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Sociology
Unit B672 (Socialisation, Culture and
Identity) Revision
Sociology of Youth
Part 1- Defining Youth
What is childhood?
This is not as silly question as it may sound because there is no clear answer.
One answer is a biological one -- that children are humans who are not yet
physically mature. Yet some people still at primary school, whom we would
think of as children, may have reached puberty (become capable of
reproduction) and have acquired secondary sexual characteristics such as
body hair. If we still treat them as children, then being a child is social as well
as biological.
In Britain today, people become adults at
the age of 18 – the “coming of age” -- but in
fact many adult rights and responsibilities
have already been acquired. For example,
you can leave school and work full-time at
16, and drive (if you have passed the test)
at 17.
Not all rights and responsibilities come at a
given age. Some can arrive very early; for
example, the teenage girl who becomes a
mother. Others may be very late; for
example, a student may not be financially
independent until well into his or her 20s
because he or she needs support from parents.
Identify and explain two rights that are acquired with age. [8]
Childhood in the past
The Historical Development of Childhood- Philippe Aries
Sociologists such as Philippe Aries (1962) believed that the concept of
childhood was only invented in the Middle Ages. He stated that before that,
at about the age of six, children became miniature adults. They dressed
like adults, were expected to work and look after themselves, and they
joined in games and outdoor activities with adults. There were no schools
and no ages at which rights and responsibilities were required. They might
even marry very young, and be treated as criminals if they committed
crimes.
The big change to childhood was
probably
the
gradually
growing
importance of education and schools, first
for the upper-class but eventually for
everyone. Children became people who
were still at school, who have not yet
learned what they needed for adult life.
What is expected of children has
therefore changed enormously over time.
Childhood is different in different cultures
and at a different time in history. So we
can say that childhood is socially constructed.
Evidence for childhood being a biological stage:
 Biologically, all youth go through hormonal changes at puberty.
 At this time, young people experience changes in both their attitudes
and behaviour.
 Many young people go through times of being irritable and unsure of
themselves. (A period G. Stanley Hall called “a time of storm and
stress.”)
Evidence for social construction of childhood:
 The law: in each society the rights and responsibilities of young
people differ greatly. Laws are very different in various societies, for
example, in England you must be 17 to drive, whereas in many
American states you can drive at 16.
 Social norms: Customs also vary. In England the average age for a
female to marry is just over 27, whereas in Niger it is just over 17.
 Emotional/behavioural norms: whilst it is often believed that for all
youth life is confusing and emotional, some sociologists such as
 Margaret Mead (1927) argued that this is not the case in every
society. Mead claimed that Samoan young people did not have this
period of turmoil.
“Childhood is a biological stage in life.” Evaluate the arguments for
and against this claim. [24]
Childhood in other cultures
Another way of looking at the social construction of childhood is to look at
other cultures. “Traditional” societies do not see childhood and ending at a
particular age, but rather as ending with a ceremonial ritual, a rite of
passage. The child leaves his or her family home for a period to undergo a
series of rites of initiation into adult life. Before this, the individual is a child;
afterwards an adult with, depending on the society, the right to carry weapons,
to marry and to take part in decision-making. For boys the rite often involves
circumcision, during which they must not flinch. For girls there is sometimes
the mutilation of the genitals (euphemistically known as female circumcision).
For both sexes, there may be scarring, special clothing, fasting and feasting.
“Adolescence will always be a difficult time in a person’s life.”
Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24]
Margaret Mead- Growing Up In Samoa
For the anthropologist Margaret Mead the difficulties associated with
adolescence in western societies have more to do with the role assigned to
young people by western culture than with the biological changes involved
in puberty. In western cultures, young people do not have a clear-cut role
which is often the case in traditional cultures. Western teenagers have to
endure a long period in which they are seen neither as children nor as
adults. It is no wonder therefore that this time is often seen as a time of
“storm and stress”.
