Download Marine Natural Values Study Summary

Marine Natural Values
Study Summary
1
Authorised and published by Parks Victoria
Level 10, 535 Bourke St, Melbourne VIC 3000
Copyright © Parks Victoria 2012
Cover image: Senator wrasse (Pictilabrus laticlavius)
Julian Finn, Museum Victoria
Authors: Jan Barton, Adam Pope and Steffan Howe
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to a
nationally agreed scheme
(Otway, Central Victoria,
Victorian Embayments,
Flinders and Twofold Shelf).
Within each marine bioregion
there are a variety of distinct
and unique habitats and
biological communities,
structured by a combination
of physical, chemical and
biological processes.
In 2002 the marine national park
system was established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s marine
environment, its habitats and
associated flora and fauna. The
marine national parks and sanctuaries
are highly protected (no take) and
cover approximately 63,000 hectares
or 5.3% of Victorian state
marine waters.
Since declaration of Victoria’s marine
national parks and sanctuaries and
release of the first Marine Natural
Values Study in September 2003
there has been an ongoing marine
science program that has focussed
on improving baseline knowledge
and addressed important management
challenges. Much of the research
has been undertaken as part of the
Research Partners Program involving
collaboration with various research
institutions, while there are also
a range of ongoing commissioned
and community based monitoring
programs. These programs have
considerably increased our knowledge
and understanding of the natural
values and threats for Victoria’s
marine national parks and sanctuaries.
The second version of the Marine
Natural Values reports has been
developed in partnership with Deakin
University. The primary aim of these
reports is to add the new knowledge
and information that has been
generated through Parks Victoria’s
research and monitoring programs
and other marine science programs
to the description of the natural values
associated with Victoria’s marine
national parks and sanctuaries. The
reports will be important for informing
park management and will also be
a valuable resource for education
and public recognition of the natural
values of the marine national parks
and sanctuaries.
This report contains summaries for
each park which have been developed
from the full version of the Marine
Natural Values reports. The
detailed reports can be found
at www.parks.vic.gov.au.
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Contents
Victorian IMCRA Mesoscale Bioregions map
4
Otway Bioregion
Discovery Bay Marine National Park
5
Merri Marine Sanctuary
8
The Arches Marine Sanctuary
11
Twelve Apostles Marine National Park
13
Central Victoria Bioregion
Marengo Reefs Marine Sanctuary
16
Eagle Rock Marine Sanctuary
19
Point Addis Marine National Park
22
Point Danger Marine Sanctuary
25
Barwon Bluff Marine Sanctuary
27
Mushroom Reef Marine Sanctuary
30
Bunurong Marine National Park
33
Victorian Embayments Bioregion
Port Phillip Heads Marine National Park
36
Point Cooke Marine Sanctuary
43
Jawbone Marine Sanctuary
46
Ricketts Point Marine Sanctuary
49
Yaringa Marine National Park
52
French Island Marine National Park
55
Churchill Island Marine National Park
58
Corner Inlet Marine National Park
61
Flinders Bioregion
Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park
64
Twoshelf Bioregion
Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park
68
Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary
70
Point Hicks Marine National Park
73
Cape Howe Marine National Park
76
3
Victorian IMCRA Mesoscale Bioregions
4
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Discovery Bay Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Discovery Bay Marine National
Park is one of two marine
national parks and two
marine sanctuaries in the
Otway bioregion.
Image left:
Bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum on subtidal basalt reef.
Photo by NRE.
Image right:
Discovery Bay Marine National Park. Photo by NRE.
Description
The park covers 2830 hectares
adjacent to Cape Bridgewater along
the coast from Blacks Beach to Whites
Beach and offshore to three nautical
miles. Between Whites Beach and
Cape Duquesne the park boundary
commences 500 metres from the
coastline. The park abuts the
Discovery Bay Coastal Park. The
wrecks of three wooden sailing
barques, the Jane, the Ann and the
Marie, are thought to be in the vicinity
of the park.
influence water temperature,
particularly during La Niña years.
Beach access is from Whites Beach
and Blacks Beach while boat access
is from Bridgewater Bay and
Portland Harbour.
Surface water temperatures are
influenced by the cold Bonney
Upwelling, with mean surface water
temperature varying seasonally
between 14°C and 18°C. Tidal
variation is 0.8 metres for spring tides
and 0.4 metres for neap tides.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Gunditjmara.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park is exposed to storms and
south-westerly swells of the Southern
Ocean, and resulting high deepwater
wave energy.
The Zeehan Current is influential
moving water in a south-easterly
direction through the park. The warm
Leeuwin Current flows east along the
southern coast of Australia and may
The continental shelf is relatively
narrow near the park, extending only
50 kilometres offshore. Wind driven
coastal circulation across the shelf
causes the Bonney Upwelling of cool
nutrient rich water, particularly during
spring and summer, which stimulates
phytoplankton and zooplankton
blooms, and forms the basis of a rich
pelagic food chain providing feeding
grounds for seabirds, fish, whales
and seals.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by
the park include subtidal reef, soft
sediment, and the water column.
A relatively small amount of intertidal
reef and soft sediment are also
present in the park.
Important features include basalt
and calcarenite intertidal and subtidal
rocky reefs, extensive sandy subtidal
soft sediment and the biota they
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support. The park is part of the
largest coastal basalt formation
in western Victoria.
The park has rocky habitats of
complex forms, including low profile
calcarenite-capped basalt platforms,
isolated low calcarenite reefs,
and heavy sloping basalt walls.
Its deep (33 metres – 55 metres)
calcarenite reefs with thick growths
of sessile invertebrates (e.g. sponges,
ascidians, bryozoans and gorgonians)
are an important natural value, as are
its shallow basaltic reefs covered by
large kelps such as Ecklonia radiata.
The park’s intertidal and shallow
subtidal reefs have a high diversity
of invertebrates. Its extensive subtidal
soft sediments of mainly fine sand,
with high (80 per cent) carbonate
content, are an important
natural value.
Bull Kelp Durvillaea potatorum grows
on the intertidal reef edge. Mixed
brown algae, including kelp Ecklonia
radiata and crayweed Phyllospora
comosa, are the canopy forming
algae on the sand free basalt subtidal
reefs in the south-east. Also growing
on these reefs are the brown algae
Scytothalia, Sargassum and Giant
Kelp Macrocystis pyrifera, and green
algae Caulerpa spp..
Australian fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus
on intertidal reef. Photo by Marcel Hoog Antink.
Mobile invertebrates on these subtidal
reefs include seastars, Southern Rock
Lobster Jasus edwardsii and Blacklip
Abalone Haliotus rubra.
Sessile invertebrates, predominately
compact sponges, occur in isolated
areas within the sand band from
35 metres to 55 metres depth
suggesting that the sediment is a thin
veneer over hard substrate. Sessile
invertebrates dominate the deeper,
and largely sand-inundated, reefs
in the west of the park where they are
free of sand. These include abundant
ascidians, hydroids, and bryozoans
along with gorgonian soft corals, hard
corals, Tethya sponges, zoanthids and
the Sea Whip Primnoella australasiae.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals and
seabirds are also found in or use
the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The park has one endemic crustacean,
the Southern Hooded Shrimp
Athanopsis australis.
Seven species of algae and one
invertebrate are known or presumed
to be at the limit of their distribution
in the park.
Western Blue Groper Achoerodus
gouldii have been observed in the
high profile reef systems in 50m
of water west of Cape Duquesne.
The open waters of the park are
a probable habitat for the threatened
migratory southern bluefin tuna
Thunnus maccoyii, grey nurse shark
Charcharias taurus, and White Shark
Carcharodon carcharias.
The intertidal reef provides an
occasional haul-out area for state
vulnerable New Zealand Arctophoca
forsteri and nationally listed Australian
Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus
Fur Seals. Southern right whales
Eubalaena australis, blue whales
Balaenoptera musculus and southern
elephant seals Mirounga leonina have
been recorded in or near the park.
The park provides important feeding
and roosting habitat for fifteen
threatened bird species. Two of these
species are regarded as endangered;
the Wandering Albatross Diomedea
exulans and Southern Giant Petrel
Macronectes giganteus. The park
also protects feeding areas for ten
internationally important migratory
bird species.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Discovery Bay
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Marine National Park form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include poaching
of abalone, marine pests and
diseases. Evidence of abalone viral
ganglioneuritus which can kill a large
proportion of abalone populations in
affected areas has also been observed
in much of the Otway bioregion.
The introduced algal species
Grateloupia turuturu, Caulerpa
racemosa var. cylindracea and Codium
fragile subspecies fragile were also
recorded in Portland Harbour in 2010
and there is some concern about their
possible spread.
Climate change poses a serious medium
to long term threat to natural values.
Parks Victoria will use an adaptive
management approach to develop
responses and actions that focus
on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events
and existing risks that are likely
to be exacerbated by climate change.
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values
and threats for the system have
improved significantly through
this marine science program. Much
of the research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are four ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Discovery
Bay Marine National Park, while six
research projects and two habitat
mapping projects have already
been completed.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps, Parks Victoria
will continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
Subtidal basalt reef in Discovery Bay Marine National Park.
Photo by NRE.
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Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Merri Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
The Merri Marine Sanctuary is
one of two marine sanctuaries
and two marine national parks
in the Otway bioregion.
Image left:
Diverse algal community in an intertidal rock pool.
Photo by Jan Barton, Deakin University.
Image right:
Intertidal soft sediment at the mouth of the Merri River.
Photo by Jan Barton, Deakin University.
Description
The sanctuary covers 29 hectares
from Thunder Point in the west and
Breakwater Rock in the east, extending
from the footbridge on the Merri River
to the south-west for approximately
200 metres. It abuts a coastal reserve
and surrounds Middle and Merri
Islands, with Pickering Point
a prominent headland.
The Merri River estuary flows directly
into the middle of the sanctuary at
Stingray Bay and is regarded as being
in poor ecological condition.
Access is from Thunder Point,
Stingray Bay and the Breakwater.
The Warrnambool Sewage Treatment
Plant discharges 500 metres to the
west of the sanctuary and the Hopkins
River estuary discharges to the east.
Freshwater inflow from the Merri River
influences the local hydrodynamics
of the sanctuary and the mouth
of the Merri River is often closed.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Kirrae Whurrong and Country
of Gunditjmara.
High tides, storms, large swells and
freshwater inflow cause significant
sand movement. Modifications in the
sanctuary and nearby, including the
construction of the breakwater, have
resulted in a significant accumulation
of sand adjacent to the sanctuary.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The sanctuary is exposed to large swells
and south-westerly winds from the
Southern Ocean in winter, with
currents carrying water from the west
and south into the sanctuary. In spring
and summer the Bonney Upwelling
brings cold water and nutrients
to the coastline, with its predominant
south-east wind and current flow.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include soft sediments
(intertidal and subtidal) made up
predominantly of fine sand; intertidal
reef and subtidal reef made of
calcarenite including high relief,
low relief and cobbles; and the
water column.
Surface water temperatures vary
between averages of 13.5°C and
17°C. Tidal variation is 0.8 metres
for spring tides and no variation
for neap tides.
The intertidal soft sediment is found
mostly the east of Merri Island at the
mouth of the Merri River. Associated
communities have a low diversity of
benthic macroinvertebrates, though
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this habitat is an important feeding
and roosting habitat for shorebirds.
