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Lesson 30 - The Reformation Begins
Section 1 - Introduction
At the height of the Renaissance, western Europe was still Roman Catholic. In this
chapter, you will learn about the beginnings of the Reformation. This movement led
to the start of many new Christian churches that broke away from the Catholic
Church.
The Reformation began in the early 1500s and lasted into the 1600s. Until then, all
Christians in western Europe were Catholics. But even before the Reformation, the
Church’s religious and moral authority was starting to weaken.
One reason for the weakening of the Church was the humanism of the Renaissance.
Humanists often were secular, or non¬religious, in their thinking. They believed in
free thought and questioned many accepted beliefs.
Problems within the Church added to this spirit of questioning. Many Catholics were
dismayed by worldliness and corruption (immoral and dishonest behavior) in the
Church. Sometimes, bishops and clergy used questionable practices to raise money.
Some popes seemed more concerned with power and wealth than with spiritual
matters.
These problems led a number of Catholics to call for reform. They questioned the
authority of Church leaders and some of the Church’s teachings. Some broke away from the Church
entirely. They became known as “Protestants” because of their protests against the Catholic Church. The
establishment of Protestant churches divided Christians into many separate groups.
In this chapter, you will learn more about the factors that weakened the Roman Catholic Church. You will
learn how a German priest, Martin Luther, ignited a movement that ended the religious unity of Europe.
You will also learn about other early reformers and leaders of the Reformation.
Section 2 - The Weakening of the Catholic Church
By the Late Middle Ages, two major problems were weakening the Roman Catholic Church. The first
was worldliness and corruption within the Church. The second was political conflict
between the pope and European monarchs.
Worldliness and Corruption Within the Church During the Middle Ages, the
Catholic Church united the Christians of western Europe in a single faith. But the
Church was a political and economic institution as well as a religious one. By the
1300s, many Catholics felt that the Church had become far too worldly and corrupt.
Too often, Church officials failed to live up to their role as spiritual leaders. For
example, priests, monks, and nuns made vows, or solemn promises, not to marry or
have children. Yet many broke these vows. Others seemed to ignore Christian values. Church leaders
often behaved like royalty instead of God's servants. For example, the popes, and many cardinals and
bishops, were extremely wealthy and powerful.
People were also troubled by the way many Church officials raised money to support the church. One
method was the practice of selling indulgences. An indulgence is a release from punishment for sins.
During the Middle Ages, the Church granted indulgences in return for gifts to the Church and good
works. People who received indulgences did not have to perform good deeds to make up for their sins.
Over time, popes and bishops began selling indulgences as a way of raising money. This practice made it
seem that people could buy forgiveness for their sins. Many Catholics were deeply disturbed by the abuse
of indulgences.
The Church also sold offices, or leadership positions. This practice is called simony. Instead of being
chosen based on their merit and accomplishments, buyers simply paid for their jobs. Buying an office was
worthwhile because it could be a source of income. Often, people acquired multiple offices in different
places without actually going there to perform their duties.
People questioned other practices as well. Some clergy charged pilgrims to see holy objects, such as the
relics of saints. In addition, all Catholics paid taxes to the Church. Many people resented having to pay
taxes to Rome as well as to their own governments.
Political Conflicts with European Rulers In the Middle Ages, the pope
became a powerful political figure, as well as a religious leader. The Church
also accumulated vast wealth. Its political and economic power presented a
problem for monarchs, because the Church claimed that its clergy were
independent of political rulers’ control.
As monarchs tried to increase their own power, they often came into conflict
with the pope. They quarreled with the pope over Church property and the
right to make appointments to Church offices. Popes also became involved in
other political conflicts. These disputes added to the questioning of the pope’s authority. At times, the
conflicts damaged the Church’s reputation.
One dramatic crisis unfolded in France in 1301. When King Philip IV tried to tax the French clergy, the
pope threatened to force him out of the Church. In response, soldiers hired by the king kidnapped the
pope. The pope was soon released, but he died a few weeks later.