Mead describes how in Samoa teenage girls are expected to take on
responsibility for many activities associated with adult women such as
looking after younger children, doing the cooking and cleaning etc.
However, girls were also allowed the privileges as well, such as entering
into sexual relationships earlier than was the case in the west.
Transition to adulthood
In comparison the end of childhood in
Britain is a long drawn-out process of
gradually
acquiring
rights
and
responsibilities. Adolescence is a period
of transition; individuals have learned to
move out of the comfort of their parents'
home and into the world of work. It
could be seen as a time that allows a
young person to leave behind childhood
ideas and behaviour and become an
adult. In the contemporary UK this
transition may include learning to drive.
At home they are valued as individuals,
but at work they will have to compete
and
be
successful.
Functionalist
sociologists saw membership of a
strong peer group in adolescence as a
way of easing the transition; by
belonging to such a group adolescents
had
support
in
growing
more
independent.
Examples of rites of passage
Suri life: to become initiated into adulthood, Suri boys become “rora”,
which includes acts of violence, insults from the elders of the tribe, having
to complete menial tasks, being whipped and sometimes being starved.
Through this process a boy becomes a man.
Dassanech life: to become initiated into womanhood, girls from 10-12
years of age are circumcised. This ceremony is conducted by the elder
females in the tribe. Once this has been done, the girl then becomes
recognised as a woman and is able to marry.
Debutantes: in England or upper-class girls used to become women when
presented to society at a “coming-out ball”. In rich American families this
tradition is off the mark with a large ceremony (debutante ball), where the
girls wear white gowns and gloves and are individually introduced to the
society audience of the ball.
Bar/Bat Mitzvah: Jewish boys and girls attend classes to learn about their
religious heritage along with their future role as a Jewish mother or father.
When they are 12 (for girls) or 13 (for boys), the young person is expected
to show they have enough knowledge to take on their personal religious
responsibility. At this stage a ceremony marks their transition to adulthood.
Identify and explain two rites of passage. [8]
Concerns about children today
Compared to a generation ago, parents tend to be more protective of their
children. For example, the freedom children have to roam around their home
area has been restricted because of fears about traffic and “stranger danger.”
One in 3 children is now driven to school. Parents also control the time their
children spend on activities more. In many ways, children have less freedom.
On the other hand, children are much more exposed to some aspects of the
adult world than they used to be.
The Disappearance of Childhood?- Neil Postman
Some sociologists such as Neil Postman (1983) believe that there is
currently a disappearance of childhood. Because of the adult messages
children see every day in the mass media, they become “confused little
adults.” he called these children “tweenagers” and used the examples of
underage drinking and smoking as evidence. Results from a survey by
MINTEL found that by 14 years of age, 90% of girls are wearing some kind
of make up (2004). Other contemporary evidence can be seen in girls'
magazines such as Bliss and Cosmo Girl, which have given away
vouchers for free tanning spray and contained articles on how to get a
boyfriend. Such evidence has led to a debate over whether children are
going through a loss of innocence. This is a world where children grow up
fast, are aware of their own bodies and are worried about adult issues such
as sexuality. However, not all agree that childhood has been eroded,
especially when comparing life now to the 1800s.
“Childhood is disappearing.” Evaluate the arguments for and against
this claim. [24]
Some rights and responsibilities: 5-21 years
Age
5 years
10 years
12 years
13 years
14 years
16 years
17 years
18 years
21 years
Rights and Responsibilities
Compulsory schooling begins
You have to pay child is there on trains and buses
You can drink alcohol in private
You can be convicted of a criminal offence if it can be proved
that you knew what you were doing was wrong
You can buy a pet
You can have a part-time job, subject to restrictions
You can go into a pub but not drink alcohol
You can leave school
You can marry with your parents’ consent
A girl can consent to heterosexual intercourse
You can hold a licence to drive a moped
You can hold a licence to drive most vehicles
You can buy or hire a gun or ammunition
You can vote
You can buy alcohol
You can serve on a jury
You can get married without your parents' consent
You can become an MP
You can adopt a child
Part 2- Control through Peer Group and Gangs
Control through peer groups
As a young person you are socialised and controlled in a number of ways.