Beach-washed materials on the sandy
beaches (e.g. drift macroalgae) are
a significant source of food for
scavenging birds, and contribute to
the detrital cycle that nourishes many
of the invertebrates, such as bivalves,
living in the sand.
Common fish found in subtidal soft
sediment habitats include sea mullet
Mugil cephalus, salmon Arripis trutta,
cat shark Parascyllium sp., draughtboard
shark Cephaloscyllium laticeps and the
southern eagle ray Myliobatis australis.
Intertidal reef is found along the
coastline (backed by coastal dunes)
and around the islands. The intertidal
reef flora and fauna includes algae
such as sea lettuce Ulva sp., coralline
algae Corallina officinalis, and less
common is Neptune’s necklace
Hormosira banksii.
Gastropod snails such as the warrener
Turbo undulatus, limpets Siphonaria
diemenensis and Cellana tramoserica
are the most common invertebrates
on the intertidal reefs. Crabs,
anemones, brittle stars, and terebellid
polychaetes are also found.
Large rockpools can be home to fish
including sea sweep Scorpis aequipinnis,
Tasmanian blenny Parablennius
Merri Marine Sanctuary with Merri and Middle Islands
in the background. Photo by Jan Barton, Deakin University.
tasmanianus and wrasse. Seagrass
is also occasionally seen in the rockpools.
Subtidal reefs are the dominant marine
habitat and are either patchy and
interspersed with areas of sand,
or more consolidated hard reef cut by
deeper depressions and large crevices.
Twenty-one different subtidal reef
algal habitat types have been identified
in the sanctuary including habitats
dominated by the brown algae
Phyllospora comosa, the green algae
Caulerpa spp., the string kelp
Macrocystis pyrifera, encrusting and
branching coralline algae, and kelp
Ecklonia radiata. The bull kelp
Durvillaea potatorum is present
on the fringe of the intertidal and
subtidal reef.
The subtidal reef associated
invertebrates present include the
black lip abalone Haliotis rubra, the
warrener Turbo undulatus, sponges,
gastropods, crabs, and the occasional
southern rock lobster Jasus edwardsii.
Common reef associated fish include
the blue-throated wrasse Notolabrus
tetricus, herring cale Odax cyanomelas,
magpie perch Cheilodactylus nigripes,
Victorian scalyfin Parma victoriae,
zebrafish Girella zebra, sea sweep
Scorpis aequipinnis, senator wrasse
Pictilabrus laticlavius and the
pot-bellied seahorse Hippocampus
abdominalis.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammal species
are also found in the water column
in the sanctuary.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The pot-bellied seahorse Hippocampus
abdominalis is protected and
frequently seen on subtidal reefs
in the sanctuary.
Fifty-one shorebirds or seabirds
of conservation significance have
been recorded in or near the sanctuary
including the endangered Australasian
bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus, fairy
tern Sternula nereis, gull-billed tern
Gelochelidon nilotica and the little
egret Egretta garzetta. Two large
seabirds regarded as endangered,
the wandering albatross Diomedea
exulans and the southern giant petrel
Macronectes giganteus, are more
commonly found offshore
of the sanctuary.
Marine mammals including southern
elephant seals Mirounga leonine,
the Australian fur seal Arctocephalus
pusillus doriferus, Australian sea lion
Neophoca cinerea and the leopard
seal Hydrurga leptonyx have been
9
observed in the waters in and around
the sanctuary.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise threats
identified for Merri Marine Sanctuary
form part of the park management
plan. Parks Victoria also uses an
adaptive management approach
which includes periodic reviews of
priority natural values and threats
through processes such as the State
of the Parks evaluation and setting
of desired conservation outcomes.
Through these processes Parks Victoria
has identified emerging threats and
developed appropriate management
responses.
Serious threats include oil spills,
terrestrial inputs of poor water quality,
marine pests and diseases, litter and
debris, seismic testing, artificial
opening of river mouths and
human access (e.g. trampling).
Evidence of abalone viral ganglioneuritus
which can kill a large proportion of
abalone populations in affected areas
has been observed in much of the
Otway bioregion including Merri
Marine Sanctuary.
The introduced algal species
Grateloupia turuturu, Caulerpa
racemosa var. cylindracea and Codium
fragile subspecies fragile were also
Rock lobster on subtidal basalt reef. Photo by NRE.
recorded in Portland Harbour in 2010
and there is some concern about
their possible spread.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat
to natural values. Parks Victoria
will use an adaptive management
approach to develop responses and
actions that focus on priority climate
change issues such as extreme
weather events and existing risks
that are likely to be exacerbated
by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established extensive
marine research and monitoring
programs that address important
management challenges for the
marine national parks and sanctuaries.
These focus on improving baseline
knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
while five research projects and two
habitat mapping projects have already
been completed. The sanctuary also
has an ongoing shallow subtidal reef
monitoring program.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine science
program. Much of the research has
been undertaken as part of the
Research Partners Program involving
collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are five ongoing research projects
and one habitat mapping project that
are relevant to Merri Marine Sanctuary,
10
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
The Arches Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
Description
The sanctuary covers 48 hectares and
is located 600 metres offshore from
Port Campbell on the Great Ocean
Road.
The subtidal reefs support a diverse
range of algae, sponges, bryozoans,
hydroids, gorgonians and sea stars
characteristic of deeper Bass
Strait waters.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
The sanctuary can only be accessed
by boat.
Upper surfaces of arches are covered
with the kelp Ecklonia radiata and an
understorey of red seaweeds such as
Sonderopelta coriacea, Phacelocarpus
peperocarpus, Pterocladia lucida,
and Plocamium spp.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
The Arches Marine Sanctuary
is one of two marine sanctuaries
and two marine national parks
in the Otway bioregion.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Kirrae Whurrong and Country
of Gadubanud.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The Arches Marine Sanctuary is on
a very exposed coastline, open
to the prevailing south-west winds
and swells of the Southern Ocean
in winter. In spring and summer
it is open to prevailing south-east
winds and swells. The West Wind
Drift causes an easterly current which
is important for natural processes but
also moves discharged fresh water
or pollutants through the sanctuary
from nearby areas.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 17.5°C in the
summer and 13.5°C in the winter.
Tidal variation is 0.9 metres for spring
tides and 0.3 metres for neap tides.
Campbell Creek discharges one
kilometre to the north of the sanctuary.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include the water column,
some subtidal soft sediments, and
subtidal limestone reef made up of
formations such as canyons, tunnels,
arches, caverns, ledges and vertical
sink holes in water depths between
19 metres and 25 metres.
The subtidal reefs and soft sediments
in the sanctuary are the remnants
of an ancient eroding coastline; more
recent geological processes have
shaped the limestone features
closer to the surface.
The undersides and canyon walls
provide habitat for sessile
invertebrates such as sponges, the
encrusting soft coral Erythropodium
hicksoni, which grow on the ledge
edges, the erect gorgonian coral
Mopsella and the ascidian
Herdmania momus.
Seastars are the dominant mobile
invertebrates in the sanctuary and
include Nectria macrobrachia,
Nepanthia troughtoni and
Tosia magnifica.
Fish observed on the subtidal reefs are
sea sweep Scorpis aequipinnis, barber
perch Caesioperca rasor, blue-throated
wrasse Notolabrus tetricus, bastard
trumpeter Latridopsis forsteri, magpie
perch Cheilodactylus nigripes and the
dusky morwong Dactylophora nigricans.
Other common fish species that have
been reported from this sanctuary
include the zebra fish Girella zebra,
snapper Chrysophrys auratus, marble
fish Aplodactylus arctidens, Australian
salmon Arripis truttacea, scaly fin
Parma victoriae and Port Jackson
shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms
including sea jellies, salps, many fish,
and phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals and
seabirds, as well as the leatherback
turtle, are also found in or use the
water column. The short-fin mako
shark Isurus oxyrinchus is also known
from surrounding waters and is
probably found in the sanctuary.
11
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The open waters are a likely habitat
for the threatened migratory southern
bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii, the
grey nurse shark Charcharias and
the great white shark Carcharodon
carcharias.
Marine mammals of conservation
significance found in or near the
sanctuary include Southern right
whale Eubalaena australis, humpback
whale Megaptera novaeangliae,
southern elephant seal Mirounga
leonine, and Australian fur seal
Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus.
The leatherback turtle Dermochelys
coriacea is also likely to use the waters
of the sanctuary.
Birds including the shy albatross
Thalassarche cauta, the black-browed
albatross T. melanophris, the
short-tailed shearwater Ardenna
tenuirostris, the pied cormorant
Phalacrocorax varius and the
black-faced cormorant Phalacrocorax
fuscescens use the sanctuary
as a feeding ground and are
all of conservation significance.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for The Arches
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values
and threats for the system have
improved significantly through the
marine science program. Much of
the research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are four ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to The Arches
Marine Sanctuary, while five research
projects and one habitat mapping
project have already been completed.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Serious threats include oil spill,
terrestrial inputs of poor water quality,
marine pests and diseases, litter and
debris, and seismic testing.
Evidence of abalone viral
ganglioneuritus which can kill a large
proportion of abalone populations
in affected areas has been observed
in much of the Otway bioregion.
The invasive Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida has been recently found
in Apollo Bay Harbour and there are
concerns about its possible spread.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
12
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Twelve Apostles Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
Description
The park covers 7510 hectares
adjacent to Broken Head along the
coast to Pebble Point and offshore
to three nautical miles.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Most of the Twelve Apostles Marine
National Park begins at the high tide
mark but additional land areas above
this are also included such as Mutton
Bird Island and offshore rock stacks
(including the Twelve Apostles). The
wreck of the Loch Ard is also within
the park.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
The Twelve Apostles Marine
National Park is one of two
marine national parks and
two marine sanctuaries
in the Otway bioregion.
Image left:
Sessile invertebrate dominated subtidal reef. Photo by NRE.
Image right:
Twelve Apostles Marine National Park.
Photo by Australian Marine Ecology.
Exclusions to the park are beaches
west of Gibsons Steps to Clifton
Beach, and east of Point Ronald to
Rivernook, from the high water mark
extending 100 metres out to sea.
Access is from Loch Ard Gorge,
Gibson Steps, Clifton Beach,
Princetown and Rivernook and
by boat from Port Campbell.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Kirrae Whurrong (to the west
of Gellibrand River) and Country
of Gunditjmara (to the east of
Gellibrand River).
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park is exposed to south-westerly
winds and swells of the Southern
Ocean in winter and in spring/summer
by those arising from Bass Strait in the
south-east.
The West Wind Drift creates a current
moving easterly through the park.
Rock falls and sand movement can be
influenced by high tides, storms and
large swells contributing to changes
in local hydrology.
Surface water temperatures vary
between averages of 13.5°C in winter
and 17.5°C in summer. Tidal variation
is 0.9 metres for spring tides and
0.3 metres for neap tides.
The Gellibrand River discharges into
the centre of the park and Sherbrooke
River discharges 600 metres west.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park include limestone cliffs, intertidal
reef platforms, high profile subtidal
rocky reefs (western and eastern
areas), limited intertidal soft sediments
and beaches, extensive sandy subtidal
soft sediment and the water column.
The park is regarded as having the
highest diversity of intertidal
invertebrates on limestone reef
in Victoria.
13
Beaches and intertidal soft sediments
are restricted to pockets at the base of
cliffs. A number of shorebirds are also
found in or near the park, including
some of conservation significance.