The quarrel with the king ended under Pope Clement V. In 1309, Clement moved his headquarters from
Rome to the French city of Avignon. He appointed 24 new cardinals during his reign, 22 of whom were
French. The next six popes also lived in Avignon and named still more French cardinals. Many
Europeans believed that France’s kings now controlled the papacy, or the office of the pope. As a result,
they lost respect for the pope as the supreme head of the Church.
An even worse crisis developed after Pope Gregory XI moved the papacy back to Rome in 1377. In 1378,
Gregory died, and an Italian was elected pope. The new pope refused to move back to Avignon. A group
of cardinals, most of them French, left Rome and elected a rival pope. The Church now had two popes,
one in Rome and one in Avignon. Later, a Church council elected a third pope. Each pope claimed to be
the real head of the Church.
This division in the Church is called the Great Schism. For nearly 40 years, the various lines of popes
denounced each other as impostors. Catholics were divided and confused. The Great Schism lessened
people’s respect for the papacy and sparked calls for reform.
Section 3 - Early Calls for Reform
By the 1300s, the Church was beginning to lose some of its moral and religious
standing. Many Catholics, including clergy, criticized the corruption and abuses in
the Church. They challenged the authority of the pope. Some began to question
Church teachings and to develop new forms of Christian faith.
Reformers wanted to purify the Church, not destroy it. By challenging the
Church’s practices and teachings, however, they helped pave the way for the
dramatic changes of the Reformation.
John Wycliffe (About 1330–1384) John Wycliffe (WIH-cliff) was a scholar
from England. Wycliffe challenged the Church’s right to money that it demanded from England. When
the Great Schism began, he publicly questioned the pope’s authority. He also criticized indulgences and
immoral behavior on the part of the clergy.
During the Middle Ages, Church officials tried to control how the Bible was interpreted. Wycliffe
believed that the Bible, not the Church, was the supreme source of religious authority. Against Church
tradition, he had the Bible translated from Latin into English so that common people could read it.
The pope accused Wycliffe of heresy, or opinions that contradict official doctrine. Wycliffe’s followers
were persecuted, and some of them were burned to death as heretics, or people who behave against
official teachings. After his death, the Church had Wycliffe’s writings burned, too. Despite the Church’s
opposition, however, Wycliffe’s ideas had wide influence.
Jan Hus (About 1370–1415) Jan Hus (huhs) was a priest in Bohemia, which today is in the Czech
Republic. He read Wycliffe’s writings and agreed with many of his ideas. Hus criticized the vast wealth
of the Church and spoke out against the pope’s authority. The true head of the Church, he said, was Jesus
Christ.
Hus wanted to purify the Church and return it to the people. He called for an end to corruption among the
clergy. He wanted both the Bible and the mass to be offered in the common language of the people
instead of in Latin. In 1414, Hus was arrested and charged with heresy. In July 1415, he was burned at the
stake.
Like Wycliffe, Hus had a major influence on future reformers. Martin Luther would later say that he and
his supporters were “all Hussites without knowing it.”
Catherine of Siena (1347–1380) Catherine of Siena was a mystic—a person deeply devoted to religion
and who has spiritual experiences. Born in the Italian city of Siena, she began having visions of Jesus
when she was a child.
Catherine spent many long hours in prayer and wrote many letters about spiritual life. She also involved
herself in Church affairs. Her pleas helped to convince Pope Gregory XI to move the papacy back to
Rome from Avignon. Later, she traveled to Rome to attempt to end the Great Schism.
In 1461, the Church declared Catherine a saint. Her example showed that people could lead spiritual lives
that went beyond the usual customs of the Church. She and other mystics emphasized personal experience
of God more than formal observance of Church practices. This approach to faith helped prepare people
for the ideas of the Reformation.
Desiderius Erasmus (1466–1536) Desiderius Erasmus was a humanist from Holland. A priest and
devoted Catholic, he was one of the most outspoken figures in the call for reform.
In 1509, Erasmus published a book called The Praise of Folly. (Folly means “foolishness.”) The book
was a sharply worded satire of society, including abuses by clergy and Church leaders. Erasmus argued
for a return to simple Christian goodness.
