Download America On the World Stage 1899-1909

America On the World Stage
1899-1909
&
Progressivism and the Republican Roosevelt
1901-1912
Part I
A.P. US History
Mr. Houze
Be able to:
Explain the ways in which (a) the Boxer
Rebellion, (b) the Open Door notes, and
(c) the Portsmouth and Algeciras
conferences signaled a new departure for
American foreign policy.
Anti-Imperialists
The ‘Spanish-American
War’, the ‘Filipino
Insurrection’, and U.S.
acquisition of overseas
possessions all
combined to produce a
fierce domestic debate
over imperialism!
3
Anti-Imperialists
• In America, a vocal minority composed of Democrats
and former ‘Populists’ objected to America’s new
empire as unwise, immoral, unconstitutional, and
against America’s basic principles! – among them
were:
–
–
–
–
Mark Twain,
William Jennings Bryan,
Samuel Gompers, and
Andrew Carnegie.
• Anti-Imperialists formed the ‘Anti-Imperialist League’ to
oppose the new course of American foreign policy – their
arguments were drowned out by the ‘Gilded Age’s’
moral tone of ‘social Darwinism’ and its emphasis on
survival of the fittest and Anglo-Saxon racial
superiority.
4
‘Columbia’s Easter Bonnet’
U.S. Tries on World Power Cartoon from ‘Puck’
1901
• In 1900, McKinley ran for
a second term – his
popularity was high
because:
(1) the country had
returned to prosperity
after the depression of
1893-1897,
(2) the U.S. was firmly on
the gold standard, and
(3) the nation had been
through a victorious
war - bringing new
markets and overseas
possessions
I.
War & Empire
A. The ‘Election of 1900’ – A Referendum
• Theodore Roosevelt, elected governor of New York following the
war, was maneuvered into accepting the vice-presidential
spot on McKinley’s ticket - a place where conservative political
bosses in New York State believed Theodore Roosevelt the
reformer could not harm their interests.
• William Jennings Bryan, the Democratic nominee in 1900,
campaigned on:
(1) his opposition to corporate trusts and monopolies,
(2) support for the defunct issue of ‘free silver’, and
(3) most importantly, his opposition to imperialism.
• During the campaign, Republicans attacked what they
characterized as ‘Bryanism’ – the notion that the election of
Bryan would bring a return of bad economic times and other
problems.
I.
War & Empire
A. The ‘Election of 1900’ – A Referendum
• By tying himself to anti-imperialism and the ‘free
silver’ issue, Bryan virtually committed political
suicide – the running joke was that the odds of his
winning were ‘16 to 1’.
• McKinley defeated Bryan by a wider margin than in
the 1896 election [292 electoral to Bryan’s 155 electoral]
– a reflection of the public’s greater desire for
prosperity and protectionism rather than a referendum
on imperialism.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt – the Diplomat & His Big
Stick
A. Rough Rider President
• On September 6, 1901,
Pres. McKinley attended
the Pan-American
Exposition in Buffalo,
N.Y. – there he was shot
twice by Leon Czolgosz
(zolgosh), a deranged
anarchist, and died eight
days later.
• Theodore Roosevelt
succeeded to the
presidency – at forty-two
the youngest man ever to
move into the White
House.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt – the Diplomat & His Big
Stick
A. Rough Rider President
• Roosevelt, born into a New York patrician family, was
known for his impulsiveness, enormous talent and
energy – traits he used to strengthen the power of the
presidency and the federal government.
• In the aftermath of the assassination, Roosevelt sought
to reassure the nation by stating his intent to carry out
the policies of his predecessor.
• However as an ardent expansionist, he believed the
executive branch should actively shape American
foreign policy and promote the nation’s interests
abroad – at times by exceeding the legal limits of his
constitutional powers.
“Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far.”