Subtidal soft sediments (present
as a gently sloping sandy basin in the
centre of the park) are usually devoid
of visible biota although the deeper
regions have areas of reef beneath
a thin veneer of sand allowing sessile
invertebrates to grow.
Crustaceans are the most dominant
group found in the soft sediments
including amphipods, isopods
and cumaceans. Sparse seagrass
Heterozostera spp. also grows
in 10 metres to 30 metres on the
shallow sandy plain providing habitat
for fish and invertebrates.
Bull Kelp Durvillaea potatorum grows
on the intertidal reef edge and can
be seen at the base of the limestone
rock stacks. The kelp Ecklonia radiata
and the green algae Caulerpa spp.
grow in depths less than 40 metres
and red algae is found at all depths
including: Phacelocarpus
peperocarpus, Melanthalia obtusata,
Gelidium asperum, Sonderopelta
coriacea and Haliptilon roseum.
Smaller brown algae including
Carpomitra costatum grow in more
sandy areas.
Coastline of Twelve Apostles Marine National Park.
Photo by NRE.
Mobile invertebrates on the subtidal
reefs include seastars such as
Plectaster decanus, and the Southern
Rock Lobster Jasus edwardsii.
Subtidal reef fish in the park are
typical of the region and include the
blue-throated Notolabrus tetricus,
rosy Pseudolabrus psittaculus and
senator wrasses Pictilabrus laticlavius;
the magpie perch Cheilodactylus
nigripes and dusky morwongs
Dactylophora nigricans; sea sweep
Scorpis aequipinnis; barber
Caesioperca rasor and butterfly
perches C. lepidoptera; marble fish
Aplodactylus arctidens; and the
bullseye Pempheris multiradiata.
The deep reefs (more than 40 metres)
are dominated by sessile invertebrates
(e.g. erect sponges, gorgonians and
the large hydroid fan Solanderia fusca)
and are an important natural value.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals and
seabirds are also found in or use the
water column in the park.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The water column of the park is
important habitat for threatened fish
including the migratory southern
bluefin tuna Thunnus maccoyii and is
likely to be used by two shark species:
the grey nurse shark Charcharias
taurus and the great white shark
Carcharodon carcharias.
The park provides important feeding
and roosting habitat for eleven
threatened bird species including
the wandering albatross Diomedea
exulans, little egret Egretta garzetta,
and Australasian bittern Botaurus
poiciloptilus.
A large breeding colony of little
penguins Eudyptula minor between
the Twelve Apostles and London
Bridge is considered a significant site,
and two significant hooded plover
Thinornis rubricollis nesting sites exist
on Clifton and Rivernook beaches.
Mutton Bird Island also supports
a breeding colony of short-tailed
shearwaters Puffinus tenuirostris.
The park is important for a number
of resident and migrating marine
mammals including Southern right
whales Eubalaena australis, humpback
whales Megaptera novaeangliae, New
Zealand fur seals Arctophoca forsteri,
and Australian fur seals Arctocephalus
pusillus doriferus.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Twelve Apostles
Marine National Park form part of the
14
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include oil spills,
terrestrial inputs of poor water quality,
marine pests and diseases, litter and
debris, and seismic testing.
Evidence of abalone viral ganglioneuritus
which can kill a large proportion of
abalone populations in affected areas
has been observed in much of the
Otway bioregion.
Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida has
recently been found in Apollo Bay
Harbour and there are concerns about
its possible spread.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken as part
of the Research Partners Program
involving collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are four ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to the Twelve
Apostles Marine National Park, while
six research projects and two habitat
mapping projects have already
been completed.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
Sessile invertebrate dominated subtidal reef. Photo by NRE.
15
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Marengo Reefs
Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
Description
The Sanctuary covers 12.5 hectares
surrounding and including a reef
system known as Little Henty Reef
and lying within Mounts Bay.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
The sanctuary is only 150 metres
offshore and access is via boat,
swimming, small water craft or during
very low tides by foot at Hayley Point
(Marengo) to the inner reef. Access
to the outer reef is restricted due
to its importance as a seal habitat.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Marengo Reefs Marine
Sanctuary is one of five
marine sanctuaries and two
marine national parks in the
Central Victoria bioregion.
Image left:
Australian fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus
over subtidal reef.
Image right:
Blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra on subtidal reef.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Gadubanud. Other Aboriginal
communities, including the Kirrae
Wurrung, Framlingham Aboriginal
Trust, Wathaurung Aboriginal
Cooperative and the Southern Otways
Indigenous Group have an association
with the coastal region of this area.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The coastline is exposed to high wave
energy including large south-westerly
swells affecting the outer reef. Offshore
currents predominantly carry water from
the south-west towards the Outer
Reef while the Inner Reef (separated
from the outer reef by a channel)
is also influenced by inshore processes
within Mounts Bay.
Complex local hydrodynamics and
wave energy contribute to a high
diversity of habitat types. The seafloor
is generally less than 15 metres deep.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 17°C in the
summer and 13.5°C in the winter.
Tidal variation is 1.7 metres for spring
tides and 0.9 metres for neap tides.
The Marengo Sewerage Treatment
Plant outfall discharges waste water
from Apollo Bay, Skenes Creek and
Marengo immediately to the west
of the sanctuary. The Barham River
estuary discharges into Mounts Bay
2 kilometres north-east of the
sanctuary. The geology of the
sanctuary is sandstone, the
remnants of eroded islands.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include subtidal soft
sediment, intertidal reefs, subtidal
reefs, and the water column.
The intertidal sandstone reef is home
to more than one hundred and eight
intertidal invertebrates, including nine
seastar, five barnacle, seven crab and
fifty two mollusc species. The bull kelp
Durvillaea potatorum dominates the
edge of the reef, and the cray weed
Phyllospora comosa can occasionally
16
be seen at low tide, though it
is generally found on shallow
subtidal reefs.
The shallow subtidal rocky reefs are
home to a low diversity of algal
species, and in addition to the
intertidal reef edge species Durvillaea
potatorum and Phyllospora comosa,
smaller brown algal species including
Cystophora retorta, C. moniliformis,
and Acrocarpia paniculata can be
found. The algal understorey has
very few species including a very
low cover of red and green algae.
Common grazing subtidal
invertebrates include the warrener
Turbo undulatus, the predatory cartrut
whelk Dicathais orbita, tulip shell
Pleuroploca australasia, triton
Cabestana spengleri, red bait crab
Plagusia chabrus and a variety of sea
stars including Tosia australis, and
Patiriella brevispina. The blacklip
abalone Haliotis rubra is
particularly abundant.
The purple urchin Heliocidaris
erythrogramma also occurs in low
densities. The subtidal algae and
invertebrate assemblages are similar
to those found at Eagle Rock
Marine Sanctuary.
More than seventeen fish species can
be found on the subtidal reefs.
Southern rock lobster Jasus edwardsii under a ledge
on subtidal reef.
Common species include the
blue-throated wrasse Notolabrus
tetricus, and purple wrasse Notolabrus
fucicola. Other fish that have been
recorded include the herring cale Odax
cyanomelas and magpie morwong
Cheliodactylus nigripes, while the
horseshoe leatherjacket Meuschenia
hippocrepis has also been recorded
in low abundance.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals and
seabirds are also found in or use the
water column in the sanctuary.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
Thirteen conservation listed seabirds
and shorebirds have been found
in or near the Marengo Reefs Marine
Sanctuary including species such
as the Australasian bittern Botaurus
poiciloptilus, the eastern great egret
Ardea modesta, the common sandpiper
Actitis hypoleucos and the Shy Albatross
Thallassarche cauta amongst others.
Hooded plovers Thinornis rubricollis
nest on Haleys Point directly to the
west of the sanctuary and on the
beach at Mounts Bay to the north.
The nationally listed Australian fur seal
Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus has
a haul out area on the Outer Reef
which has been declared a Special
Protection Area and biotic site
of state significance.
The nationally vulnerable southern
elephant seal Mirounga leonina
has also been recorded in or near
the sanctuary.
Six fish species of conservation
significance have been recorded
in the sanctuary and include
barracuda Sphyraena novaehollandiae,
common gurnard perch Neosebastes
scorpaenoides and dusky morwong
Dactylophora nigricans.
The sanctuary is home to nine biota
that are at or presumed to be at their
distributional limit including red algae,
one brown alga, a chiton, and a sea
cucumber. This may reflect collection
effort in this area rather than actual
Victorian distributions.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Marengo Reefs
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
17
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include illegal harvesting,
disturbance of seals, nutrients from
increased population growth, turbidity
from sedimentation due to nearby
land use and coastal infrastructure
development, lack of awareness,
marine pests and pathogens, small
boat use in the channel disrupting
biota and proximity to the
wastewater outfall.
Evidence of abalone viral ganglioneuritus
which can kill a large proportion of
abalone populations in affected areas
has been observed in much of the
Otway bioregion to the west, although
there is no evidence that this virus has
affected abalone in the sanctuary.
The invasive Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida has recently been found
in Apollo Bay Harbour and there are
serious concerns about its spread to
sanctuary, given its close proximity
to the harbour.
Climate change poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
These focus on improving baseline
knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the
parks in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values
and threats for the system have
improved significantly through the
marine science program. Much
of the research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects, one habitat mapping project
and one subtidal reef monitoring
program that are relevant to Marengo
Reefs Marine Sanctuary, while six
research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already been
completed. DSE and Parks Victoria
have also commissioned several
surveys for the Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida around Cape Otway after
this species was reported in Apollo
Bay Harbour.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established extensive
marine research and monitoring
programs that address important
management challenges for the
marine national parks and sanctuaries.
Pike over subtidal reef kelp beds. Photo by NRE.
18
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Eagle Rock Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Eagle Rock Marine Sanctuary
is one of five marine sanctuaries
and two marine national parks
in the Central Victoria bioregion.
Image left:
The seagrass Amphibolis antarctica growing in a rockpool
on intertidal reef. Photo by Jan Barton, Deakin University.
Image right:
Eagle Rock Marine Sanctuary with Eagle Rock on the far
right. Photo by Jan Barton, Deakin University.
Description
The sanctuary covers 17.9 hectares
and extends from the high water mark
around the base of Split Point between
Castle Rock and Sentinel Rock in the
township of Aireys Inlet. It extends
offshore for about 300 metres and
includes the 20 metre high Eagle
Rock and Table Rock.
The sanctuary is accessible down stairs
from Split Point lighthouse visitors’
car park onto Step Beach, or from the
Painkalac Creek car park by walking
past the creek mouth.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Wadda wurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The coastline is exposed to high
wave energy and the resulting sand
movement is from the south west
in winter and south east in
spring/summer.
The seafloor is predominantly less
than ten metres deep. Surface water
temperatures vary between an average
17.5°C in the summer and 13.5°C
in the winter. Tidal variation is 1.7 metres
for spring tides and 0.9 metres for
neap tides.
Painkalac Creek discharges adjacent
to the sanctuary and Sandy Gully
Creek discharges 0.8 kilometres to the
east. The geology of the sanctuary
is sandstone and basalt. Split Point
(cliffs) is geologically significant
because of the Oligocene basalt
together with pyroclastic and
associated terriginous sediments
of the Angahook Member.
Marine Habitat Distribution and
Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include intertidal and
subtidal soft sediment, intertidal and
subtidal reefs, and the water column.
The intertidal sandstone platform and
basalt boulders are home to 25 species
of algae.