Sociologists refer to the different groups that control you as the agents of
social control. Some of these exist with the sole purpose of controlling you
and make sure you conform (follow the rules). These are known as the
formal agents of social control. The police, the courts and the army are all
formal agents of social control. Others also control you, but this is not the only
reason they exist. These are known as the informal agents of social control.
The peer group as an agent of social control
A simple definition of peer group is “others of the same age, with the same
background, interests and social status”. Many young people feel that their
peer group is the main agent of social control. Although it is an informal
agent, the influence of the peer group when we are 15 can be very strong.
Often it is fear of rejection or being laughed at that controls our behaviour.
However, sanctions can also be verbal or physical. It is the pressure to
conform from our peers that make us decide to follow this agent of social
control rather than another. For example, you might have to decide whether to
go home on time, as dictated by your family, or to stay out longer, as dictated
by your peer group. Peer group pressure is often stronger at different points in
our lives.
In the media, peer group pressure is commonly associated with negative
behaviour, but it can be positive. Your peer group can convince you not to
break the law, remind you to help others in trouble or even get you to do your
homework. This is known as positive peer group pressure, as it helps you to
conform to society's norms and values. Whilst the peer group is seen as an
agent of social control that conflicts with many others, this does not have to be
the case.
Other agencies of social control
Families: we are at our most impressionable when we are very young,
and the strength of the bond between parents and children means that
parents are in a uniquely powerful position to influence children. During
primary socialisation children accept norms and values and internalise
them; that is, they think of them as their role in an act as a conscience.
Parents have many ways of influencing their children's behaviour. They
reward some kinds of behaviour and make clear their disapproval of
others. They act as role models; the constant example set by people
that the child would like to be like is a powerful influence.
Schools: schools exercise control over young people in many ways.
Children have to be in school and have to behave in certain ways and
they can be punished if they do not conform to these requirements.
Some sociologists argue that this control of behaviour is the real
purpose of schools; and is more important than the content of the
lessons. This other side to what is learnt in schools is known as the
“hidden curriculum.”
Religion: for some (religious) young people religion offers a very
powerful deterrent against bad behaviour. In Christianity, sinners face
an eternity of hell and damnation, while the good will have everlasting
peace in heaven. Religions lay down rules for good conduct, and
prohibit other behaviour, promising rewards and threatening
punishments.
Mass media: messages in the media can have a strong influence on
behaviour. The news tells us who has been punished for which crimes,
and reinforce the idea that breaking the law is wrong. Television also
provides powerful role models.
Force
If the agencies of social control discussed above fail
to control people's behaviour, societies have yet
more powerful sanctions. The police are an
organisation set up for the explicit purpose of social
control, with a range of sanctions, from cautioning to
criminal charges. They can use force when they
think it necessary. They can use ankles, truncheons
and even sometimes guns.
Sometimes even this is not enough. If the police
cannot cope, the army will be used.
“The peer group is the most powerful agent of social control for
young people.” Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim.
[24]
Part 3- Youth Subculture
Youth Culture
How far do young people have a distinct culture of their own? Many adults
find it difficult to understand features of the teenage world which never existed
when they were young. Pop idols and fast changing fashions seem to give
young people a way of life that is alien and closed to most adults. While most
teenagers enjoy this youth culture, some join particular youth groups with
distinct lifestyles.
Youth subcultures
In looking at the postwar youth cults such as
Teddyboys and punks, sociologists have asked
whether such groups are subcultures. For
sociologists, culture means a way of life of a society.