Erasmus wanted to reform the Church from within. He angrily denied that he was a Protestant who
wanted to break away from the Catholic Church. Yet perhaps more than any other individual, he helped to
prepare Europe for the Reformation. His attacks on corruption in the Church contributed to many people’s
desire to leave Catholicism. For this reason, it is often said that “Erasmus laid the egg, and Luther hatched
it.”
Section 4 - Martin Luther Breaks Away from the Church
In the early 1500s in Germany, then part of the Holy Roman Empire, a priest named Martin Luther
became involved in a serious dispute with Church authorities. Condemned by the Catholic Church, Luther
began the first Protestant church, which started the Reformation.
Luther’s Early Life Luther was born in Germany in 1483 and was raised as a devout Catholic. Luther’s
father wanted him to become a lawyer. As a young man, however, Luther was badly frightened when he
was caught in a violent thunderstorm. As lightning flashed around him, he vowed that if he survived he
would become a monk.
Luther kept his promise and joined an order of monks. Later, he became a priest. He studied the Bible
thoroughly and earned a reputation as a scholar and teacher.
Luther Pushes for Change in the Catholic Church The Church stressed that keeping the sacraments
and living a good life were the keys to salvation. Luther’s studies of the Bible led him to a different
answer. No one, he believed, could earn salvation. Instead, salvation was a gift from God that people
received in faith. People, he said, were saved by their faith, not by doing good works.
Luther’s views brought him into conflict with the Church over indulgences. In 1517, Pope Leo X needed
money to finish building St. Peter’s Basilica, the grand cathedral in Rome. He sent preachers around
Europe to sell indulgences. Buyers were promised pardons of all of their sins and those of friends and
family. Luther was outraged. He felt that the Church was selling false salvation to uneducated people.
Luther posted a list of arguments, called theses, against indulgences and Church abuses on a church door
in the town of Wittenberg. He also sent the list, called the Ninety-Five Theses, to Church leaders.
Luther’s theses caused considerable controversy. Many people were excited by his ideas, while the
Church condemned them. Gradually, he was drawn into more serious disagreements with Church
authorities.
In response to critics, Luther published pamphlets that explained his thinking. He argued that the Bible—
not the pope or Church leaders—was the ultimate source of religious authority. The only true sacraments,
he said, were baptism and the Eucharist. The Church’s other five sacraments had no basis in the Bible.
Moreover, Luther said that all Christians were priests, and, therefore, all should study the Bible for
themselves.
In the eyes of Church leaders, Luther was attacking fundamental truths of the Catholic religion. In
January 1521, Pope Leo X excommunicated him. To be excommunicated means to no longer be allowed
membership in a church.
In April 1521, Luther was brought before the Diet, an assembly of state leaders, in the German city of
Worms. At the risk of his life, he refused to take back his teachings. The Holy Roman emperor, Charles
V, declared Luther a heretic and forbid the printing or selling of his writings. For a time Luther went into
hiding. But the movement he had started continued to spread.
Luther Starts His Own Church Many Germans saw Luther as a hero. As his
popularity grew, he continued to develop his ideas. Soon he was openly
organizing a new Christian denomination known as Lutheranism. The new
church emphasized study of the Bible. Luther translated the Bible into German.
He also wrote a baptism service, a mass, and new hymns (sacred songs) in
German.
Having rejected the Church’s hierarchy, Luther looked to German princes to
support his church. When a peasants’ revolt broke out in 1524, the rebels
expected Luther to support their demands for social and economic change.
Instead, Luther denounced the peasants and sided with the rulers. He needed the help of Germany’s rulers
to keep his new church growing. By the time the uprising was crushed, tens of thousands of peasants had
been brutally killed. Many peasants, therefore, rejected Lutheranism.
Several princes, however, supported Luther, and Lutheranism continued to grow. Over the next 30 years,
Lutherans and Catholics were often at war in Germany. These religious wars ended in 1555 with the
Peace of Augsburg. According to this treaty, each prince within the Holy Roman Empire could determine
the religion of his subjects.
The Peace of Augsburg was a major victory for Protestantism. Christian unity was at an end, and not only
in Germany. As you will learn next, by this time a number of other Protestant churches had sprung up in
northern Europe.