The brown algae Neptune’s necklace
Hormosira banksii is a key habitat
forming plant on the intertidal
sandstone rocky reef. Articulating
coralline algae forms a dense cover
at the extreme low tide mark and
in rock pools. Mixed brown and red
algae, the seagrass Amphibolis
antarctica and the green algae
Caulerpa spp. are also found in
the intertidal rock pools. The fringing
bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum
is also common.
19
Mussel beds, coralline algae mats and
barnacles are generally sparse on the
intertidal reefs. The sanctuary is home
to over forty eight species of intertidal
invertebrates. Grazers and deposit
feeders, such as the black nerite Nerita
atramentosa, are dominant in the
basalt boulders.
large brown crayweed Phyllospora
comosa. The assemblage of smaller
brown algae is relatively diverse,
including Cystophora retroflexa and
Acrocarpia paniculata. Red and green
understorey algae is not abundant
or diverse. High sand cover on the reef
is thought to affect the subtidal flora.
The scavenger chequerboard snail
Cominella lineolata is more abundant
in the rock rubble habitat. The
micrograzers, the variegated limpet
Cellana tramoserica and siphon limpet
Siphonaria diemenensis, and the
predatory cartrut whelk Dicathais
orbita are abundant.
The sanctuary has a high abundance
of the warrener Turbo undulatus, with
low numbers of other invertebrates
such as the blacklip abalone Haliotis
rubra, the sea stars Tosia australis,
Pentagonaster dubeni, Coscinasterias
muricata and Fromia polypore.
Four regionally uncommon intertidal
invertebrates and one alga have been
found in Eagle Rock Marine Sanctuary
including three crabs, the shore
Cyclograpsis granulosis, spider
Notomitrax sp and red swimmer
Nectocarcinus turberculosus; the
flame limpet Notoacmea flammea
and green alga Codium pomoides.
The shallow subtidal rocky reefs are
home to a relatively diverse range
of small brown algae including
Seirococcus axillaris, Cystophora
retroflexa and Acrocarpia paniculata.
Over forty five species of algae have
been recorded on the subtidal reefs.
The main canopy forming alga is the
Barnacles Tetraclitella purpurescens growing on intertidal
reef. Photo Jan Barton, Deakin University.
Of the twenty five species of fish
found in the sanctuary, the most
abundant include the blue-throated
wrasse Notolabrus tetricus, herring
cale Odax cyanomelas, scalyfin
Parma victoriae and the yellow-striped
leatherjacket Meuschenia flavolineata.
Other fish species include the
horseshoe leatherjacket Meuschenia
hippocrepis and sea sweep Scorpis
aequipinnis, while the magpie
morwong Cheliodactylus nigripes
also occurs in low abundance.
Sharks and rays such as the Port
Jackson shark Heterodontus
portusjacksoni, necklace carpetshark
Parascyllium variolatum and sparselyspotted stingaree Urolophus
paucimaculatus have been
recorded on the subtidal reef.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals and
seabirds are also found in or use
the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The sanctuary has seven conservation
listed seabirds and shorebirds
including the Caspian tern
Hydroprogne caspia, the white bellied
sea eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster,
the sooty shearwater Ardenna grisea,
the short tailed shearwater Ardenna
tenuirostris, the Pacific gull Larus
pacificus, the black faced cormorant
Phalacrocorax fuscescens, and
the common diving petrel
Pelecanoides urinatrix.
The Australian fur seal Arctocephalus
pusillus doriferus occasionally uses the
intertidal reef as a haul out area.
The sanctuary is home to seven biota
that have been recorded or presumed
to be at their distributional limit
including five red algal species
(Muellerana wattsii, Psilothallia
siliculose, Lesueuria mindeniana,
Ahnfeltiopsis humilis, and Rhodopeltis
australis) one crab (Amarinus
paralacustris), and one marine snail
20
(Belloliva leucozona), though this
may reflect collection effort in
this area rather than actual
Victorian distributions.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Eagle Rock
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include marine pests
and pathogens, illegal harvesting,
nutrients and heavy metals from
sewage outfall, man-made discharges
of freshwater and stormwater,
trampling, disturbance through
recreation (e.g. dogs, horses, vehicles),
increased shore-based development,
litter from land or sea, oil pollution
and impacts associated with
shipwrecks (physical damage,
pollution or cleanup impacts).
The invasive Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida has recently been found
Mussels Austromytilus rostratus growing on the intertidal
reef. Photo by Jan Barton, Deakin University.
in Apollo Bay Harbour and there are
concerns about its possible spread
to the sanctuary.
Climate change poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions
that focus on priority climate change
issues such as extreme weather events
and existing risks that are likely
to be exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Rock Marine Sanctuary, while eight
research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already
been completed.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the research
has been undertaken as part of the
Research Partners Program involving
collaboration with various research
institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects, one habitat mapping project
and one subtidal reef monitoring
program that are relevant to Eagle
21
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Point Addis Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Point Addis Marine National
Park is one of five marine
sanctuaries and two marine
national parks in the Central
Victoria region.
Image left:
A rock pool on the intertidal reef.
Photo by Jan Barton, Deakin University.
Image right:
A sponge garden on deep subtidal reef.
Description
The park covers 4,420 hectares
extending from the high water mark
to three nautical miles offshore within
the continental shelf. It extends along
nine kilometres of coastline east of
Anglesea to Bells Beach abutting the
Great Otway National Park. Point
Addis is a prominent headland
in the middle of the park.
The park can be accessed by boat
and by shore at Point Addis,
Southside and Bells Beach.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Wadda wurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park has a high coastal exposure and
wave energy. The Leeuwin current is
the most prominent influence on water
movement, causing a north-easterly
current through the park and sanctuaries
towards Port Phillip Heads. At Bells
Beach the south-westerly swell
is refracted, and remains high and
steep over the shelving sea floor
and breaks from west to east.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 17.5°C in the
summer and 13.5°C in the winter.
Tidal variation is 1.7 metres for spring
tides and 0.9 metres for neap tides.
The coastline includes the Anglesea
sandstone cliffs, containing two
outcrops of the geologically significant
Point Addis limestone. While no major
estuaries run directly into the park,
eight small intermittent streams
discharge within the park boundaries.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park are beaches (including intertidal
soft sediment), intertidal reefs, subtidal
reefs, subtidal soft sediments
(including unusually large rhodolith
beds) and the water column.
The intertidal soft sediments in the
park include the famous surf beach
Bells Beach. Beach drift on these soft
sediments is an important feeding
and roosting habitat for shorebirds,
including a number of conservation
significance, and contributes detritus
to nourish invertebrates such as bivalves.
Subtidal soft sediment habitats
include patches of very sparse
seagrass Heterozostera nigricaulis
in the western region. Large rhodolith
beds (coralline algae) are present
on deep (25 metres to 39 metres)
soft sediments.
Sessile invertebrates can be found
associated with deep soft sediments
22
(as deep as 50m) including ascidians,
soft corals, sponges and gorgonians.
These sessile species are large and
create habitat for fishes and other
animals. Benthic fauna includes
crustaceans (e.g. amphipods),
polychaetes, molluscs, cnidarians,
pycnogonids and echinoderms.
The intertidal reefs are made up
of limestone and sandstone and are
home to forty-five invertebrate
species, predominantly molluscs.
Common species include the limpets
Siphonaria spp, Patelloida alticostata,
Notoacmea mayi and Clypidina
rugosa, the periwinkles Nodolittorina
acutispira and N. unifasciata and the
conniwink Bembicium nanum.
Sessile species common to the
intertidal reefs include algae such
as Neptune’s necklace Hormosira
banksii, Ulva spp., turfing algae,
and aggregating invertebrates such
as the tube worm Galeolaria caespitosa
and the mussels Limnoperna pulex
and Austromytilus rostratus.
The subtidal reefs in the park extend
to a depth of 58 metres, and have a
high diversity of algal species.
The shallow reef 7 metres to 13 metres
west of Point Addis is generally
dominated by mixed algae and the
kelp Ecklonia radiata.
The reef close to shore off Point Addis
is dominated by the bull kelp
Durvillaea potatorum while towards
the centre of the bay the crayweed
Phyllospora comosa dominates the
solid reef areas at depths of 5 metres
to 7 metres.
East of Addiscot Beach the giant kelp
Macrocystis pyrifera can be found.
Other canopy forming algal species
include Seirococcus axillaris and
Acrocarpia paniculata. Understorey
species include up to seven species
of the green Caulerpa spp., the red
coralline alga Haliptilon roseum
and smaller fleshy red algae Ballia
callitricha, Areschougia congesta
and Plocamium spp.
Beds of the seagrass Amphibolis
antarctica are found in areas of rubble
reef in the west of the park and on
broken reef in the bay off Addiscot
Beach and support a variety of sessile
invertebrates (e.g. bryozoans), mobile
invertebrates and epiphytic algae.
The invertebrate community of the
subtidal reef habitats within the park
includes blacklip abalone Haliotis
rubra, green lipped Haliotis laevigata,
warrener Turbo undulatus, rock lobster
Jasus edwardsii and a variety of sea
stars including Nectria spp., Nepanthia
troughtoni and Holopneustes
porosissimus.
Fish commonly found include the
blue-throated wrasse Notolabrus
tetricus, purple wrasse N. fucicola,
sea sweep Scorpis aequipinnis, yellow
tailed leatherjacket Meuschenia
flavolineata and horseshoe leatherjacket
M. hippocrepis. Other fish include
Herring cale Odax cyanomelas,
short-finned pike Sphyraena
novaehollandiae yellowtail kingfish
Seriola lalandi and several species
of salmon.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent home
in the water column include sea jellies,
salps, many fish, and phytoplankton
and zooplankton. A number of marine
mammals, reptiles and seabirds are
also found in or use the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
A large number of seabirds and
shorebirds of conservation significance
including terns (e.g. the fairy tern
Sternula nereis, common tern Sterna
hirundo, and the caspian tern
Hydroprogne caspia), the hooded
plover Thinornis rubricollis, albatrosses
(e.g. wandering albatross Diomedea
exulans, shy albatross Thalassarche
cauta, yellow-nosed albatross
Thalassarche chlororhynchos,
black-browed albatross Thalassarche
melanophris) and the fairy prion
Rhodoliths in Point Addis Marine National Park.
23
Pachyptila turtur have been found
in or near the park.
Marine mammals of conservation
significance sighted in the park
include the blue whale Balaenoptera
musculus, the southern right whale
Eubalaena australis, the killer whale
Orcinus orca, and the Australian fur
seal Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus.
The water column also provides
habitat for other transient species
such as the pacific ridley turtle
Lepidochelys olivacea.
Within the park there are two red
algal species Rhodymenia verrucosa
and Webervanbossea splachnoides
thought to be at their western
distributional limit. There are also
fourteen invertebrate and algal species
found that are regionally uncommon
in the area, including the chiton
Ischnochiton versicolor and the green
algae Caulerpa cactoides.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise threats
identified for this park form part
of the park management plan.
Parks Victoria also uses an adaptive
management approach which includes
periodic reviews of priority natural
values and threats through processes
such as the State of the Parks
evaluation and setting of desired
conservation outcomes. Through
these processes Parks Victoria has
identified emerging threats and
developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include marine pests
and diseases, illegal harvesting, litter
and debris, physical disturbance and
damage from people, vehicle or
animal trampling, increased coastal
development, oil pollution, and
terrestrial inputs of poor water quality.