A subculture therefore refers to a way of life
shared by a minority which is different in
important respects from the life pursued by the
majority of the population. For example, travellers
have a subculture because they have their own
distinctive patterns of behaviour and different values
and beliefs from the rest of society. Therefore, the
term youth subculture is used to refer to a group of
young people who lead a distinctive way of life with
their own attitudes, values and modes of behaviour.
Reasons for the development of youth subculture
Some sociologists have suggested that youth cults are a post-war
phenomenon. As well as the raising of the school leaving age, the following
reasons are usually given for the emergence of youth culture:
1. Affluence: in the 1950s teenagers had more money to spend than
previous generations. Industry began to respond to the growing
spending power of this age group by producing goods specifically
aimed at the youth market.
2. Leisure: modern teenagers not only have more money to spend than
previous generations but they also have more free time in which to
enjoy night-life, films, records, fashions and so on.
3. The mass media: two sorts of influence can be seen:
(a) the record industry, TV, radio and magazine publishers have expanded
to cater for the teenage market;
(b) the mass media as a whole have stimulated interest in new youth
groups. The popular press often seem obsessed with the new, “wayout” styles of the young
Identify and explain two reasons for the creation of “youth culture.”
[8]
It is undoubtedly the case that these factors have had an effect on young
people's lives and since the 1950s a series of youth cults have emerged with
their own styles of dress and music.
Youth culture and the media
Some observers argue that youth culture has emerged because of post-war
affluence, extended schooling and the unclear position in which modern youth
find themselves. Sociologists such as Stan Cohen have drawn attention to
the extent to which youth subcultures are the creation of the mass media.
Mods and rockers and moral panics
Cohen has looked at how the press reported events at Clacton on Easter
Sunday 1964. On this particular bank holiday, it was very cold and wet and
there was some fighting between young people who had gone to the coast
for a day of fun. A few ended up throwing stones at each other and
breaking windows and some of these belonged to groups of motorbike
riders called rockers or scooter riders called mods. The papers chose to
report these disturbances as “riots” and “battles”. Cohen argues that they
exaggerated events for two reasons:
1. The press often have very little news to report over a bank holiday
and there is also a natural tendency for reporters to over dramatise
events in the sensationalist, popular papers.
2. The press tend to take the same view as the police, magistrates
and parents playing fairies seem to be a threat from gangs of
youths. They overreact and amplify people's fears
When a society is undergoing rapid change, many people may feel anxious
that their basic institutions and values are being undermined. They may
focus their fears onto groups that can be blamed for society's ills. This
phenomenon of a group becoming the object of exaggerated concern and
fears has been termed a moral panic by sociologists. Cohen drew
attention to the role of the media in creating and sustaining the moral panic
about the mods and rockers who became “folk devils”, blamed for the
break-down of law and order that many people of the older generation
believed was happening.
“The media is responsible for the creation of youth subcultures.”
Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24]
Youth subcultures in the 1990s
Both of the following examples have partly developed from earlier
movements. Ravers have been inspired by the hippies of the 1960s and
Goths arose from the punks of the 1970s. The media have created a
considerable moral panic about ravers. In 1994, the Essex police deployed a
helicopter, as well as roadblocks, to try to prevent all-night acid house parties
or raves; six-month prison sentences were proposed for organisers for
breaking the licensing laws which govern the holding of public entertainments.
The Goths
Tristan Hoare, a student of youth culture, gives the following description of
Goths:
The Goths have their own style of dress music and values. The style of
dress reflects their outlook: just as Goths are independent of other
youth subcultures, their dress is independent of mainstream fashion.
Nobody mistakes a Goth for anything else. The title “Goth” was given
to this group by the media due to their vampire style of dress. The
Gothic byword is black. So Goths tend to wear black clothes and black
shoes (never trainers), to have black hair and to wear black make-up.
The Gothic physical ideal is athletically slim with a deathly pale
complexion.
The subculture revolves, as with most subcultures, around its music.
This veers between aggressive rock (Sisters of Mercy) through post
punk morbidity (Siouxsie and the Banshees) to industrial dance music
(Nine Inch Nails).
