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HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS
WHAT IS A RELATIONSHIP? INVOLVING STRONG
AND FREQUENT INTERDEPENDENCE (THOUGHTS, EMOTIONS
AND BEHAVIORS THAT INFLUENCE OTHERS) IN MANY DOMAINS
OF LIFE
The condition or fact of being related; connection or association.
Connection by blood or marriage; kinship.
A particular type of connection existing between people related to or
having dealings with each other. (siblings, classmates, peer groups)
A romantic or sexual involvement.
IS A RELATIONSHIP A NEED OR A WANT?

According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs,
relationships are necessary to have a fulfilled life.
RELATIONSHIPS NOT ONLY HELP OUR
EMOTIONAL WELL-BEING, BUT OUR HEALTH IS
IMPACTED AS WELL
Married people report being happier and
healthier than those who are single (Steinhauser
1995)
 Compared to those in troubled marriages, those
that are happily married have immune systems
that ward off infections more effectively (Kiecolt
1987)
 Steven Cole (2007) found that chronic loneliness
increased gene activity linked to inflammation,
and reduced gene activity associated with
antibody production and antiviral responses.

WHAT IMPACTS ATTRACTION
 Proximity:
Geographic nearness
 Greater availability to meet,
familiarity

MERE EXPOSURE EFFECT: The phenomenon that
repeated exposure to novel stimuli increase liking of
them.

Studies have shown that we are more attracted to
things/people that have seen more than once.
WHAT IMPACTS ATTRACTION
 Physical
attractiveness:
APPEARANCE plays a major
role…unfortunately as humans we
are superficial!

Predicts frequency of dating, feelings of popularity,
and initial impressions of their personality.

Attractive people are PERCIEVED to be healthier,
happier, more sensitive, more successful, and more
socially skilled, however not more honest or
compassionate. (Eagly & others, 1991)
WHAT IMPACTS ATTRACTION
 Similarity:
Humans tend to have
healthier relationships with those
that are similar (have similar
interests, personalities, etc.)

Friends and couples are far more likely to share
common attitudes, beliefs and interests. (Rosenbaum,
1986)

In “real life” opposites retract NOT attract.
WHAT PURPOSE DOES ATTRACTION SERVE?



Evolutionary theories argue that the purpose of
attraction is for procreation (biological level of
analysis)
The extent to which one perceives another person to
be similar to themselves then the likelihood of that
person finding that person attractive is higher.
(cognitive level of analysis)
People that tend to live closer to each other tend to
have the same social and cultural norms and they
also tend to share the same ways of contacting and
interacting with one another. (sociocultural level of
analysis)
LOVE…WHAT IS IT AND DOES
IT HAVE A PURPOSE?
A deep, tender, ineffable feeling of affection and
solicitude toward a person, such as that arising
from kinship, recognition of attractive qualities,
or a sense of underlying oneness.
 A feeling of intense desire and attraction toward
a person with whom one is disposed to make a
pair; the emotion of sex and romance.
 A person who is the object of deep or intense
affection or attraction; beloved. Often used as a
term of endearment

PASSIONATE LOVE
VS.
COMPANIONATE LOVE
(BERSCHEID AND HATFIELD, 1972)
Passionate Love



Complete absorption in
another that includes
sexual feelings and
intense emotion.
Gradually replaced by
companionate love.
Women tend to be more
statisfied with their
marriage when they feel
sparks of passionate
love, males are not
affected (Aron and
Hankemyer, 1995)
Companionate Love

Warm, trusting,
tolerant affection for
another whose life is
deeply intertwined
with one’s own life.
TRIANGULAR THEORY OF LOVE
(ROBERT STERNBERG, 1988)
Passion, intimacy, and commitment work together
ORIGINS OF ATTRACTION:
BIOLOGICAL LOA
 Obsession:
Not being able to turn off
their thoughts about the one they
love/admire.