-- lost African proverb
• In the Caribbean, Roosevelt
guarded America’s ‘sphere
of influence’ by announcing
the Roosevelt Corollary to
the Monroe Doctrine – a
policy which, in effect,
made the U.S. the
hemisphere’s policeman!
• He believed “civilized”
nations should police and
control the behavior of
“backward” nations –
relying on military
strength and diplomacy in
pursuit of American
interests.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big Stick
• The ‘Roosevelt Corollary’:
(1) promised the United States would not intervene in
Latin America as long as nations conducted their
affairs with “decency”, and
(2) served notice to the European powers to keep out.
• In 1902, Roosevelt risked war with Germany by
intervening in the Venezuelan debt dispute – a problem
that was eventually settled through arbitration.
• Roosevelt, a strong advocate of naval power, had long
supported the idea of building a canal linking the
Caribbean and the Pacific Ocean – an idea that would
greatly enhance the flexibility of U.S. naval power.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big Stick
• The Spanish-American
War had well illustrated
the need for an isthmian
canal – in 1898, the
U.S.S. Oregon [assigned
to the Pacific Fleet] was
forced to make the long,
time-consuming voyage
around S. America to join
the Atlantic Fleet off
Cuba.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big Stick
• A canal was paramount to defending America’s
expanding merchant marine shipping and territorial
acquisitions [Puerto Rico, Hawaii, the Philippines, and
Guam].
• In 1901, the U.S. and Britain signed the Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty which cancelled the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty of
1850 – giving the U.S. unrestricted control over any canal
built.
• The two proposed canal routes were:
(1) through Nicaragua, or
(2) a Panamanian route, through the purchase of canal
rights from the French-owned New Panama Canal
Company.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big Stick
• Philippe Bunau-Varilla, an engineer and representative
of the French company, initially offered to sell its
holdings for $109 million – the price quickly dropped to
$40 million.
• Congress approved the Panamanian route in June
1902 – afterwards a Columbian official signed a treaty
giving the U.S. a six-mile-wide right-of-way for $10
million and an annual payment of $250,000.
• The Columbian Senate considered the $10 million an
inadequate payment and rejected the treaty – a
decision which infuriated President Roosevelt as
virtual blackmail.
• Columbia would have accepted a payment ranging
between $25 million and $40 million but time for further
negotiations ran out.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big
Stick
• The U.S. government then aided and protected a
‘Panamanian Revolution’ [November 3, 1903] by:
(1) sending the U.S.S. Nashville to guard the isthmus, and
(2) supporting Philip Bunau-Varilla’s ‘bought’ soldiers in the
takeover of Panama.
• Roosevelt defended American support for
Panamanian ‘revolutionaries’ by loosely interpreting
an 1848 treaty with Columbia whereby the U.S.
obligated itself to maintaining “perfect neutrality” of the
isthmus.
• The U.S. State Department quickly recognized the new
government of Panama within twenty-four hours Panama accepted the $10 million dollars first offered to
Columbia and granted the U.S. a ten-mile-wide zone.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big Stick
The Panama Canal
• Work began on the
Panama Canal in 1903
and was completed in
1914 at a cost of nearly
$400 million.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big Stick
The Panama Canal
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big
Stick
• In 1905, Theodore Roosevelt again intervened in Latin
America when the U.S. took over tariff collections in
the Dominican Republic, Venezuela and Costa Rica –
ensuring the repayment of debts owed to German and
British banks.
• This enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine against outside
interference was informally known as “preventive
intervention”; formally as the Roosevelt Corollary.
• The Roosevelt Corollary was a radical policy departure
which gained acceptance because of its linkage to
the honored Monroe Doctrine - it also promoted the
Bad Neighbor policy used to justify wholesale
interventions.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big
Stick
America on the World Stage
• Theodore Roosevelt
helped established the
U.S. as a force in world
affairs between 1905-1906
through his mediation of
several international
disputes.