The social outlook of Goths in general is one of hatred for the norms of
society, which is partly the result of the negative response they tend to
receive from non-Goths, in particular from the older generation. Goths
have a passion for the arts and expend massive amounts of time and
effort on their own appearance, treating themselves as canvases for
their creativity. A certain degree of rivalry exists among groups of
Goths over who looks the most impressive.
Some people mistakenly think that Goths are Satanists (Devil
worshippers), possibly because of their style of dress. They are,
however, interested in earlier non-Christian religions and ways of life,
especially in Celtic Britain. This interest is shown in the style of
jewellery they wear.
In conclusion the Goths are a flamboyant
and distinctive youth subculture but not an
aggressive one. It is probably their
distinctiveness and independence that
has helped to keep them going for so
long.
Case study: raves and the “new tribes” of the 1990s
In 1993 Alix Sharkey investigated some of the latest trends in the youth
culture. Sharkey went to an all night rave held during the summer in a field
in Hertfordshire. Among the 15,000 strong crowd as she reckoned that
there were five “tribes”, each with their own style of dress and music, as
well as their romance and customs:

The Hardcore Nosebleed people wore baggy jeans, colourful tops
and “mental” accessories (floppy hats, dummies, industrial face
masks, handheld luminous bands).
 The Trendy-Trance tribe had a sharper look: short, well cut hair; hot
pants and tank tops; label jeans and Caterpillar boots.
 The Eurotechno-Ambient crowd had a dark and mysterious image:
slinky, sexy clothes with lots of black and silver.
 The Young Crusties had a recycled, patchwork look that was part
raver, part punk and part New Age traveller.
 The Hippy Nouveau tribe had the latest, fashionable version of the
Seattle “grunge” look: flared loons, Afghan coats and cheesecloth
shirts, with lank shoulder-length hair and a distinct odour of
Youth and
gender
patchouli.
In the 1970s, some sociologists argued that young teenage girls were part of
a gendered subculture. McRobbie and Garber (1976) referred to this as a
bedroom subculture. They wrote that it existed separately from boys, who
were hanging out in public. They interviewed a group of girls and found that
their culture was led by the media and involved experimenting with hair and
make-up and discussing boys in their bedrooms. Girls, because of the way
they were tightly controlled by their parents and because of the way that boys
dominated public space were therefore largely “invisible”.
This research found that girls are members of youth subcultures but in
marginal, “feminine” positions that reflect the normal sexual expectations of
boys. Girls are defined as “girlfriends” for example. Female skinheads and
punks are certainly rebelling against the mainstream culture of femininity, but
within the subcultures themselves traditional working-class gender divisions
still seemed to hold.
McRobbie 1991- “Ragga girls”
While McRobbie’s early work focused mainly on the “culture of the
bedroom” and the ways in which young women resisted subordination in
the home, her more recent work reflects important changes in the position
of young women and the cultural space they have claimed.
For example, she points to the way in which black “ragga” girls can use
sexually explicit dancing in a way that ridicules male sexuality and
reasserts female control. According to McRobbie, despite the sexism of the
lyrics in some raga music, it is now possible for young black women to use
this music to open up public cultural space for themselves.
“Girls do not have their own subcultures.” Evaluate the arguments for
and against this claim. [24]
Ethnicity and Youth Subcultures
Since the 1970s there have been a number of studies of young people from
ethnic minorities. Afro-Caribbean youth have probably attracted most attention
because of the negative images of them in the mass media.
Policing the Crisis
Hall (1978) and others conducted a study on the reasons for a wave of
media reports in the 1970s about “mugging”. Street crime has existed for
centuries, but the mass media’s use of the American word “mugging”
portrayed the problem as a new crime- a crime predominantly carried out
by blacks on whites. Black youth therefore came to be seen as a threat to
law and order in Britain. Another example of a moral panic!