Biochemical “cocktail” of a human’s romantic
passion can be blamed on a combination of
dopamine, serotonin, and adrenaline.
Romantic love is NOT an emotion but rather a
motivation system (need or craving) that our
brain has been hardwired due to years of
evolution in order to mate. (Fischer)
SEROTONIN…
HOW DOES IT IMPACT LOVE?
Helps focus on the one you love
 In 1999, Marazitti et al. conducted a study that
looked at the serotonin level of 20 people that
have fallen in love within the past 6 months and
20 people with untreated OCD, and 20 normal
individuals who were not in love (control group)
and compared their serotonin level in blood
samples…
 RESULTS: The low serotonin levels in the blood
of those fallen in love in 6 months and those with
OCD were equivalent.

SO WHAT? IT’S THE BRAIN
THAT MATTERS!
 In
2004, Fischer argued that until
research on serotonin levels are measured
in specific parts of the brain then there is
not any proof that serotonin impacts
romantic love.
ADRENALINE...
HEART IS RACING!
Stress hormone
 Fischer (2004) argues that when you are around
that “special someone” and you have an increased
level in adrenaline it can contribute to those
“butterflies in your stomach” feelings of…






Sweaty palms
Heart racing
Mouth going dry
High energy
Less need for sleep and food
And focused attention on that “loved one”
“A BEAUTIFUL PICTURE OF THE
BRAIN IN LOVE”

In 2003, Fischer investigated the blood flow in
the brain by using fMRI brain scans of people in
love.
20 people were shown a picture of their beloved for 30
seconds and then their brain was scanned.
 They were then given a distracting task followed by
viewing another photo of a neutral person, once again their
brain was scanned.


Each part repeated 6 times.

RESULTS: The blood flow in the brain’s reward
system (activated by a pleasant stimulus) during the
beloved picture was more intense than during the
neutral pictures.

http://www.ted.com/talks/helen_fisher_studies_the_brain_i
n_love.html
ROLE OF HORMONES IN BONDING
 Moving
from passionate love to intimate
love…attachment is formed.
Feelings of comfort, security, and relatedness
 In 1969, Bowlby argued that our ability to create
attachments is an innate quality; specific
behaviors and physiological responses are
attachment behaviors.
 Hormones involved in attachment:

1.) Oxytocin
2.) Vasopressin
OXYTOCIN
VERY powerful Hormone released during sex
and touching; helps deepen and intensify
feelings of attachment.
 It is also released during childbirth, thus
forming close attachments with the mother and
infant.


Lab rats that had their oxytocin blocked/inhibited
rejected their young and did not demonstrate
nurturing behaviors.
VASOPRESSIN
Another sex released hormone that is important
for long-term commitment.
 In a study that increased the level of vasopressin
in prairie voles, these animals formed stronger
bonds and had more sex (other than for
reproduction) just like humans.
 When vasopressin was inhibited, the males lost
devotion to their mate and did not protect them
from potential mates.


Evidence that vasopressin plays an important role in
attachment and mating behavior.
JEALOUSLY…IT PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE TOO
BUSS (1996) ARGUES THAT JEALOUSY IS BIOLOGICALLY BASED
AND THAT HUMAN SEXUAL BEHAVIOR IS GROUNDED IN THE NEED
TO OPTIMIZE THE POTENTIAL REPRODUCTION.
During menstruation
Estrogen levels are
low
 Women are more
SEXUALLY jealous
 Fears the male will
seek out other females
to mate with since she
is unable to have
intercourse.

During ovulation



Estrogen levels are
relatively high
Women are more
EMOTIONALLY
jealous
Since impregnating is
possible, she fears the
male will develop an
emotional attachment to
another female, thus
hindering the security of
the potential child.
PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS
HORMONES
&
Buss (1993) found that in areas of the world
where levels of pathogen stress is high, then that
importance of physical attractiveness was rated
more important as opposed to areas in the world
with lower levels of pathogen stress.
 Schackerlford and Watson (1987) concluded that
men were found less attractive when their facial
features were not symmetrical and they had
more symptoms of depression and more physical
problems (colds, headaches, gastrointestinal)
 Lower levels of androgen during puberty, stunted
the development of prominent cheekbones and
masculine chins which are viewed as facial
features that are physically attractive.