• At the ‘Portsmouth
Conference’ of 1905,he
mediated an end to the
Russo-Japanese War that
began when Japan invaded
Manchuria and threatened
Russia’s ‘sphere of
influence’.
II.
Theodore Roosevelt - the Diplomat & His Big
Stick
America on the World Stage (cont.)
• In 1906, Theodore
Roosevelt attended the
‘Algeciras Conference’ –
mediating a peaceful
solution to a dispute
involving French and
German interests in N.
Africa - adding to his
reputation as an astute
negotiator.
• That year, Roosevelt
earned the Nobel Peace
Prize for his role in ending
the Russo-Japanese War
and for the successful
Algeciras, Spain
conference.
III.
Progressivism Finds a President:
Theodore Roosevelt the Diplomat
• In Asia, Roosevelt continued the Open Door policy but he did not pursue an aggressive Asian policy.
• However, the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake
provided Roosevelt with another challenge – this time
involving the San Francisco School Board’s order to
segregate Chinese, Japanese, and Korean students
in a special school to free more space for white students
(segregation)
• The School Board’s discriminatory legislation raised
official protests from the Japanese government –
jeopardizing good relations between Japan and the
United States.
III.
Progressivism Finds a President:
Theodore Roosevelt the Diplomat (cont.)
• In 1907, President Roosevelt intervened by calling the
entire San Francisco School Board to the White
House and pressured the city to rescind its
segregation order – smoothing over relations with
Japan.
• In return, Japan’s government accepted the
Gentleman’s Agreement, an informal agreement calling
for voluntary restrictions on Japanese immigration to
the United States!
• The Gentleman’s Agreement placated “nativist”
sentiments in California while also allowing Japan to
save face in the matter.
III.
Progressivism Finds a President:
Theodore Roosevelt the Diplomat (cont.)
• Afterwards, Roosevelt worried that his intervention in the
school board issue might be interpreted in Tokyo as
having been prompted by fear of the Japanese – as a
consequence, he decided on a dramatic show of
force.
• In late 1907, Roosevelt ordered the ‘Great White Fleet’
[sixteen modern U.S. Navy battleships] to sail around
the world on a ‘goodwill tour’ that also demonstrated
America’s naval power – it received tumultuous
welcomes in Latin America, Hawaii, New Zealand,
Australia, and particularly Japan.
• Roosevelt’s show of American naval power illustrated his
dictum “Speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go
far.”
-- lost African
III.
Progressivism Finds a President:
Theodore Roosevelt the Diplomat (cont.)
• The ‘Great White Fleet’s’
world voyage and the
warm reception it received
in Japan improved
relations with and between
the two countries under a
new treaty.
• The 1908 ‘Root-Takahira’
agreement pledged the
U.S. and Japan to honor
the Open Door’ in China
and support the status
quo in the Pacific by
respecting the others
territorial claims.
Progressivism & the
Republican Roosevelt
1901-1912
Part I
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Progressive Roots: Pragmatism & Social
Engineering
• The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed the
emergence of America as a world power complete
with modern metropolises, giant corporations,
sweatshop labor, immense factories, nation-altering
immigration, as well as growing crime, vice, poverty,
and disease!
• These changes raised a number of complex
questions, including:
(1) What role should the U.S. play in the world?
(2) How could the enormous power of industry be
controlled?
(3) What should the country do about poverty, disease,
and racial injustice?
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Progressive Roots: Pragmatism & Social
Engineering (cont.)
• Central to all of these complex questions was a larger
question – Should government remain narrowly
limited in its powers, or should it seek to shape
society and secure American interests abroad?
• The ‘Progressive Movement’ marked the first attempt
to answer these questions as reform-minded men and
women from both major parties and from all walks of life
joined in a progressive crusade for greater
government activism.
• Clearly, by the 1890s, the classical liberal approach
which opposed strong central government and a ‘laissezfaire’ attitude toward business no longer worked.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Progressive Roots: Pragmatism & Social
Engineering (cont.)