A number of studies have focused on the
subculture of Rastafarianism. While only a
minority of Afro-Caribbean youths were or are
Rastafarian, the movement has encouraged a
sense of pride in being black amongst many
young blacks.
In recent years a variety of other black youth
subcultures have emerged which suggests that
for many young blacks, ethnicity, as well as
age, is important in developing a cultural
identity. Black youth subcultures have also
been an important influence on white young
people with many whites adopting black styles
of dress, speech and music.
Asian young people, because of their religious
traditions and the fact that they emerge from
close knit families, have traditionally been seen to be more conformist.
However, there is evidence that young Asians are developing their own
identities. While many young Asians feel a sense of loyalty to their parent’s
culture, they are also influenced by Western ideals and values. Elements of
both these can be seen in Asian youth subcultures.
Mac an Ghail (1988) - Young Black and Gifted
Although anti-school subcultures are traditionally seen as characteristic of
white working-class and Afro-Caribbean youth, Mac an Ghail’s study,
Young, Black and Gifted, describes how an anti-school subculture called
the Warriors existed alongside an Afro-Caribbean group, the Rastaheads.
Because of the conformist reputation of the Asians, the Warriors got into
far less trouble.
Class and Youth Subcultures
Some subcultures seem to unite young people of similar economic status. For
example, Skinhead culture united members of the working class, allowing its
members to release their frustration at being poor and unemployed. The
Anger of the Skinheads was targeted at immigrants -- it was a patriotic but
also a racist subculture. Others believe that Skinhead subculture did not start
out this way, but that it had its roots in Ska music, a fusion of Jamaican and
British and American rock.
Identify and explain two subcultures. [8]
Phil Cohen’s (1972) study of the
traditional working-class community in
the East End of London attempted to
decode the mod and skinhead youth
subcultures. Cohen argues that the
traditional working class community in
the East End was in decline by the 1960s
as traditional businesses and industries
were destroyed by economic change.
Rehousing, redevelopment and the influx
of immigrants meant that traditional
communities were broken up. In these
circumstances, young East Enders
sought to establish new identities for
themselves. The skinheads and the
mods represent alternative routes.
According to Cohen, the skinhead
subculture symbolizes an attempt to
recover the working-class community which was passing away. Skinhead’s
dress, with shaved heads, heavy boots, baggy trousers and braces,
represents an exaggerated version of traditional working men’s clothes.
Similarly, their attitudes and behaviour, typified by use of aggression and
violence to defend their territory, combined with dislike of black people and
middle-class youths such as hippies, could be seen as an exaggerated
version of traditional working-class male values.
The mods, by contrast, reflect the
upwardly mobile aspiration of a more
affluent section of the working class
who sought to copy the middle-class.
Mods wore flashy Italian suits and
drove scooters if they could afford
them. They aspired to a glamorous
lifestyle centred on nightclubs and
dance music, using drugs such as
“uppers” and “downers” to keep them
going. In reality, few working-class
mods could afford to indulge fully in this
lifestyle. However, Cohen suggests
that the style reflects a rejection of
traditional working-class culture and
attempt to embrace a more glamorous
and cosmopolitan lifestyle
Part 4- Gangs
Different types of gangs
Gangs are subcultures where the activities are classified as being delinquent.
Sociologists who have studied gangs have come to the conclusion that not all
gangs are the same. They can be defined according to the type of area from
which their members originate. Sociologists Cloward and Ohlin defined types
of gangs under three broad categories1. Firstly they identified criminal gangs in which adolescents used crime
in order to attain “money success”. These gangs tended to emerge in
areas where many of the adults, who were role-models to the young,
were involved in crime, and the young men were able to learn the tricks
of the trade.
2. Conflict gangs are fighting gangs. These tended to emerge in areas
where neither legal (by being successful at school and gaining
qualifications), or illegal (by breaking the law) opportunities for success
existed. As a result, gang members resorted to violence as a means of
escape.
