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Once the dopamine is dropping due to the hypothalamic and adrenal dopaminenorepinephrine conversion, followed by oxytocin, the pituitary gland starts releases another hormone called prolactin which turns norepinephrine into the sympathetic nervous adrenergic alpha receptors of the penile, urethral and prostate arteries for constriction and into the sympathetic nervous fire for induction of prostaglandin E2 release, ready for ejaculation; and then, you experience sympathetic nervous Fight or Flight, where Fight = Premature Ejaculation The role of sensory receptors Assessing sensory input Sensation vs perception Sensory neurons: detect changes in the ___________and ____________environment Types of sensory receptors: › __________________________________ › ____________________________________ › _________________________________ › ___________________________________ › ____________________________________ Animals monitor the external environment differently depending on their __________ and _______________of sensory receptors. Some animals have sensory receptors that we lack. › Some animals have sensory receptors that allow them to detect ___________________________ › Others simply have _________________receptors than we do. › Honeybees can detect __________ and _________ radiation, whereas we detect only visible light. The brain uses three variables to determine the location and intensity of a stimulus › Nerve that delivers the action potentials ____________________________________ › Frequency of action potentials _____________________________________ › Number of sensory receptors firing _______________________________________ Sensory adaptation: sensory neurons cease firing in spite of _______________________________________ › Walk into a house where an apple pie is baking and you notice the sweet scent of baking apples immediately. › Within a few minutes, __________________________________________ › The odor does not change in intensity, but _________________ in your nose undergo sensory adaptation. Sensation: _____________________________ Perception: ___________________________ ________________ Somatic and visceral sensation Pain and pain relief General senses involve action of receptors throughout the body By contrast, special senses arise from receptors located in specific sensory organs, such as eyes or ears Somatic sensations: arise from sensory neuron receptor endings in _____or ________________, or ________________ › Example: heat and cold arise from thermoreceptors in skin Signals involved in somatic sensation travel through the spine to the _____________________. As in the motor cortex (Chapter 29), neurons in the somatosensory cortex are arrayed like a _______________________________. As a result of this organization, somatic sensations are easily localized to a specific region of the body; it is easy for you to say exactly _____________________________________. Body parts that appear disproportionately large in this diagram (such as fingertips and face) have the _____________________ _____________________ _____________________ Visceral sensations: arise from sensory receptors in the walls of ________________ › Example: feeling of full bladder arises from ______________________________ Signals from neurons involved in visceral sensations do not map onto the cortex in a region-specific fashion as somatic signals do. So visceral sensations are not as easily localized as somatic ones. _______________________________________ _______________________________________ Pain: perception of ____________________ › Injured body cells release ______________and ________________that activate pain receptors › Action potential travels to ________________ › Endorphins: __________interneurondependent pain perception (doesn’t send signal to brain) › Substance P: __________interneurondependent pain perception (makes neurons send signal to brain) Sense of smell Sense of taste Allows animals to detect _____, _______, or _________, and helps them identify _______________ Olfactory receptors: respond to ___________________in the air or water that surrounds it Most invertebrates sense the world around them primarily through smell Vertebrates have olfactory receptors in the lining of their _______________________ Animals produce and detect pheromones: › _______________communication signals that are secreted by one indiv and alter the behavior of another member of its spp. › For example, a female silk moth releases a sex pheromone that a male silk moth can detect from as far as a km away. The male has receptors for the pheromone on his antennae. › In land vertebrates, pheromone receptors are typically clustered in a ___________________ organ at the base of the nasal cavity. › Humans have a reduced version of this organ. Whether we make and respond to pheromones remains a matter of debate. Helps animals avoid _________and detect appropriate ____________items Taste receptor: ________________________ Taste buds are in upper surface of the tongue Sensory organs are located in specialized epithelial structures, called _________________________ Perceived taste arises from a combination of signals Humans can taste: › Sweetness (_______________________________) › Sourness (_____________) › Saltiness (_________________________________) › Umami (__________________) › Fattiness (_________________) Diversity of visual systems Anatomy of the human eye Focusing mechanisms Vision: detection of _______in a way that provides a __________image of objects in the environment › Requires eyes (sensory organs with __________________) with a ___________ › And a ___________that can interpret visual stimuli Insects have compound eyes › ____________________________________________________ Cephalopod mollusks (octopi) have camera eyes › Eye with an adjustable opening and a ___________that focuses light on a ___________(innermost membrane) A human eyeball sits in a protective, cuplike, bony cavity called the ________. ________________that run from the rear of the eye to bones of the orbit move the eyeball. _______, __________, and _______protect the eye tissues. Periodic blinking _______________________ _______________________________________. Light rays reflected from near and distant objects hit the eye _____________________ Visual accommodation: ciliary muscles adjust the shape of the _______so all rays become focused on ____________ Flat lens: _______________________________ ___________________________ Round lens: ____________________________ ________________________ contracted ciliary muscle relaxed ciliary muscle fibers slack fibers taut rounded lens A Near vision flattened lens B Distance vision Cornea and lens bend light rays to converge on retina. Two types of light detecting cells (photoreceptors): Rod cells: ________________, detects dim light, responds to change in light intensity. Provide course vision and detects Cone cells: provide acute daytime vision, detects __________ Three types: one absorbs ____light, one absorbs _____ light and one absorbs _______light Fovea: greatest density of cones The region of the retina through which the optic nerve exits lacks photoreceptors. It cannot respond to light and thus causes a “______________________” 6 common visual disorders Color blindness: one or more types of cones are __________________________ › Red–green color blindness: X-linked _______________ trait Astigmatism: vision is blurred at all distances by an ________________________ _______________________ Nearsightedness: ________objects are out of focus › Distance from the cornea to the retina is _______ than normal; ciliary muscles contract too much Farsightedness: __________objects are out of focus › Distance from the cornea to the retina is unusually _________; ciliary muscles are too weak Cataract: scatters light and ___________vision › Lens may become fully ________, causing blindness Age-related macular degeneration (AMD): destruction of ________________in the macula clouds the center of the visual field › Macula: part of the retina around and including the fovea Glaucoma: too much aqueous humor builds up inside the eyeball › Increased fluid pressure damages ____________and ganglion cells Properties of sound Vertebrate ears Hearing is the detection of sound: a form of ______________________________ Sounds arise when a vibrating object causes __________________________ › Amplitude: _________of the waves; determines how ____________a sound is › Frequency: ____________of wave cycles per second, or hertz (Hz); determines the __________ of a sound Low note Soft Loud High note A Same frequency, different amplitude. B Same amplitude, different frequency. Outer ear: the ______collects sound waves and funnels them ____________ Middle ear: consists of the __________and ______________________ › ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ Inner ear: consists of the vestibular apparatus and the ________________ › Functions in _____________ and ____________ Cochlea: pea-sized, fluid-filled structure that resembles a _______________________ › Consists of ________________________________ Sound waves vibrate three tiny bones of the middle ear › One of these bones (__________) pushes against the _____________and creates a ______________ in the cochlea’s fluid › Walls of the cochlea’s three ducts __________ Organ of Corti: sits on the base of the membrane in the _____________________ › Contains mechanoreceptors (_____________) involved in hearing Sound-derived pressure waves cause the membrane to move and the cilia of hair cells to bend; __________________________ Auditory nerve carries action potentials from each cochlea to the _____________ Monitor body’s ___________and ___________ Vestibular apparatus contain fluid filled organs of Equilibrium › ____________________________________ › ____________________________________ › They contain _________________________ › Changes in pressure triggers __________________