• The ‘laissez-faire’ state of the 1890s exacerbated
social injustices and inequalities of race, class, and
gender – as evidenced by the era’s labor strikes,
suffrage rallies, farmers’ revolt, anti-lynching
campaigns, and court decisions elevating the right
of private property over personal rights!
• ‘Progressive’ reformers championed various causes to
better society – some motivated by:
– a new Christian ‘social gospel’,
– the fear of ‘new’ immigrants and social revolution, and
– concern over the growing power of wealthy individuals and
corporations.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Progressive Roots: Pragmatism & Social
Engineering (cont.)
• Progressivisms’ interventionist and theoretical basis
was rooted in:
(1) the Greenback Labor party of the 1870s,
(2) the Populists of the 1890s, and, most importantly
(3) a dynamic new ‘reform Darwinism’ that emphasized
‘pragmatism’, scientific management, experimentation,
and efficiency.
• In the ‘Progressive Era’, a new group of sociologists
argued that evolution could be advanced if men and
women used their intellect to alter the environment –
insisting that the ‘state’ should play a more active role in
solving social problems; a condemning view of
‘laissez-faire’ politics!
• Progressives were influenced primarily by the work of
two philosophers – William James and John Dewey.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Progressive Roots: Pragmatism, & Social
Engineering (cont.)
• Both James and Dewey insisted that there were no
eternal truths and that the real worth of any idea lay
in its consequences – they called this philosophy
pragmatism.
• American progressives embraced this philosophy of
‘pragmatism’ which provided the motivation for
attacking society’s ills through reform – in the
process, ‘efficiency’ and ‘expertise’ became key
catchwords in the progressive lexicon.
• The reliance of progressives on expertise, social
engineering, and scientific management had its
negative aspects – including an alienation of the
working class and a kind of elitism among
progressives!
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
A. Progressive Roots: Pragmatism & Social
Engineering (cont.)
• In the 1880s, Frederick Winslow Taylor, a leading
proponent of scientific management, pioneered the
concept of ‘systematized shop management’ –
breaking down work tasks into basic steps on the theory
that productivity would increase.
• “Taylorism” alienated and “monotonized” the lives of
workers - pushing them to produce more in less time as
it drove down wages.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
The Muckrakers
• Among the era’s notable investigative journalistic
works were:
(1) Henry Demarest Lloyd’s ‘Wealth Against Commonwealth’, an exposé
of Rockefeller’s Standard Oil Company,
(2) Thorstein Veblen’s ‘The Theory of the Leisure Class’, which attacked
‘conspicuous consumption’ and ‘predatory wealth’,
(3) Ida Tarbell’s investigative pieces on Standard Oil which appeared in
McClure’s Magazine,
(4) Jacob Riis’s ‘How the Other Half Lives’, an exposé on life in New
York slums,
(5) Lincoln Steffens’ ‘The Shame of the Cities’, a series of articles on
political corruption,
(6) David G. Phillips’ ‘The Treason of the Senate’, a series of articles on
U.S. Senate corruption, and
(7) John Spargo’s ‘The Bitter Cry of the Children’, an exposé on the
abuses of child labor.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
The ‘Muckrakers’ (cont.)
• ‘Progressive Era’ journalists did not seek to overthrow
capitalism – only to correct social wrongs by raising the
public’s social consciousness of the ills of American
democracy.
• Labeled ‘muckrakers’ by Roosevelt in 1906, these
journalists offered few solutions to the problems they
criticized.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Cities, Women, & ‘Social Purity’
• Progressives attacked the problems of urban
industrialism on many fronts – the “settlement house”
movement, for example, offered English language
instruction, counseling, childcare services for
working mothers, and cultural activities.
• Imported from England in 1886, the “settlement house”
movement began with the opening of the ‘University
Settlement House’ in New York City.