3. Retreatist gangs centred on illegal drug-using and hustling.
Delinquent youths who were not able to be a successful member of the
other two types of gang tended to join these gangs.
Which sort of gang a person therefore joined depended largely on the type of
social background they came from.
Identify and explain two types of gang. [8]
Reasons for joining gangs
Boredom: for many, joining a gang is relief from boredom. It is little more than
“something to do”. Because of this, many youth workers feel that the way to
stop young people getting into gangs is by providing activities and groups for
them to get involved in.
Sense of belonging: Walter Miller (1958) felt that adolescence is a time
when young people often feel lonely and unsure of themselves. As a result
they feel the need to belong, to fit in. For this reason gang membership is
popular as it offers a sense of belonging.
Labelling theory: was developed by Becker (1951) in relation to the study of
delinquency and was later applied to the study of teacher’s interactions with
students. He found that teachers often “label” their students in their own
minds; sometimes subconsciously, and go on to treat them according to their
preconceptions. This was particularly the case with children from workingclass and ethnic-minority backgrounds.
Eisenstadt: The functionalist view of youth subcultures
Eisenstadt argued that adolescence is a period of “limbo”. As a result,
young people turn to their peers- young people of their own age who are
experiencing the same problems and anxieties. Peer groups therefore
perform an important function in providing support for young people in
making the difficult transition from childhood to adulthood in industrial
society. Eisenstadt’s ideas were the inspiration for the scout movement
which began in the early 20th century.
Eisenstadt believed that an extended period of “youth” is required to
socialise young people into the complex values and skills of modern
society. Therefore society separates young people and allocates them a
marginal, transitional status. But this can lead to confusion and identity
problems for those young people. Eisenstadt argues that gangs provide
them with a solution to these problems. It helps them to work out their
identities and provides them with the necessary support and
companionship during a difficult time in their growth.
Family: fictional presentations of gangs in the media often focus on the idea
that young people who join gangs are lacking in family and/or role models.
This image is one of boys with no father is turning to gang leaders to replace
their missing father.
“People join gangs because they have problems with their family.”
Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24]
Friendship: for some, the people they hang out with are merely their
friendship group rather than a gang. The media sometimes reports normal
youths' behaviour as gang behaviour. A good example of this is the recent
moral panic associated with young people who wear “hoodies”. Their uniform
appearance is due to shared tastes and their behaviour is just related to
friends having fun. The supposed hierarchy, with a known leader, is just the
norm of a group where some take on the role as leader, whilst others take on
the role of followers. The strong loyalty of the group results from the value we
have for friends.
Status Frustration: Albert Cohen (1955) stated that some working-class
children fail to succeed in school and have little social status. Due to this he
noted that song, out of resentment, join a group which has different norms
and values to the society in which they are a failure. In this new group or
gang, the young person can gain a new, higher status due to the different
(often delinquent) norms and values.
“People only join a gang because they are forced to.” Evaluate the
arguments for and against this claim. [24]
Albert Cohen- Status Frustration
Cohen studied gang behaviour in certain inner city areas. He noted that
this behaviour was concerned with immediate gratification. The
destructiveness evident in the behaviour of gangs- to which members
exhibited great loyalty- indicated rejection of the norms and values of the
wider society.
Cohen’s explanation for the behaviour of these gangs drew on the idea of
“status frustration”. As they fail in school, some youths begin to recognise
that they can’t “make it” by legitimate means. In order to attain “money
success” valued by the rest of culture, such individuals would turn to crime
and join with others of the same nature in time.
Activities such as stealing and vandalism become valued. The gang
therefore takes revenge on wider society and provides its members with
opportunities for success. Cheeking the teacher also offers the delinquent
individual status in the eyes of his fellow delinquents.
Peer group pressure: sometimes in the media gang membership is
presented as a rite of passage in the area depicted. It is not optional. Joining
the gang is what you have to do or you will be picked on as a “nonnie” (nongang member).