Section 5 - Other Leaders of the Reformation
The movement begun by Martin Luther swept across much of Europe. Many people
who were dismayed by abuses in the Church remained loyal Catholics. Others,
however, were attracted to new forms of the Christian faith. The printing press helped
spread new ideas, as well as translations of the Bible, faster than ever before. In
addition, government leaders had learned from Luther’s experience that they could win
religious independence from the Church. The Reformation succeeded most where rulers
embraced Protestant faiths.
Many reformers contributed to the spread of Protestantism. Let’s take a look at four
leaders of the Reformation.
Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1530) Huldrych Zwingli (HUL-drick ZVING-lee) was a Catholic priest in
Zurich, Switzerland. Zwingli was influenced by both Erasmus and Luther. After reading Luther’s work,
he persuaded the local government to ban any form of worship that was not based on the Bible. In 1523,
Zurich declared its independence from the authority of the local Catholic bishop.
Zwingli wanted Christians to focus solely on the Bible. He attacked the worship of relics, saints, and
images. In the Protestant churches he founded, there were no religious statues or paintings. Services were
very simple, without music or singing.
Zwingli carried his ideas to other Swiss cities. In 1530, war broke out between his followers and Swiss
Catholics. Zwingli died during the fighting.
John Calvin (1509–1564) In the late 1530s, John Calvin, a French humanist, started another Protestant
group in Geneva, Switzerland. His book, Institutes of the Christian Religion, became one of the most
influential works of the Reformation.
Calvin emphasized that salvation came only from God’s grace. He said that the “saved” whom God
elected, or chose, lived according to strict standards. He believed firmly in hard work and thrift, or the
careful use of money. Success in business, he taught, was a sign of God’s grace. Calvin tried to establish a
Christian state in Geneva that would be ruled by God through the Calvinist Church.
Calvin influenced many other reformers. One of them was John Knox, a Scotsman who lived in Geneva
for a time. Knox led the Protestant reform that established the Presbyterian Church in Scotland.
King Henry VIII (1491–1547) England’s Protestant Reformation was led by King Henry VIII. In 1534,
Henry formed the Church of England, also called the Anglican Church. Henry named himself as its
supreme head.
Unlike Luther and Calvin, King Henry did not have major disagreements with Catholic teachings. His
reasons for breaking with the Church were personal and political. On a personal level, he wanted to end
his first marriage, but the pope had denied him a divorce. On a political level, he no longer wanted to
share power and wealth with the Church. In 1536, Henry closed down Catholic monasteries in England
and took their riches.
William Tyndale (About 1491–1536) William Tyndale was an English priest,
scholar, and writer. Tyndale traveled to Germany and met Martin Luther. His
views became more and more Protestant. He attacked corruption in the Catholic
Church and defended the English Reformation. After being arrested by Catholic
authorities in the city of Antwerp, in present-day Belgium, he spent over a year in
prison. In 1536, he was burned at the stake.
Tyndale is especially important to the Reformation because of his translations of
the Bible. To spread knowledge of the Bible, he translated the New Testament and parts of the Old
Testament into English. In the early 1600s, his work was used in the preparation of the King James, or
Authorized, Version of the Bible. Famed for its beautiful language, the King James Bible had an
enormous influence on English worship, language, and literature.
Lesson 31 - The Spread and Impact of the Reformation
In this chapter, you will learn more about the movement called the Reformation and the Protestant
churches that emerged in the 1500s. You will also explore the impact of the
Reformation on the Catholic Church and on the history of Europe.
As Protestantism spread, it branched out in several directions. By the start of the
1600s, there were already many different Christian churches in Europe.
Each Protestant denomination had its own beliefs and practices. But all Protestants
had much in common. They shared a belief in the authority of the Bible, individual
conscience, and the importance of faith. They were also united in their desire to
reform Christianity.
The growth of Protestantism helped to encourage reform within the Catholic Church, as well. This
Catholic reform movement is called the Counter-Reformation. Church leaders worked to correct abuses.
They clarified and defended Catholic teachings. They condemned what they saw as Protestant errors.
They also tried to win back areas of Europe that had been lost to the Catholic Church.