• Settlement houses’ grew from six in 1891 to more than
four hundred by 1911
• Among the more famous “settlement houses” were:
– Lillian Wald’s Henry Street in New York City, and
– Jane Addams’s Hull House in Chicago
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Cities, Women, & ‘Social Purity’
• Women formed the backbone of the ‘settlement
house’ movement –
particularly collegeeducated women like
Jane Addams and
Lillian Wald.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
C. Cities, Women, & ‘Social Purity’ (cont.)
• Churches also confronted social problems caused by
urban industrialization – by professing a new Christian
‘social gospel’ and campaigning against vice and
crime in the name of ‘social purity’.
• Churches, whose efforts often began at the local level,
saw their mission as not simply to reform individuals
but also to reform society – their efforts became the
focus of debates in state legislatures, in Congress, and
in the White House.
• Prominent ministers, including Washington Gladden
and Walter Rauschenbusch, played active roles in the
‘social purity’ movement.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Cities, Women, & ‘Social Purity’ (cont.)
• Gladden, a Congregational minister, was the first to
offer the ‘social gospel’ as a counter to Andrew
Carnegie’s ‘gospel of wealth’ [idea that wealth
signaled divine favor]
• Rauschenbusch, a Baptist minister, authored
‘Christianity and the Social Crisis’ which called for
churches to promote social justice and ‘social purity’
through active support of reform efforts to eradicate the
conditions in cities which bred crime, corruption and
decay !
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Cities, Women, & ‘Social Purity’ (cont.)
• Ministers in the ‘social purity’ movement allied with
doctors and women reformers to end prostitution by:
(1) closing down red-light districts in U.S. cities,
(2) winning passage in 1910 of the ‘Mann Act’ making it
illegal to transport women across state lines for ‘immoral
purposes’, and
(3) control venereal disease by securing passage of state
legislation requiring a syphilis blood test before marriage.
• Joining the reformers were the ‘Woman’s Christian
Temp-erance Union’, the ‘Anti-Saloon League’ and
other anti-liquor organizations pushing their attacks
against alcohol.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Cities, Women, & ‘Social Purity’ (cont.)
• The movement for
prohibition of liquor
reflected an element of
‘Nativism’ that
stigmatized Germans,
Irish, Italians, and other
ethnic groups for whom
drinking formed part of
their social customs.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
Cities, Women, & ‘Social Purity’ (cont.)
• Progressive’s efforts to
civilize the ‘city’ reflected:
(1) a belief that
environment, not
heredity alone,
determined behavior,
and
(2) their optimism that
government
intervention could
improve conditions
without radically
altering America’s
institutions or economy.
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
D. Working-class Women
• In 1903, attempts to forge a ‘cross-class’ alliance
between female middle-class reformers and workingclass women became institutionalized with the formation
of the ‘Women’s Trade Union League’ – its goal was to
organize women into unions under the control of the ‘AF
of L’
• The ‘WTUL’s achieved notable success in 1909 in the
‘upris-ing of twenty thousand’ – a strike of women
employees of the ‘Triangle Shirtwaist Company ‘ in New
York City protesting low wages, dangerous working
conditions, and management’s refusal to recognize their
union
• In February 1910, the strike ended with winning
important demands in many shops – they did not win
recognition of their union
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
D. Working-class Women (cont.)
• Samuel Gompers, head of the AF of L, endorsed the
principle of equal pay for equal work – believing that it
would help male workers more than women because
many employers hired women since they could be paid
less
• The ‘WTUL’ made important contributions to the strike
including (1) volunteers for picket lines, (2) posting
$29,000 in bail for those arrested by police, (3)