The invasive Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida has recently been found
in Apollo Bay Harbour and there are
concerns about its possible spread
to the park.
Climate change poses a serious
medium to long term threat to
natural values. Parks Victoria will
use an adaptive management
approach to develop responses and
actions that focus on priority climate
change issues such as extreme
weather events and existing risks
that are likely to be exacerbated
by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the
parks in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program and involves collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Point
Addis Marine National Park, while
nine research projects and two habitat
mapping projects have already been
completed. The park has ongoing
intertidal and subtidal reef monitoring
programs, as well as a community
based monitoring program
(Reef Watch).
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Cuttlefish in Point Addis Marine National Park. Photo by NRE.
24
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Point Danger
Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Point Danger Marine
Sanctuary is one of five marine
sanctuaries and two marine
national parks in the Central
Victoria bioregion.
Image left:
Egg urchin Holopneustes sp. in an intertidal rock pool.
Photo by Mark Rodrigue, Parks Victoria.
Image right:
Intertidal reef and rock pool. Photo by Mark Rodrigue,
Parks Victoria.
Description
The sanctuary covers 21.7 hectares
and extends from the high water
mark around the prominent limestone
headland of Point Danger between
the townships of Torquay and
Jan Juc. It extends offshore for
about 600 metres to the east and
400 metres to the south.
The sanctuary is accessible from the
car park or adjacent beaches.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Wadda wurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The coastline is exposed to strong
winds and large swell (mostly from
the south and south west), and
currents that are typical of open
coastal locations. The seafloor is
predominantly less than seven
metres deep.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 17.5 °C in the
summer and 13.5 °C in the winter.
Tidal variation is 2.1 metres for spring
tides and 0.7 metres for neap tides.
Spring Creek discharges one kilometre
to the west of the sanctuary and
Barwon River discharges 20 kilometres
to the east.
The geology of the sanctuary
is limestone.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include intertidal and
subtidal soft sediment, intertidal and
subtidal reefs, and the water column.
Drift has been observed on the
intertidal soft sediments, while many
shorebirds have also been recorded in
or near the sanctuary, a number of
which are of conservation significance.
The intertidal limestone platform is
home to twenty six species of marine
plants. The brown algae Neptune’s
necklace Hormosira banksii is a key
habitat forming algae on the
limestone intertidal reef. Other brown
algae (e.g. Cystophora moniliformis,
C. subfarcinata, Sargassum spp.) are
predominantly found in rock pools.
Patches of small red corallines,
filamentous algae and the green
sea lettuce Ulva spp. are common
on the intertidal platform.
The sanctuary is home to more than
forty four species of intertidal
invertebrates which are mostly
found underneath rocks on the
intertidal reef.
The most abundant mobile
invertebrates include the pulmonate
limpets Siphonaria spp., striped
25
conniwink Bembicium nanum and the
rugose slit limpet Clypidina rugosa.
Mussel beds made up of the tiny
horse mussel Limnoperna pulex are
also common. The top shell
Chlorodiloma adelaidae can also be
abundant hidden amongst rubble and
under stones. The predatory
gastropods Lepsiella vinosa and
Dicathais orbita are often associated
with Limnoperna pulex mussel beds.
The turban shell Turbo undulatus and
the limpet Patelloida alticostata are
present but in lower densities than
other molluscs.
The shallow subtidal rocky reefs are
home to a mixture of brown algae,
while extensive areas of the seagrass
Amphibolis antarctica can be found
growing over reef and sediment
in the more sheltered areas.
The sanctuary is particularly
recognised for its diverse sea slug
(opisthobranch) fauna found on both
intertidal and subtidal reefs with
ninety six species having been
recorded, many of which are endemic.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
The water column is also foraging
habitat for several seabirds.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The sanctuary has eighteen
conservation listed seabirds and
shorebirds including three species
of albatross (e.g. the wandering
albatross Diomedea exulans), two
species of tern (e.g. the Caspian tern
Hydroprogne caspia), two species
of shearwater (e.g. sooty shearwater
Ardenna grisea), the Pacific gull Larus
pacificus, and the common diving
petrel Pelecanoides urinatrix
among others.
The Point Danger Marine Sanctuary
is home to two biota that have been
recorded or presumed to be at their
distributional limit including one crab
Hexapus granuliferus and one marine
snail Tubercliopsis septapila, though
this may reflect collection effort
in this area rather than actual
Victorian distributions.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Point Danger
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include marine pests
and pathogens, illegal harvesting,
nutrients and heavy metals from
sewage outfall, man-made discharges
of freshwater and stormwater,
trampling, disturbance through
recreation (e.g. dogs, horses, vehicles),
increased shore-based development,
litter from land or sea, oil pollution
and impacts associated with
shipwrecks (physical damage,
pollution or cleanup impacts).
mapping project have already been
completed. The sanctuary also
has an ongoing intertidal reef
monitoring program.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
The invasive Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida has recently been found
in Apollo Bay Harbour and there are
concerns about its possible spread.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges for
the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values
and threats for the system have
improved significantly through the
marine science program. Much
of the research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Point
Danger Marine Sanctuary, while eight
research projects and one habitat
26
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Barwon Bluff
Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment,
its habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to a
nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Barwon Bluff Marine
Sanctuary is one of five marine
sanctuaries and two marine
national parks in the Central
Victoria bioregion.
Image left:
Southern rocklobster Jasus edwardsii on the subtidal reef.
Photo by Mark Rodrigue, Parks Victoria.
Image right:
Submerged intertidal reef dominated by the brown algae
Neptune’s necklace Hormosira banksii.
Photo by Mark Rodrigue, Parks Victoria.
Description
The sanctuary covers 15.7 hectares
and extends from the high water mark
at the Point Flinders headland, locally
known as “The Bluff” at the mouth
of the Barwon River.
Close to the township of Barwon
Heads, the sanctuary extends 400
metres to the east and south of the
headland. It is accessible from the
shore through the Barwon Heads
township or from “The Bluff”
via stairways.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Wadda wurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
Waters to the east of Point Flinders
are relatively calm, influenced
predominantly by tidal currents and
the flow of water from Barwon River.
West of Point Flinders the intertidal
platforms and beach are exposed to
persistent high-energy south-westerly
swells in Bass Strait.
Wind and wave action influence the
beaches, affecting grain size,
deposition and erosion. Natural
hydrodynamic events such as storm
surges displace seaweed and kelp
communities, erode beaches and
deposit sand over the reefs.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 17.5°C in the
summer and 13.5°C in the winter.
Tidal variation is 2.1 metres for spring
tides and 0.7 metres for neap tides.
The Barwon River estuary runs into
Bass Strait 600 metres north of
the sanctuary. Barwon Heads is
geologically significant as a coastal
bluff in Pleistocene dune calcarenite
with interbedded palaeosoils, resting
on basalt.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include intertidal and
subtidal soft sediment, intertidal and
subtidal reefs, and the water column.
The intertidal calcarenite and basalt
reef is home to a variety of marine
plants. The brown algae Neptune’s
necklace Hormosira banksii is a key
habitat forming plant on these
intertidal reefs. Other brown algae
(e.g. Cystophora retorta, C. retroflexa)
are largely found very low on the
shore or in rock pools. The seagrass
Amphibolis antarctica can also be
found in rock pools.
Large patches of the red turfing algae
Capreolia implexa can have very high
27
cover on the intertidal reef. This alga
can form a matrix with the tiny horse
mussel Limnoperna pulex, which
occurs in low abundance on the reef.
Other aggregating invertebrates found
at in the sanctuary include the rosette
barnacle Tetraclitella purpurascens and
six-plated barnacle Chthamalus
antennatus.
The shallow (mostly <5 metres)
subtidal rocky reefs in the sanctuary
include areas of low profile reef close
to sand patches which are generally
dominated by mixed brown algae.
In the west and away from the sand
patches, the reef becomes dominated
by the brown alga crayweed
Phyllospora comosa.
The sanctuary is home to more than
thirty five species of intertidal
invertebrates including anemones
(e.g. Oulactis spp., Aulactinia veratra
and Actinia tenebrosa) that are
common in rock pools, molluscs
(e.g. Bembicium nanum, Nodilittorina
spp., Clypidina rugosa, Notoacmea
mayi, Cellana tramoserica, Siphonaria
spp., Cominella lineolata, Dicathais
orbita, and Aplysia gigantean),
seastars (e.g. Meridiastra calcar and
Parvulastra exigua) and shore crabs
(e.g. Cyclograpsus spp. and
Paragrapsus spp.). The ascidian
Pyura stolonifera is also present
on the lowest perimeter of the reef.
On the seaward edge of the intertidal
platform bull kelp Durvillaea
potatorum forms a narrow band
approximately 10 metres to15 metres
wide. Beds of giant kelp Macrocystis
pyrifera are found in the southern
corner of the sanctuary.
Common fish on the Barwon Heads
intertidal platform (found in rock
pools) are the Tasmanian blenny
Parablennius tasmanianus and
the southern crested weedfish
Cristiceps australis.
Bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum covered subtidal reef.
Photo by Mark Rodrigue, Parks Victoria.
A variety of invertebrates are found
on subtidal reefs including molluscs
(e.g. black lip abalone Haliotis rubra,
warrener Turbo undulatus, elephant
snail Scutus antipodes and cartrut
whelk Dicathais orbita), echinoderms
(e.g. Coscinasterias calamaria, Tosia
australis, Uniophora granifera, Nectria
sp. Patiriella brevispina and Echinaster
varicolour). Also present is the ascidian
Pyura gibbosa and crustaceans (e.g.
red bait crab Plagusia chabrus and the
southern rocklobster Jasus edwardsii).
At the eastern tip of the sanctuary
filter-feeding invertebrates such
as feather-stars and sponges are
common due to the fast currents.
Sea slugs (opisthobranchs) can also
be found on the reef sides.
Common fish on the subtidal reefs
include the blue-throated wrasse
Notolabrus tetricus, herring cale Odax
cyanomelas, scalyfin Parma victoriae,
sea sweep Scorpis aequipinnis, magpie
morwong Cheliodactylus nigripes and
various leatherjackets. Sharks and
rays such as the Port Jackson shark
Heterodontus portusjacksoni,
southern eagle ray Myliobatis australis
and smooth stingray Dasyatis
brevicaudata have also been
recorded on the subtidal reef.
Drift observed in the intertidal soft
sediments provides important feeding
and roosting habitat for shorebirds,
many of which are of conservation
significance.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent home
in the water column include sea jellies,
salps, many fish, and phytoplankton
and zooplankton. A number of seabirds
also use the waters of the sanctuary.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The Barwon Bluff Marine Sanctuary
has twenty seven conservation listed
seabirds and shorebirds including
petrels (e.g. Macronectes giganteus
and Halobaena caerulea), albatross
(Thalassarche cauta), knot (Calidris
tenuirostris), egrets (Ardea modesta
and Ardea ibis), terns (Hydroprogne
28
caspia, Sternula nereis and Sterna
striata) and many others.
existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
The sanctuary is also home to two fish
species of conservation significance
including the dusky morwong
Pentaceropsis recurvirostris and the
longsnout boarfish Pentaceropsis
recurvirostris.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Barwon Bluff
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses and actions.