The many divisions among Christians led to a series of wars and persecutions.
People suffered because of their beliefs. Catholics fought Protestants, and
Protestants fought one another. These struggles involved political, economic, and
cultural differences, as well as deep religious beliefs.
The Reformation brought much conflict to Europe, but it also created many new
forms of the Christian faith. Three new branches of Christianity that developed
early in the period were Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism.
Section 2 - Lutheranism
The first major Protestant sect was Lutheranism. Lutheranism began in Germany after Martin Luther
was excommunicated by the Catholic Church in 1521.
Luther was a Catholic priest and scholar. He taught scripture and theology (the study of religion) at the
University of Wittenberg. As he studied the Bible, Luther became troubled. He could not find a basis in
the Bible for many Church teachings and practices. He was also upset about corruption in the Church,
especially the sale of indulgences.
Luther tried to work out his differences with the Church. But after his views were condemned, he started
the separate movement that became Lutheranism.
Beliefs About Sin and Salvation Luther and his followers disagreed
with the Catholic Church about sin and salvation. Catholics believed that
people earned salvation by following the teachings and practices of the
Church. Taking part in the sacraments was essential. For example, the
sacrament of baptism wiped away original sin. In Christian belief, this
was the sinful condition passed on to all people by Adam, the first man
created by God. Once they were baptized, people needed to pray, take the
sacraments, follow rules laid down by the Church, and perform good works.
Lutherans did not believe that people could do anything to earn their salvation. Salvation, they said, was
God’s gift, which people received in faith. People would be “justified,” or saved, if they sincerely
believed in Jesus Christ, were sorry for their sins, and accepted the words of the Bible as truth. Luther
called this “justification by faith.” Those who have faith perform good works and avoid sin because God
commands them to, not in order to earn salvation.
Ultimate Source of Authority Lutherans rejected traditional sources of religious authority, such as
Church councils and the pope. They believed that the Bible was the only true source of religious
guidance. Reading the Bible was the only way to learn how to lead a good life and gain faith in God.
Lutherans published the Bible in several languages so that people could read it for themselves.
Rituals and Worship Lutheran services combined Catholic practices
with new Lutheran ones. Lutherans met in church buildings that had
originally been Catholic. Like Catholics, they used an altar, candles,
and a crucifix, which represented the crucifixion of Jesus.
Lutheran services resembled the Catholic mass in several ways. The
services included Holy Communion, the Christian ritual of sharing
bread and wine to commemorate the last meal Jesus shared with his disciples before his death. Lutheran
services also included Bible readings and a sermon, in which clergy explained the day’s lesson from the
Bible. Like Catholics, Lutherans sang hymns. Luther wrote hymns for his followers. He used German
words and often set hymns to popular tunes so everyone could learn them more easily.
Other parts of Lutheran worship were different from Catholic practice. Prayers were written and spoken
in German, not in Latin, so that everyone could take part. Instead of having seven sacraments, Lutherans
had just two: baptism and Communion. Luther believed that they were the only sacraments clearly named
in the Bible.
Community Life Luther gave his followers certain rules for how to live. Over time, he preached less
about the Bible. He began to place greater importance on discipline and strong families. He said that
fathers should teach their children religion by having them pray before meals and before bed. “Unless
they [pray],” he said, “they should be given neither food nor drink.” He also thought that women should
get married and give birth to as many children as possible. He believed that these rules would help to
strengthen Lutheran communities.
Unlike Catholic priests, Lutheran ministers, or members of the clergy, were free to marry. Luther himself
married a former nun.
Section 3 - Calvinism
Calvinism was founded by John Calvin, a French humanist who did his most
influential work in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1541, Calvin took over the leadership of
the reform movement in Geneva.
Beliefs About Sin and Salvation Calvinists agreed with Lutherans that people
depended entirely on God to be saved. No one deserved salvation, and no one could
“force” God to grant it by doing good works. Instead, God chose certain people, the
“elect,” to be saved and to enjoy eternal life. Religious faith and salvation were God’s gifts to the elect.
Everyone else was doomed to spend eternity in hell.