protesting police brutality, (4) arranging mass meetings,
and (5) raising funds and publicity
• With the leadership and support of the ‘WTUL’, women
from every class of society supported the ‘Triangle
Shirtwaist Company’ strike – including J.P. Morgan’s
daughter Anne
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
D. Working-class Women (cont.)
• In March 1911, a fire at the ‘Triangle Shirtwaist
Company’ killed 146 workers and injured many more –
its owners, charged with negligence, escaped conviction
despite the fact they had locked the exit doors
• The ‘Triangle Shirtwaist Company’ fire tested the bonds
of the cross-class alliance and provided evidence that
basic working conditions for women workers had not
changed
• After the ‘Triangle’ fire, the ‘WTUL’ moved beyond its
initial efforts at organization and strikes – increasingly, it
engaged in lobbying for protective legislation that would
regulate working conditions for women workers and limit
work hours
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
D. Working-class Women (cont.)
• In 1908, the principle of protective legislation won a
major victory when the U.S. Supreme Court in ‘Muller v.
Oregon’ upheld an Oregon law that limited the hours
women could work to ten a day
• In ‘Muller v. Oregon’, attorney Louis Brandeis presented
a legal brief [on behalf of Florence Kelley of the ‘National
Consumers’ League’ and Josephine Goldmark of the
‘WTUL’] delivering sociological evidence of the ill effects
of long work hours on women
• The ‘Court’s’ ruling in set a precedent that separated the
well-being of women workers from that of men – arguing
that women’s reproductive role justified special treatment
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
E. Political Progressivism
• Progressives, frustrated by the reluctance of private
industry to respond to the need for reforms, turned
increasingly to government at the federal, state, and
local levels to solve society’s problems
• By 1901, progressive reform efforts could be seen at
every level of government - the politicians who became
premier progressives were generally the followers, not
the leaders, of a movement already well advanced at the
grassroots level
• Among the premier politicians of the progressive era
were Mayor Tom Johnson of Cleveland, Ohio, Governor
Hiram Johnson of California, Governor Robert La
Follette of Wisconsin, President Theodore Roosevelt,
President William Howard Taft, and President Woodrow
Wilson
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
E. Political Progressivism (cont.)
• Mayor Johnson fought for ‘home rule’, fair taxation and
greater democracy through the use of the initiative,
referen-dum, and recall – political devices that allowed
voters a direct say in legislation and judicial matters
• Johnson fought a seven-year battle with streetcar
moguls to lower the fare from 5¢ to 3¢ – earning him the
support of the working class and the enmity of business
interests
• Johnson’s efforts ultimately succeeded when the city
bought out streetcar lines to create a municipally owned
public transportation system
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
E. Political Progressivism (cont.)
• Wisconsin’s Governor
Robert La Follette launched the grassroots movement for reform – first as
Governor [1901-1905]
and as a U.S. Senator
[1906-1925]
• He recruited professors
and scientists from the
Univer-sity of Wisconsin,
to serve in his
administration
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
E. Political Progressivism (cont.)
• La Follette united his supporters around issues that
trans-cended party loyalties, including industrial and
railroad regulation, education reform, worker’s
compensation and conservation
• Under his leadership, Wisconsin became the first state to
use of the ‘direct primary’ and inaugurate the first state
income tax – earning Wisconsin the title ‘laboratory of
democracy’
• In California, progressivism’s champion was Hiram
Johnson, who served as governor from 1911-1917 and
U.S. Senator from 1917 to 1945
• As governor, Johnson promised to “return government
to the people” – to give them honest public service
untarnished by corruption and corporate influence
I.
Progressivism: Theory & Practice
E. Political Progressivism (cont.)
• Johnson took on the powerful ‘Southern Pacific Railroad’
which had dominated California politics since the 1870s
• He strengthened the state’s RR commission, signed an
employer’s liability law, supported conservation, and
intro-duced the direct primary, initiative, referendum, and
recall
• By 1912, Gov. Johnson claimed regulation of the
‘Southern Pacific RR’ had saved shippers more than $2
million
• Among those who benefited from Johnson’s progressive
reforms were large farmers, independent oil producers,
and other entrepreneurs once at the mercy of the
railroads