Social networks: in Howard Williamson’s study Milltown Boys (1997),
after observing a delinquent gang for some time, he concluded that it was not
organised. Although the gang cared about territory and hierarchy, they were
not focused on illegal activities -- it was more about having a social network.
Identify and explain two reasons why someone may join a gang. [8]
Typical gangs members?
Gender Patterns
Kenneth Thompson (1998) notes that there has been a rise recently in
media moral panics concerning “girl gangs”. We can locate this panic within
a general media concern with so called “rising female violence” and with an
increase in the media- and in films in particular- of images of strong, violent
women, so-called “shebos” after the 1980s action character “Rambo”, and
with the feminist film “Thelma and Louise”.
“Only boys join gangs.” Evaluate the arguments for and against this
claim. [24]
BBC2 Documentary- “Rude Girls”- Produced by Morgan Matthews
Many of the gangs that girls claimed to belong to didn't exist in a
structured, hierarchical way. As for their antisocial actions, Matthews says:
"I wouldn't say their behaviour is typical, but I would say that some of their
attitudes are fairly typical."
He has no great theory about what gives rise to lives disrupted at so early
an age. Death of a parent when the girls were able to appreciate loss, lack
of male role models while they were growing up, and a distrust of advice
and guidance - whether from family or school, social work, or courts - are
all factors, he believes. Yet Matthews reckons the girls he filmed are not
bad through and through.
"It's just a stage in their lives," he says. "It's not something they're going to
be doing forever. I had my teenage episodes as well, you know. I had my
daughter when I was 15, and I'm 25 now, so I know about those times, and
I do know that people move on and I do think those girls will."
Patterns of Ethnicity
Black and Asian youths are much more likely to be
stopped and arrested by the police than white youths.
For many people this has led to the allegation that the
police are in some way racist and deliberately target
ethnic minorities. This view gained support after the
MacPherson report (1999) labelled the Metropolitan
Police as “institutionally racist” in relation to its failure
to arrest and prosecute the murderers of the black
teenager Stephen Lawrence.
Racism on the part of the police has been suggested as a reason for
members of ethnic minorities becoming members of a gang- they join as a
form of resistance against the racism of the authorities (this includes schools
as well as the police) and the racism of other youths in general.
Ethnicity in school- The work of Gilbourn
Gilbourn focused on the way in which ethnic differences influenced how
teachers perceived their pupils. He found that African-Caribbean pupils,
both male and female, received a disproportionate amount of punishment
and criticism from teachers. Even where pupils of different ethnic minorities
were engaged in the same behaviour, it was the Afro-Caribbean children
who were singled out for punishment.
Many teachers were unconscious of their behaviour in “labelling” these
pupils as trouble-makers. However, once the initial label had stuck and was
being constantly reinforced by those in authority (the teachers) it became a
self-fulfilling prophecy. This was reflected in the number of report cards
given to these pupils (37% had been on report compared with 6% of other
ethnicpatterns
minorities).
Class
There have been a number of studies considering the class background of
gang members. It seems that there is a clear link between material and
social deprivation and gang membership. Gang membership is seen to be
more popular among sons of manual workers and among those who live in
big families. Unemployment and ill-health are also seen as factors likely to be
associated with gang membership, and these factors are known to be more
prevalent in low income areas.
Townsend- Social and Material Deprivation
In his study of Londoners in 1987, Townsend distinguished between
material and social deprivation.
Material deprivation covered dietary deprivation, clothing
deprivation, housing deprivation, deprivation of home facilities,
deprivation of environment, deprivation of location and
deprivation at work.
Social deprivation covered lack of employment rights,
deprivation of family activity, lack of integration into the
community, lack of participation in social institutions, recreational
deprivation and educational deprivation.
All of the above factors have been found to be factors influencing
membership of gangs.
“Working class boys are more likely to join a gang.” Evaluate the
arguments for and against this claim. [24]