Calvin maintained that God knew from the beginning of time who would be saved and who would be
condemned. This idea is called predestination. There was nothing people could do to change their destiny.
Everything, Calvin said, is under God’s control.
Calvinists believed that the elect could be known by their actions. They believed that the world was full
of opportunities to sin. But only people who were destined not to be saved would sin. Good behavior
showed that a person was an elect destined for heaven. The reason for good behavior was to honor God,
not to “buy” one’s salvation.
Calvinists had many strict rules defining good behavior. For example, singing, dancing, playing cards,
and wearing fancy clothing were all forbidden. Many people followed these rules to show that they were
saved.
Ultimate Source of Authority Like Lutherans, Calvinists thought that the Bible was the only true source
of religious guidance. Part of the task of church leaders was to interpret the Bible and make laws from it.
Calvinists believed that all of life should be lived according to God’s law. Consequently, in a Calvinist
state, religious rules also became laws for the government. Anyone who sinned was also committing a
crime. A lawbreaker was punished first by Calvinist clergy and then by the local court system. Sins such
as blasphemy (showing disrespect to God) were punished as serious crimes.
Rituals and Worship Calvinist churchgoers attended services up to five times a week. Services included
sermons that lasted for hours. The sermons explained how to live according to the
Bible.
Calvinist church buildings showed Calvin’s belief in simplicity. Churches were
paneled in plain wood. People sat on long wooden benches. There were no
paintings, statues, or stained glass windows. The minister preached from a pulpit in
the middle of the room. Men sat on one side, and women and children sat on the
other side. Children had to be ready to answer questions from the minister at a
moment’s notice. Failure to answer correctly would bring them shame or even
punishment.
Like Lutherans, Calvinists used only the two sacraments they found in the Bible:
baptism and Communion. Calvinists were not allowed to sing any words except those in the Bible. At
services, they sang verses from the Bible set to popular tunes. Some Bible songs had new melodies
written for them.
Community Life Calvinists believed that each community should be a theocracy, or a state governed by
God through religious leaders. Calvinists had a duty to try to establish communities in which church and
state were united.
Calvinist communities had strict laws based on the Bible. Parents could name babies only certain names
from the Bible. Guests at local inns were not allowed to swear, dance, play cards, or insult anyone at the
inn. Innkeepers had to report anyone who broke these rules. The same rules applied to people in their
homes. Church leaders could inspect homes yearly to see whether families were living by the strict
Calvinist laws. Offenders were punished severely. Some were even banished.
Section 4 - Anglicanism
Anglicanism was founded in 1534 by King Henry VIII in England. Henry was not a religious reformer
like Martin Luther or John Calvin. Instead, he broke away from the Catholic Church for political and
personal reasons.
Politically, Henry did not want to share either his power or his kingdom’s wealth with the Church.
Personally, he wanted to get a divorce so that he could marry another woman, Anne Boleyn. He wanted a
male heir, and he and his first wife, Katherine of Aragon, failed to have a male child.
When the pope refused to grant permission for a divorce, Henry took matters into his own hands. He
compelled Parliament, England’s lawmaking body, to declare him the head of the English church. So
began the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with the monarch at its head.
Under Henry, the Church of England still greatly resembled the Catholic Church. Over time, however, it
blended elements of Catholicism and Protestantism.
Beliefs About Sin and Salvation Anglican beliefs had much in
common with the beliefs of the Catholic Church. Like Catholics,
Anglicans believed that baptism washed away original sin.
Anglicans, however, were also influenced by Protestant ideas.
Unlike Catholics, they accepted Luther’s idea of justification by
faith. To go to heaven, people needed only to believe in God,
regret their sins, and receive God’s mercy.
Later, Anglicans believed that people should have privacy in how
they practiced religion. It was up to individuals to figure out how to live by their religious beliefs.
Ultimate Source of Authority Anglicans based their beliefs on the Bible. However, the English
monarch, as head of the Church, was the main interpreter of the Bible’s meaning. The highest-ranking
bishop in England, the Archbishop of Canterbury, helped the monarch with this task. Local clergy and
churchgoers could interpret Church teachings in their own ways, as long as they were loyal to the
monarch.