Serious threats for this sanctuary
include illegal fishing, trampling and
disturbance, increased nutrients from
shore and marine pollution, and
marine pests. A number of introduced
marine pests have the potential to
colonise within the sanctuary, from
nearby waters in Port Phillip Bay and
the ocean waters of Bass Strait.
Climate change poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
Image left:
Old wife Enoplosus armatus on subtidal reef.
Photo by Mark Rodrigue, Parks Victoria.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project relevant to Barwon Buff
Marine Sanctuary, while ten research
projects and one habitat mapping
project have already been completed.
The sanctuary has an ongoing
intertidal reef monitoring program
and two community-based monitoring
programs (Reef Watch and Sea Search).
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
information needs to assist
management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Image right:
Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni.
Photo by Mark Rodrigue, Parks Victoria.
29
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Mushroom Reef
Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Mushroom Reef Marine
Sanctuary is one of five marine
sanctuaries and two marine
national parks in the Central
Victoria bioregion.
Image left:
The Anemone Phyctenanthus australis.
Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
Intertidal reef and rockpools in Mushroom Reef Marine
Sanctuary. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Description
The sanctuary covers 56.7 hectares,
abutting the Mornington Peninsula
National Park and extends from the
high water mark to approximately
1kilometres offshore. Close to the
township of Flinders, the sanctuary
extends 702 metres along the Flinders
Ocean Beach from 300 metres east
of Kings Street to 500 metres west
of the West Head car park.
The sanctuary is accessible from the
signed car park off the golf course
or by adjoining beaches.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Boonwurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
Mushroom Reef Marine Sanctuary
is protected from large swells by
nearby Bismark Reef and is influenced
by the ocean waters of Bass Strait
and by tidal flows from the western
entrance to Western Port Bay.
The seafloor is predominantly less
than 9 metres deep. Surface water
temperatures vary between an
average 17.5°C in the summer and
13.0°C in the winter. Tidal variation
is 2.1 metres for spring tides and
0.7 metres for neap tides.
The geology of the sanctuary is basalt.
The reefs are hexagonal fractured
columns formed by the cooling
of lava, which weather and break
down to form rounded cobbles
and boulders.
Mushroom Reef Marine Sanctuary
is named after the shape of its largest
intertidal platform. Its large intertidal
isthmus or ‘stalk’ has been formed by
incoming waves refracting around the
reef platform and depositing basalt
cobbles into the gap between the
platform and the shore, an unusual
coastal landform known as a tombolo.
Double Creek discharges 500 metres
west of the sanctuary and receives
stormwater from the township
of Flinders.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include intertidal and
subtidal soft sediment (including
seagrass), intertidal and subtidal
reefs, and the water column.
The intertidal soft sediments provide
important feeding and roosting
habitat for shorebirds such as
Sooty oystercatchers Haematopus
fuliginosus, curlew sandpipers Calidris
ferruginea, red-necked stints Calidris
ruficollis, Ruddy turnstones Arenaria
30
interpres and the hooded plover
Thinornis rubricollis.
The subtidal soft sediments are home
to seagrasses such as Zostera sp. in
the sheltered areas and Amphibolis
antarctica in the exposed areas.
The intertidal basalt reef is home
to sixteen species of algae and two
seagrasses (Amphibolis antarctica
and Halophila ovalis restricted to rock
pools) that occur in low densities.
Common algal species include
Hormosira banksii, crustose and erect
coralline algae, black lichen, and sea
lettuce (Ulva spp.). Small patches
of the small aggregating mussel
Limnoperna pulex can be found,
as well as tube worms (likely
Galeolaria caespitosa).
The sanctuary has a highly diverse
invertebrate assemblage with sixty
one species including molluscs (e.g.
Siphonaria spp, Dicathais orbita,
Bembicium nanum, Austrocochlea
constricta, Nerita atramentosa),
crustaceans (e.g. Paragrapsis sp.,
Cyclograpsis sp.), worms (e.g.
Galeolaria caespitosa), echinoderms
(e.g. Parvulastra exigua), ascidians
(e.g. Botrylloides leachii) and
anemones (e.g. Actinia tenebrosa
and Aulactinia veratra).
The top shell Calliostoma armillata.
Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Several common algae have been
observed on the shallow subtidal
rocky reefs and include mixed browns
(e.g. Cystophora sp.), Phyllospora
comosa and Ecklonia radiata. The bull
kelp Durvillaea potatorum is common
on the intertidal platform edges.
The seagrass Amphibolis antarctica
is also common.
Although there have been no detailed
surveys of the subtidal reef invertebrate
assemblage, some species recorded
in intertidal rock pools are also likely
to be found on subtidal reefs (e.g.
sea stars Nectria ocellata and
Smilasterias multipara).
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include sea
jellies, salps, fish, and phytoplankton
and zooplankton. A number seabirds
and Australian fur seals are also
found in or use the water column
in the sanctuary.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The sanctuary has 15 conservation
listed seabirds and shorebirds
including the critically endangered
grey-tailed tattler Heteroscelus brevipes.
Several vulnerable species including
the fairy prion Pachyptila turtur, shy
Thalassarche cauta and black-browed
T. melanophris albatross and others
of varying conservation significance
are found in or near the sanctuary.
One marine mammal species
of conservation significance, the
Australian fur seal Arctocephalus
pusillus doriferus, has been sighted
in the sanctuary. The sanctuary
is also home to two known endemic
crustaceans and one presumed
to be endemic: Apsolidium densum,
Bassethullia glypta and
Syrnola jonesiana.
Thirty seven marine species have been
recorded or are presumed to be at
their distributional limit including
a number of algae (including twenty
six species of red algae, e.g. Lomentaria
pyramidalis), shrimp (e.g. Tozeuma
kimberi), crabs (e.g. Pachygrapsus
transverses), marine snails (e.g.
Cheirodonta labiata), sea cucumbers
(e.g. Apsolidium handrecki) and
a chiton Ischnochiton virgatus.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Mushroom Reef
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
31
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include freshwater,
nutrients and sediments from
discharges, illegal fishing, fossicking,
trampling, disturbance of birds and
invasive marine pests. A number
of introduced marine pests have
the potential to colonise within the
sanctuary from nearby waters
in Port Phillip Bay and the ocean
waters of Bass Strait.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions
that focus on priority climate change
issues such as extreme weather events
and existing risks that are likely
to be exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine science
program. Much of the research has
been undertaken as part of the
Research Partners Program involving
collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Mushroom
Reef Marine Sanctuary, while eight
research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already been
completed. The sanctuary has an
ongoing intertidal reef monitoring
program and a community-based
monitoring program (Sea Search).
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing the
information needs that will assist
management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the parks
The sea star Nectria ocellata in Mushroom Reef Marine
Sanctuary. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
32
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Bunurong Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to a
nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Bunurong Marine National
Park is one of two marine
national parks and five marine
sanctuaries in the Central
Victoria bioregion.
Image left:
Dense diverse seaweed and seagrass at Shack Bay. Photo
by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
Eagles Nest rock formation. Photo by Mark Norman,
Museum Victoria.
Description
The park covers 2,046 hectares
extending from the high water mark
to three nautical miles offshore along
6km of coastline east of Cape Patterson
to just east of Eagles Nest. It abuts the
Bunurong Coastal Reserve along its
full length and on either side is the
Bunurong Marine Park. Access to
the park is via The Oaks, Twin Reefs,
Shack Bay, Eagles Nest and by boat.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners
of Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Boonwurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The coastline of the park is protected
from the storm waves of the Southern
Ocean and tidal and wave currents are
relatively small. The geology is sandstone
and mudstone and it has a gently
sloping bathymetry with the intertidal
and subtidal rock platforms extending
out to sea as a sloping rocky plain
to a maximum depth of 56 metres.
Prominent rock ridges form seaward
extensions off Eagles Nest.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 17.5 °C in the
summer and 13 °C in the winter. Tidal
variation is 2.1 metres for spring tides
and 1.3 metres for neap tides.
No major estuaries run directly
into the park, though one small
intermittent stream discharges within
the park boundaries. Substantial
springs and seepage of water occur
at the base of the cliffs along the
whole of the Bunurong coast.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park include intertidal and subtidal
soft sediment, extensive sandstone
intertidal reefs, subtidal reefs
(including extensive shallow reefs)
and the water column.
Beach drift on intertidal soft sediments
is a food source for scavenging birds,
and an important part of the detritus
that nourishes invertebrates living in
the sand. Crustaceans (e.g. amphipods,
isopods) and coleopterons (beetles)
are common in intertidal soft sediments.
Insects such as dipterans (flies e.g.
Chaetocoelopa sydneyensis) are
confined to the upper beach zone
and polychaetes (e.g. Scolelepis
lamellicincta) are confined to the
lower beach zone.
A wide variety of shorebirds are also
found in or near the park, including
many of conservation significance.
Subtidal soft sediments in the park
include shallow and extensive deep
sandy beds predominantly inhabited
33
by infauna (small crustaceans and
worms that burrow into the sand) and
bottom-dwelling skates and rays.
Fish such as mullets, hardyheads and
salmon Australian Arripis trutta are
found offshore of sandy beaches
and are usually transient. Numerous
sharks, including gummy Mustelus
antarcticus, school Galeorhinus
australis, common saw Pristiophorus
cirratus, southern saw P. nudipinnis,
angel Squatina australis and elephant
Callorhynchus milii are likely to occur
in the park.
The intertidal sandstone reefs are
home to one species of seagrass,
Amphibolis antarctica, thirty species
of algae, fifty-eight species of
invertebrates and a small number
of rock pool fish species. Common
algae include Neptune’s necklace
Hormosira banksii, the green alga
Ulva compressa, and the branched
coralline red algae Corallina officinalis.
The most common sessile invertebrate
on the intertidal reefs of the park is
the mat forming mussel Limnoperna
pulex. Mobile molluscs are common
and diverse on the reefs and include
the periwinkle Austrolittorina
unifasciata, and the striped
conniwink Bembicium nanum.
The seastar Patiriella exigua and
a range of other fauna including
anemones, barnacles, crabs, sea
squirts, urchins and the blue ring
octopus can also be found on the
intertidal reef.
Common rock pool fish include
the toadfish Tetractenos glaber,
the horned blenny Parablennius
tasmanianus and the dragonet
Bovichtus angustifrons.
The subtidal rocky reefs have a diverse
algal assemblage including brown and
red algae such as Seirococcus axillaris,
Cystophora spp., Sargassum spp.,
Acrocarpia paniculata, Haliptilon
roseum, Plocamium angustum and
Phacelocarpus peperocarpus. Habitat
forming beds of the seagrass
Amphibolis antarctica are also found.
The park has very diverse subtidal reef
invertebrate communities including
the blacklip abalone Halitiotis rubra,
the warrener Turbo undulatus and
a variety of seastars. Common fish
found on these reefs include
blue-throated wrasse Notolabrus
tetricus, purple wrasse Notolabrus
fucicola, senator wrasse Pictilabrus
laticlavius and sea sweep Scorpis
aequipinnis. Deep subtidal reefs
within the park are home to sessile
invertebrates including sponges,
stalked ascidians and bryozoans.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number marine mammals and
seabirds are also found in or use
the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The Bunurong Marine National Park
has thirty-one conservation listed
seabirds and shorebirds including
species such as the southern
giant-petrel Macronectes giganteus,
the wandering albatross Diomedea
exulans, the yellow-nosed albatross,
the Thalassarche chlororhynchos
and the white-faced storm-petrel
Pelagodroma marina among others.
