit on the stage in full view of the audience.
Masterpieces of the Kabuki theatre
The popular actor Ichikawa Danjuro vii selected eighteenth dramas as masterpieces in 1840 and
they called in Japanese Kabuki Juuhachiban. The Kabuki called Kanjinchoo became the first of a
collection that Danjuro based on the Ichikawa family’s acting traditions. They were to be
representative of the ie no gei or ‘family art of the Ichikawa line. The most of the plays are in aragoto
style and were first acted by Danjuro 1, 11, and 1V.
They were Fuwa ( Fuwa Banzaemon), Fudo ( The deity Fudo), Gedatsu ( The release of
Kagekiyo’s soul),Jayanagi ( The snake weeping willow) , Kagekiyo ( General Kagekiyo) Kamahige
( Scythe Beard), Kanjinchoo ( The Subcription Scroll), Kan’u ( eneral Kan’u), Kenuki ( The
Tweezers), Nanatsu Men ( The Seven Masks), Narukami ( The thunder God), Oshimodoshi ( Devil
pusher), Shibaraku ( Wait a Moment ), Sukeroku Yukari no Edo zakura( Sukeroku, Flower of Edo),
Uiro Uri ( The Medicine Peddler), Uwanari ( Jealousy), Yanone ( The arrow head), and Zoohiki
( Pulling the Elephant Apart). Among them regularly performed are Kanjinchoo, Sukeroku,
Shibaraku, Narukami, Uiroo uri and Yanone. Some of them were rewritten during the 20th century.
References
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Bowers, Faubian (1984),Japanese Theatre, p.37, Tokyo, Japan.
Ernst, Earle (1956), The Kabuki Theatre, p. 10, Oxford University Press, First Edition , UK.
Shutaro, Miyake (1954), Kabuki Drama, p.7, Hosokawa Printing Company, Tokyo, Japan.
–do- p.15,
Modern Reference Encyclopaedia, (1956), p.25, Grolier Universal Encyclopaedia, USA.
–do-p.24,
J.T. p.xix,
Arendie and Henk Herwig, (2004), Heroes of the Kabuki Stage, pp. 13,14,Hotei Publishing,
Amsterdam, Netherlands.
9 –do- p.16,
10 Cavage Ronald, Griffith Paul, Senda Akihiko, (2004), Japanese Stage, p.25, Kodansha International
Ltd. Japan.
11 Arnott Peter,(1969), The Theatres of Japan, pp.135,136, printed in Great Britain, UK.
12 Dunn, Charles J. Torigoe, Bunzo (1969), The Actor Analects, University of Tokyo, Japan.
13
Brandon James R., Malm William P., Shively Donald H. (1978), Studies in Kabuki, p.6, The
University Press of Hawaii, USA.
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
–do-p.7,
–do-p.9,
H.K.S p.20,
S.K.p.12,
S.K. p.21,
H.K.S. p.27,
17
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
H.K.S. p.32,
J.S. p.52,
Harris John Wesley,(2006), The Traditional Theatre of Japan, p.170,The Edwin Mellen Press,
USA.
T.T.T.J. p. 169,
---do---p.174,
J.S. p. 52,
T.T.T.J. p.176,
J.S. p.51,
H.K.S. p.45
J.T.p.144
Ernst Earle (1956) The Kabuki Theatre, Oxford University Press, First Edition p.10.
T.K.T p. 25, 26..
K.D.p.34,
K p.119.
‘ It is a common place to say that the costumes of Japan’s Kabuki are the most lavish in the world.’
J.T. p.180.
K.E.G.p.95
J.T.p.181,
.
18