Rituals and Worship Anglican services were similar to both Roman Catholic and
Lutheran services. Two versions of the Anglican Church service developed. The
High Church service was much like the Catholic mass, and very formal. The Low
Church service was similar to the Lutheran service.
Anglican services were held in former Catholic Church buildings. Most of the
paintings, statues, and other decorations were removed. The inside of each church
was painted white, and the Ten Commandments were painted on a plain white wall.
Churchgoers sang simple hymns with English words and easy melodies.
Like other Protestant groups, Anglicans used only two sacraments: baptism and
Communion. English slowly replaced Latin in Anglican services. Under Henry’s son, King Edward VI,
an official prayer book, the Book of Common Prayer, was published. It provided English-language
prayers for services and morning and evening prayers. It also expressed the basic ideas of Anglican
doctrine. In the early 1600s, King James I had a committee of scholars prepare a new English translation
of the Bible, known as the Authorized Version, or the King James Version.
Community Life Anglican communities were not all alike. High Church communities, however, were
made up mostly of wealthy people. Low Church communities were usually made up of middle-class and
working-class people.
Henry VIII’s daughter, Queen Elizabeth I, said that no one should be forced to believe or practice a
particular kind of Anglicanism. People could choose how to worship as long as they obeyed the laws of
England and were loyal to the monarch. Heresy ceased to be a crime. However, citizens had to take care
not to attack the monarch or the Anglican Church’s place as the official Church of England.
Section 5 - The Counter-Reformation
As Protestantism spread, the Catholic Church responded with a program of serious reform. It clarified its
teachings, corrected abuses, and tried to win people back to Catholicism. This movement is known as the
Counter-Reformation.
The Council of Trent A major feature of the Counter-Reformation was the Council of Trent. The
council was a meeting of Catholic leaders that began in Trent, Italy, in 1545. Pope Paul III summoned the
council to combat corruption in the Church and to fight Protestantism. The council continued its work in
more than 20 sessions over the next 18 years.
In response to Protestant ideas, the council gave a more precise
statement of Catholic teachings. It rejected predestination, declaring
that individuals do have a role to play in deciding the fate of their
souls. The council agreed with Protestants that faith was important
and that salvation was God’s gift. But it rejected justification by faith
alone. The council insisted that faith, good works, and the sacraments
were all necessary for salvation. It reaffirmed the Catholic belief in
seven sacraments.
The council acknowledged the importance of the Bible. It insisted, however, on the Church’s authority to
interpret the Bible. It said that the Latin Bible was the only official scripture.
The council also took action to make needed changes in the Church. It required better education and
training of its clergy. It called for priests and bishops to spend more time preaching. It corrected many of
the abuses involving money and Church offices. It also established rules for services so that they would
be more consistent from church to church.
The Council of Trent went a long way toward achieving the goals of Pope Paul III. The council’s work
brought a higher standard of morality to the Church’s clergy and leadership. Its statements of Catholic
belief and practices helped to unify the Church. The reformed Church was now better able to compete
with Protestantism for the loyalties of Christians.
Catholic Reformers and Missionaries The spirit of reform brought new life to the Catholic Church and
its followers. Many individuals and groups helped to reform the Church and spread its message. For
example, Teresa of Avila, a nun, started a new religious order in Spain and helped reform the lives of
priests and nuns. Her example and writings inspired many Catholics to return to the values taught by
Jesus.
Other new orders were formed to preach, to educate people, and to perform such services as feeding the
poor. The most important of these orders was the Society of Jesus, also known as the Jesuits.
The Jesuits were founded by Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish nobleman. As a young soldier, Ignatius had his
leg shattered by a cannonball. While he was recovering, he read about the lives of saints. He vowed to
become a “soldier for Jesus.”
After years of study, Ignatius started the order that became the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits. The Jesuits
were dedicated teachers and missionaries. They founded schools and colleges, and they brought many
Europeans back to the Church. They worked to spread Catholicism in Africa, Asia, and the Americas.
They became the largest order in the Church and actively supported the pope.