The listed sea cucumber Pentocnus
bursatus, which is only known from
the Cape Patterson area, may also
be found in the park.
Marine mammals of conservation
significance sighted in the park
include the humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae, southern
right whale Eubalaena australis,
subantarctic fur seal Arctophoca
tropicalis, and the Australian fur seal
Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus.
Rock ledges at Twin Reefs teeming with fish life.
Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
34
The park is home to twenty-one biota
recorded or presumed to be at their
distributional limit including brown
algae, green algae, sea cucumbers,
a seastar, a chiton and crab species.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Bunurong Marine
National Park form part of the park
management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses and actions.
Serious threats for Bunurong Marine
National Park include physical
disturbance such as human, vehicle
or animal/pet trampling; marine pests
and diseases; lack of education;
increased coastal development;
terrestrial inputs of poor water
quality and poaching.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that are likely to be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the
parks in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values
and threats for the system have
improved significantly through the
marine science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken as part
of the Research Partners Program
involving collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are six ongoing research projects
and one habitat mapping project
relevant to Bunurong Marine National
Park, while five research projects and
one habitat mapping project have
already been completed. The park
has ongoing intertidal and shallow
subtidal reef monitoring programs.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing the
information needs that will assist
management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Image left:
Shack Bay looking east towards Eagles Nest. Photo by Mark
Norman, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
Giant rock formations covered in encrusting growth in the
waters at Twin Reefs. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum
Victoria.
35
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Port Phillip Heads Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Port Phillip Heads Marine
National Park occurs in the
southern part of Port Phillip
Bay, which also includes
three marine sanctuaries. The
bay is part of the Victorian
Embayments bioregion.
Image left:
The weedy seadragon Phyllopteryx taeniolatus on subtidal
reef. Photo by Australian Marine Ecology.
Image right:
Senator wrasse Pictilabrus laticlavius on subtidal reef
at Popes Eye. Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria
Description
The park has six sections covering
3,475 hectares: Point Lonsdale 377
hectares; Point Nepean 377 hectares;
Popes Eye (The Annulus) 3.1 hectares;
Portsea Hole 9.8 hectares; Mud Islands
625 hectares; and Swan Bay
2,083 hectares.
It stretches along approximately
34 kilometres of coastline from the
high water mark, with some sections,
Popes Eye, Portsea Hole and Mud
Islands, not joined to the coast.
Point Lonsdale on the Bellarine
Peninsula and Point Nepean on
the Mornington Peninsula surround
the headlands on both sides of the
bay entrance (the Heads).
has been banned in Popes Eye
since 1976.
Sections of the park abut conservation
managed terrestrial areas including
Point Nepean National Park, Point
Lonsdale Foreshore Reserve and
Edwards Point Wildlife Faunal Reserve
in Swan Bay, as well as Department of
Defence management of Swan Island.
Swan Bay and Mud Islands are
internationally significant shorebird
habitats and form part of the Port
Phillip Bay (Western Shoreline) and
Bellarine Peninsula RAMSAR site.
The wrecks of the Holyhead and
George Roper within the park are part
of Heritage Victoria’s Underwater
Shipwreck Discovery Trail.
Popes Eye, a natural sand shoal with
a partially completed bluestone
fortification and Mud Islands, formerly
known as Swan Isles, Signet Island
and Flat Islands, are offshore on the
Great Sands in Port Phillip Bay.
Sections of the park that adjoin the
coast are accessible by foot except
for exclusion zones on Point Nepean.
Some sections of the park are only
accessible by boat with certain
restrictions.
Portsea Hole, a steep remnant section
of the ancient Yarra River, is offshore
from Portsea Pier.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country of
Wathaurung (in the west) and Country
of Boonwurrung (in the east, including
Mud Islands).
The Swan Bay section of the park
on the Bellarine Peninsula includes
most of this shallow bay.
The park has a long history of marine
protection with most of it having been
a Marine Reserve since 1979. Fishing
36
Physical Parameters and Processes
The geology of Port Phillip Heads
Marine National Park is dune
calcarenite (limestone) with some
sections covered with sand, though
Popes Eye has an artificial structure
of basalt blocks. The park has a wide
variety of exposure. Outside the Heads
the southern coasts of Point Lonsdale
and Point Nepean are exposed to
south-westerly weather and swells of
Bass Strait. They receive ocean waves
averaging about 1.7 metres, which
break on the outer reef flats and arrive
on the beach with reduced energy
and wave height.
Between the Heads is a narrow, deep
(100 metres) stretch of water that is
very turbulent due to swell, waves,
tides and weather. Tidal currents
through the Heads dominate water
circulation in southern Port Phillip Bay
and can be as fast as 2.5m/s.
The park beaches on the inside coast
of the Heads receive low wave energy
and are dynamic with natural accretion
and attrition of sand, covering and
uncovering the reefs and other
habitats.
Further inside the bay, Popes Eye and
Portsea Hole have moderate exposure
to waves and currents.
Point Nepean, looking across the Heads to Point Lonsdale,
Port Phillip Heads Marine National Park. Photo by Steffan
Howe, Parks Victoria.
The islands of Mud Islands create
a sheltered lagoon, however strong
tidal currents and storm events
continually alter the shape of Mud
Islands and the Great Sands. Swan
Bay is a large shallow sheltered
lagoon, with a constricted connection
to Port Phillip Bay by natural and
artificial channels either side
of Swan Island.
The park has an unequal semidiurnal
tidal pattern, with flooding and
ebbing having both a higher
and lower event per day.
Tides vary in the different sections
of the park, from 1.2 metres spring
and 0.6 metres neap tides in Point
Lonsdale and Point Nepean, to 0.7
metres spring and 0.1 metres neap
tides in Portsea Hole and Mud Islands.
Tidal currents diminish before they
reach Swan Bay, with a tidal amplitude
<1 metre and flushing time of
approximately 1.5 days. The flushing
time of Port Phillip Bay varies from
0 days at the Heads to about 260 days
in the main body of the bay.
Surface water temperature varies in
the park from a summer mean of
17.5°C in Point Lonsdale and Point
Nepean to 20.5°C in Swan Bay, and
a winter mean of 13.5°C in Point
Lonsdale and Point Nepean to 11.2°C
in Mud Islands and Swan Bay.
Yarram Creek discharges onto the
western shoreline of Swan Bay.
There are nine sites of regional or
state geological significance in Port
Phillip Heads Marine National Park.
In Point Lonsdale the broad
Pleistocene calcarenite shore
platforms, cliffs and dune sequences
in Lonsdale Bight are significant. In
Point Nepean the shore platforms
at the Heads and the sandy accretions
of Observatory Point are significant.
The Great Sands, including Mud
Islands, to the north of the Heads
are a sandy flood tide delta on a rocky
platform that is of state significance.
Swan Bay has three significant
features, the tidal delta into the bay,
its southern tidal flats and northern
alluvial fans.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
Port Phillip Heads Marine National
Park protects a diversity of habitats,
including complex intertidal and
subtidal calcarenite reefs supporting
many endemic species, artificial basalt
reef, sandy beaches, mud flats, sandy
deltas, seagrass meadows, sponge
gardens in deep waters and the
water column.
Saltmarsh:
Vegetation on the low-lying Mud
Islands consists of saltmarsh and dune
shrubland communities dominated by
37
Wet Saltmarsh Scrubland and Wet
Saltmarsh Herbland with some Coastal
Tussock Saltmarsh. Within these
communities a number of species are
considered rare or threatened in Victoria.
Saltmarsh in Swan Bay is predominately
outside the park boundaries but contains
communities of Wet Saltmarsh
Scrubland; Wet Saltmarsh Herbland;
Coastal Tussock Saltmarsh; Coastal
Hypersaline Shrubland; Coastal
Saltmarsh; and Estuarine Wetlands.
Species include beaded glasswort
Sarcocornia quinqueflora, creeping
brookweed Samolus repens,
Hemichroa pentandra and grey
glasswort Halosarcia halocnemoides.
Seagrass and Unvegetated
Soft Sediments:
The intertidal and subtidal seagrass
beds on the soft sediment in Mud
Islands and Swan Bay, and on sand
covered subtidal reef in Point Nepean,
support abundant invertebrates and
juvenile fish.
Intertidal Seagrass and Unvegetated
Soft Sediments:
Intertidal seagrass, usually Zostera
muelleri, is an important habitat in
the park, particularly in Swan Bay and
Mud Islands. The extensive intertidal
seagrass beds in Swan Bay also
include Halophila australis, Ruppia
tuberosa, Lepilaena marina, and
L. cylindrocarpa. Wrack on the shore
in Swan Bay can be considerable and
cover the inshore seagrass beds.
Image left:
Western blue devil fish Paraplesiops meleagris on deep
subtidal reef at Point Lonsdale. Photo by Don Love.
Image right:
Seagrass beds (Zostera muelleri) at Mud Islands.
Photo by Mark Rodrigue.
Infauna associated with intertidal
seagrass beds in Swan Bay is
dominated by large numbers
of relatively few species. Corophiid
amphipods and the amphipod
Allorchestes compressa are the
dominant crustacea, and the
polychaete fauna is dominated
by capitellids, the nereid Ceratonereis
pseudoerythraeensis and the
orbinid Scoloplos cylindrifer.
The seagrass assemblages in Swan Bay
tend to be dominated by large numbers
of the spotted pipefish Stigmatopora
argus with other species of pipefish
such as Vanacampus phillipi. Other
dominant species include the hardyhead
Leptatherina presbyteroides, the
bridled leatherjacket A. spilomelanurus,
the spot-shoulder weed fish
Heteroclinus perspicillatus and the
cobbler Gymnapistes marmoratus.
In unvegetated intertidal soft sediments
invertebrate communities are dominated
by oligochaete worms, polychaete
worms Capitella sp., bivalve Mysella
donaciformis, gastropod Salinator
fragilis and crane flies Tipulidae.
In the shallow beds, smallmouth
hardyheads Atherinosoma microstoma
and hardyhead recruits Atherinidae
spp. are the most abundant fish
species along with the wide-body
pipefish Stimatorpora nigra, bridled
leatherjacket Acanthaluteres
spilomelanurus, little rock whiting
Neoodax balteatus, blue sprat
Sparatelloides robustus and spotted
pipefish S. argus.
Subtidal Seagrass and Unvegetated
Soft Sediments:
Subtidal seagrass is also an important
habitat the park, particularly in Mud
Islands and Swan Bay. Mud Islands has
large persistent beds of Heterozostera
nigricaulis in the lagoon and outside
in waters up to 8 metres deep.
The extensive subtidal seagrass beds
in Swan Bay include Zostera muelleri,
Heterozostera nigricaulis, Halophila
australis, Ruppia maritima,
R. polycarpa. H. australis is also
found in deeper water around
the Swan Bay jetty area just outside
the park.
The southern deeper end of Swan Bay
and near the centre tend to be more
dominated by algae such as Caulerpa
spp. and filamentous algae than
seagrass.
The H. nigricaulis habitat in Mud
Islands supports at least twenty-seven
species of finfish and one species
of squid.