ORIGINS OF ATTRACTION:
COGNITIVE LOA

Similarity is the key factor in the cognitive level
of analysis for arguing why individuals are
attracted to each other.

Couples tend to be similar in:
Age
 Religion
 Social class
 Cultural background
 Personality
 Education
 Intelligence
 Physical attractiveness
 Attitudes

STUDIES TO SUPPORT THE
COGNITIVE LOA
Bryne (1971) believes that other people’s support
for one’s own views and attitudes boosts the selfesteem and therefore is rewarding and
reassuring.
 In 2007, Morry coined the idea of the attractionsimilarity model which ties into an individuals
perceptions or relationships; people tend to see
friends and partners similar to themselves so
attraction predicts perceptions of similarity.
(similar physical features causes us to perceive
that an individual is similar to us in beliefs about
relationships.)

ANOTHER STUDY…
Markey et al. conducted a study using questionnaires to
gather information about psychological characteristics
such as values and attitudes of their ideal romantic
partner.
 They were then asked to describe themselves
RESULTS:
 The way they describe themselves and the things they
looked for in their dream partner were extremely similar.
 Follow-up study: 212 married/committed people filled
out a questionnaire about their own psychological
characteristics and then about their partner’s and the
results were the same as the pervious study (similar
beliefs and values for both partners.)
 Confirms that people want partners similar to
themselves!

RECIPROCITY…HOW DOES IT IMPACT
RELATIONSHIPS?
Reciprocity happens when you like those who
show interest in you.
 This increases self-enhancement (making a
partner feel good about oneself)
 People seek feedback that mirrors and supports
their self-concepts…this process is known as selfverification
 With Romantic Relationships, people view
their partner more favorable than the partner
views him/herself however when the views are
matched/equal, the relationship will progress
(Markey et. Al, 2007).

ORIGINS OF ATTRACTION:
SOCIOCULTURL LOA
 Interaction



with others lead to liking:
Comparing our feelings and reactions to others
help us better understand ourselves.
Provides us with connectedness and attachment.
 Basic human need
Familiarity is more likeable than the unfamiliar.
 1971: Zajonc et al.
 Participants evealuated photos of strangers and the
photos that were shown repeatedly were rated more
positively….Mere exposure effect gives us a
sense of trust.
CULTURAL NORMS:
FORMING AND MAINTAINING RELATIONSHIPS
Moghaddam (1993): Believed that much research
on cultural norms is a reflection of US culture
and more cross-cultural research must be
conducted.
 According to Goodwin (1995), passionate love is
largely a western society idea.

Love is seen as the result of a loving relationship.
 In societies with arranged marriages, love and
marriage is reversed; marriage, then love.


1992: Gupta & Singh: Couples in India that
married for love had their feelings of love
diminish after 5 years, but those that had
arranged marriages had higher levels of love.
MORE PROOF THAT WESTERN-CULTURES
“HAVE IT ALL WRONG.”

1986: Simmons et al: Compared to Japanese
culture, romantic love is valued more in the US
and Germany.


Romantic love is valued less in cultures with strong
extended family bonds.
Dion & Dion (1993) In traditional societies is
viewed more than just a union of two people but
rather a union of two families; Americans view
marriage as lifetime companionship between two
people IN LOVE; Other cultures view marriage
as a partnership created to have children and
provide social and economic support.
BACK TO BUSS…
1995, Levine et al. Individualistic countries rate
love as a key factor for the establishment of
marriage and the lack of love warrants the
decision to end a marriage.
 1994 (Buss):

10,000 participants from 37 cultures
 All 37 cultures, men preferred younger mates, women
preferred older.
 23 cultures men felt chastity (virginity) was more
important than women did.
 Buss concluded that mate selection preferences is
universal which is derived from evolutionary
selection and pressure on males and females.