Fighting the Spread of Protestantism The Catholic Church also fought the
spread of Protestantism by condemning beliefs that it considered to be errors
and by dealing harshly with those it labeled as heretics. It looked to Catholic
rulers to support its efforts and to win back lands lost to Protestantism.
To deal with heresies during the Middle Ages, the Church had established the
Inquisition. This body was made up of clergy called inquisitors who sought out
and tried heretics. Inquisitors could order various punishments, including fines
and imprisonment. Sometimes, they turned to civil rulers to put heretics to
death.
King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella used the Spanish Inquisition to persecute Jews. With the start of the
Reformation, the Spanish Inquisition also fought the spread of Protestantism. In Rome, the pope
established a new Inquisition. The Roman Inquisition also sought out and condemned people whose
views were considered dangerous.
Section 6 - Effects of the Reformation
The Reformation brought lasting change to Europe. Through the influence of Europeans, it also affected
other parts of the world.
Religious Wars and Persecution The religious divisions of the Reformation led to a series of wars and
persecutions during the 16th and 17th centuries. Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted members of
other denominations, as well as each other. Many people died for their beliefs. Others, like the French
Protestants who moved to Switzerland, fled to other Protestant countries.
Bloody civil wars erupted in many countries. In France, for example, wars between Catholics and
Protestants between 1562 and 1598 left over a million dead.
The wars in France were not just about religion. They were also about the
power of the Catholic monarchy. Similarly, the last major war of the
Reformation was both political and religious. Called the Thirty Years’
War (1618–1648), it was fought mainly in Germany. The war pitted
Catholics against Protestants, and Protestants against each other. But it
was also a struggle for power that involved most of the nations of Europe.
Nations fought for their own interests, as well as for religious reasons.
Catholic France, for example, sided with Protestants to combat the power
of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Thirty Years’ War ended with the signing of the Peace of Westphalia
in 1648. This treaty called for peace between Protestants and Catholics. By deciding the control of
territory, it set boundaries between Catholic and Protestant lands. Most of northern Europe, including
much of Germany, was Protestant. Spain, Portugal, Italy, and France remained Catholic. So did Bohemia,
Austria, and Hungary. This religious division survived into modern times.
The Rise of Nationalism and Democratic Practices The spread of Protestantism went hand in hand
with a growing feeling called nationalism. More and more, people identified with their nation, rather than
with their local area or lord. Throughout Europe, official state religions strengthened national unity.
Along with nationalism, monarchies were also growing
stronger. Protestant rulers claimed authority over
religious, as well as secular, matters. Even Roman
Catholic rulers became increasingly independent of the
pope.
These changes led to what is often called “The Age of
Monarchs.” Monarchs revived the old idea of the divine
right of kings. According to this idea, rulers received their
authority directly from God. This way of thinking reached its height in the late 17th and early 18th
centuries when some rulers established absolute monarchies.
Yet the Reformation also planted the seeds of democratic ideas and practices. Beginning with Martin
Luther, Protestants emphasized being true to the Bible and to their own consciences. This belief made
people more willing to fight for their own ideas and rights, and to resist authority.
Some persecuted groups sought freedom to worship in their own ways. For example, the Calvinist
Puritans fled England for North America in search of religious liberty. Many Protestant local groups, or
congregations, insisted on their right to control their own affairs. In addition, the leaders of Protestant
churches were elected by congregation members, not just by the powerful. Such beliefs about religious
freedom and church government helped pave the way for democracy.
The Spread of Christianity By the time of the Reformation, Europeans had embarked upon a great age
of exploration. As they voyaged around the world, both Catholics and Protestants worked to spread their
faith. By the 1700s, there were missionary societies in several European countries. Jesuit missionaries
were particularly active in spreading Roman Catholicism. Jesuits traveled to India, China, Japan, and
Southeast Asia. Protestant missionaries worked in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), India, and Indonesia.
The religious divisions in Europe were repeated in areas controlled by Europeans around the world. This
was especially true in the Americas. Most people in English colonies in North America were Protestant.
Missionaries and settlers from France brought Catholicism to parts of Canada and the Mississippi Valley.
The Spanish and Portuguese brought Catholicism to the American southwest, Mexico, and South
America. These patterns of religious faith are evident today.