In the deeper seagrass beds the most
abundant fish is the wide-body
pipefish S. nigra. Also abundant are
leatherjackets, including the bridled
A. spilomelanurus, toothbrush
A. vittiger and pygmy Brachalueres
jacksonianus and the little rock
whiting Neoodax balteatus. The
Australian giant cuttlefish Sepia
apama has been found in the deeper
beds of H. nigricaulis. Red mullet
Upeneichthys vlamingii, little gurnard
perch Maxillicosta scabriceps and yank
flathead Platycephalus speculator are
also found in the deeper beds.
A number of commercially important
species, rough leatherjacket
Scobinichthys granulatus, six-spined
leatherjacket Meuschenia freycineti,
and King George whiting Sillaginodes
punctatus, settle directly into subtidal
H. nigricaulis beds. Skates, rays and
stingarees are particularly common
38
on the unvegetated sand beds.
Species include the eagle ray
Myliobatis australis, smooth stingray
Dasyatis brevicaudata, banjo ray
Trygonorrhina fasciata, southern
fiddler ray T. guaneria, sparsely spotted
stingaree Urolophus paucimaculatus
and spotted stingaree U. gigas.
Reefs:
The intertidal calcarenite reef in the
park supports a high invertebrate
diversity. In Popes Eye the intertidal
and subtidal reef is an artificial basalt
structure and supports abundant large
fish. In Point Lonsdale and Point
Nepean the shallow subtidal
calcarenite reefs have high algal
diversity and abundance. The reef can
be solid or patchy, high or low profile,
with rubble, gutters, ledges and
overhangs and can be inundated
by sand. It can be dominated by large
canopy forming brown algae, or as
in parts of Point Nepean, extensive
beds of seagrass Amphibolis antarctica.
The kelp Ecklonia radiata grows
on shallow to moderate depth reefs
in Point Lonsdale, Point Nepean and
Portsea Hole. Deep subtidal reef
in Point Lonsdale, Point Nepean
and Portsea Hole is dominated by
sessile invertebrates, predominately
diverse sponges.
Australian gannets Morus serrator roosting on the artificial
basalt structure, the Annulus, at Popes Eye.
Photo by Jonathon Stevenson, Parks Victoria.
Intertidal Reefs:
One species of seagrass Amphibolis
antarctica, and twenty nine species
of macroalgae, including fourteen
species of brown algae, are commonly
found on the intertidal reefs.
The macroalgal community is
dominated by the brown algae
Neptune’s necklace Hormosira banksii.
Other algae growing on the intertidal
reef includes Notheia anomala,
Echinothamnion sp., Corallina
officinalis, algal turf, filamentous greens
and Sargassum spp. The ephemeral
green algae Ulva spp. occur as small
patchily distributed tufts.
Habitat forming sessile invertebrates
include the tube worm Galeolaria
caespitosa, and two species
of mussels, the beaked mussel
Austromytilus rostratus and the tiny
horse mussel Limnoperna pulex, occur
in low abundances on the intertidal
reef. Other sessile invertebrates
include four species of barnacles
Chamaesipho tasmanica, Chthamalus
antennatus, Tesseropora rosea and
Tetraclitella purpurascens, the ascidian
Pyura stolonifera, and three anemones
Aulactinia veratra, Actinia tenebrosa
and Oulactis muscosa.
Thirty species of mobile invertebrates,
including twenty nine species
of molluscs, have been found
on the intertidal reefs.
The slit limpet Clypidina rugosa is the
most common species along with the
variegated limpet Cellana tramoserica
and striped conniwink Bembicium
nanum. Other common molluscs
include the false limpet Siphonaria
spp., ribbed top shell Austrocochlea
constricta, tall ribbed limpet
Patelloida alticostata and warrener
Turbo undulatus.
Less common species include the
carnivorous gastropods the winemouthed lepsiella Lepsiella vinosa and
lineated cominella Cominella lineolata.
The small black periwinkle Nodilittorina
acutispira can be very abundant
on the intertidal reef, but its
abundance varies considerably.
Fish have been described as abundant
in the rockpools outside the Heads
in Point Nepean and include blennies,
gobies, juvenile wrasse, leatherjackets
and old wives.
Shallow Subtidal Reef:
Macroalgae (seaweeds) provide
important habitat structure for other
organisms on shallow subtidal reefs.
This habitat structure varies considerably
depending on the type of macroalgae
species present.
Shallow subtidal reef macroalgal
communities can be grouped as:
outside the Heads; inside Point
Lonsdale in Lonsdale Bay; inside the
39
Heads in Point Nepean; and well
inside the Heads at Popes Eye. The
exposed reefs outside the Heads and
the relatively sheltered reefs at Popes
Eye have very different macroalgal
communities, with intermediate
communities inside the Heads
at Point Lonsdale and Point Nepean.
Outside the Heads the reefs have
a Phyllospora comosa or Ecklonia
radiata dominated canopy, with an
understorey of smaller species such as
Phacelocarpus peperocarpus. A small
patch of the seagrass Amphibolis
antarctica grows offshore from the
Surf Life Saving Club at Point Lonsdale.
Inside the Heads in Point Lonsdale,
the algal canopy is Ecklonia radiata
with Cladophora prolifera, Cystophora
moniliformis, Seirococcus axillaris and
Phyllospora comosa. Amphibolis
antarctica forms substantial beds
in the middle of Lonsdale Bay. These
reefs have a relatively low cover
of red algal understorey species, which
includes Ballia callitricha, Areschougia
congesta, Phacelocarpus peperocarpus
and Plocamium spp.
Inside the Heads in Point Nepean
the reef is dominated by large
monospecific stands of the seagrass
Amphibolis antarctica and patches of
mixed brown algal species. Beds of A.
antarctica are not just restricted to low
reef flats but grow well up the sides of
reef slopes. The brown algae generally
includes Ecklonia radiata, Phyllospora
comosa, Cystophora moniliformis and
C. retorta.
The relatively sheltered subtidal reef
at Popes Eye is dominated by the kelp
Ecklonia radiata, with green algae
The hydroid Solanderia fusca and large sponges on deep
subtidal reef at Point Lonsdale. Photo by Don Love.
Caulerpa spp., and a moderate
abundance of red algal species. Open
patches of turfing red algae on the
reef are maintained by the scalyfin
Parma victoriae and used as important
feeding areas for other fish. Phyllospora
comosa, which dominates the more
exposed Point Lonsdale and Point
Nepean reefs is not recorded at Popes
Eye. Likewise, the brown algae
Cystophora moniliformis is not
recorded at Popes Eye. Small patches
of Ecklonia radiata dieback has been
observed in recent years on reefs
in the park.
Over 150 species of opisthobranch
molluscs (colourful sea slugs) have
been observed on the shallow subtidal
reef within Point Lonsdale. Point
Nepean also has some rare species of
molluscs. The biscuit star Tosia
australis is the most abundant seastar
on all the reefs in Port Phillip Heads,
although its numbers can be
very variable.
As observed with macroalgae
communities, there are four general
groups of invertebrate communities,
corresponding to the four site
groupings: outside the Heads; inside
the Heads at Point Lonsdale in
Lonsdale Bay; inside the Heads
in Nepean Bay; and well inside the
Heads at Popes Eye. The invertebrate
community can be very variable
through time especially inside
the Heads in Point Lonsdale and
Point Nepean.
Blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra are
more abundant outside the heads
than inside. Inside the Heads in Point
Lonsdale greenlip abalone H. laevigata
are not as common as blacklip
abalone H. rubra, and the warrener
Turbo undulatus and the seastar
Nectria ocellata are common.
Reefs both outside and inside the
Heads at Point Lonsdale have low
abundances of purple sea urchin
Heliocidaris erythrogramma and
feather star Comanthus trichoptera.
Inside the Heads in Point Nepean
there are moderate abundances of
both blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra
and greenlip abalone H. laevigata. The
molluscs, warrener Turbo undulatus
and cartrut shell Dicathais orbita, and
feather star Cenolia trichoptera are
abundant along with moderate
abundances of the purple sea urchin
Heliocidaris erythrogramma. The
biscuit star Tosia australis is not common.
The spaces in the basalt blocks
of the reef at Popes Eye have high
abundances of the featherstar Cenolia
trichoptera, low abundances
of blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra,
and moderate to high abundances
of the purple sea urchin Heliocidaris
erythrogramma. No greenlip abalone
Haliotis laevigata or the warrener
Turbo undulatus have been recorded
in Popes Eye.
Over seventy one species of fish are
found on the shallow subtidal reefs
of Port Phillip Heads Marine National
Park. There is a less distinct grouping
of fish communities than for the
macroalgae and invertebrate
communities.
Outside the Heads in Point Lonsdale,
reef has abundant scalyfin Parma
victoriae and senator wrasse
Pictilabrus laticlavius as well as herring
cale Odax cyanomelas, blue-throated
wrasse Notolabrus tetricus and
horseshoe leatherjacket
Meuschenia hippocrepis.
40
Inside the Heads in Point Lonsdale
and Point Nepean there is a lower
abundance of scalyfin Parma victoriae
and senator wrasse Pictilabrus
laticlavius than reef outside the Heads.
Point Lonsdale also has a higher
abundance of zebra fish Girella zebra
and magpie perch Cheilodactylus
nigripes than Point Nepean.
The Popes Eye fish community is
distinct from elsewhere in the park,
with larger, more abundant fish and
more species. Southern hula fish
Trachinops caudimaculatus, scalyfin
Parma victoriae and blue-throated
wrasse Notolabrus tetricus are
very abundant.
The interstitial spaces in the basalt
blocks of the reef at Popes Eye provide
important habitat for southern hula
fish Trachinops caudimaculatus, which
is not common elsewhere in the park.
Sea sweep Scorpis aequipinnis and
rosy wrasse Pseudolabrus psittaculus
observed at Popes Eye are also rarely
observed elsewhere in the park.
Scalyfin Parma victoriae maintains
open turfing red algal patches that are
used as important feeding areas for
magpie perch Cheilodactylus nigripes,
banded morwong Cheilodactylus
spectabilis and marblefish
Aplodactylus arctidens at Popes Eye.
Purple wrasse Notolabrus fucicola,
barber perch Caesioperca razor
horseshoe leatherjacket Meuschenia
hippocrepis and herring cale Odax
cyanomelas are also abundant in this
section of the park.
Deep Reef:
The deeper subtidal reefs, on the tops
of the rocky banks of Lonsdale Wall
Hydroids on subtidal reef at Point Lonsdale.
Photo by Don Love, Reef Life Survey.
and Nepean Banks have beds of kelp
Ecklonia radiata.
On Lonsdale Wall these extend to the
edge of the canyon and as small
isolated stands on horizontal shelves
to depths of approximately 27 metres.
These deep Ecklonia beds have a
lower abundance of understorey algae
and lower abundance and diversity
of mobile invertebrates, particularly
seastars, and different fish community
than shallow Ecklonia beds.
Vertical sections of the Portsea Hole
reef have thallose red algae and kelp
Ecklonia radiata and support a high
abundance and diversity of sessile
invertebrates, including sixteen
different types of sponge such as
arborescent, flabellate, encrusting and
massive ruffled sponges. Other sessile
invertebrate fauna includes bryozoans
such as Orthoscuticella ventricosa,
and ascidians Herdmania momus
and Ritterella pedunculata.
Portsea Hole has a high abundance
and diversity of fish species including
barber perch Caesioperca razor,
southern hulafish Trachinops
caudimaculatus, silver sweep Scorpis
lineolata and Australian mado
Atypichthys strigatus. Other
commonly seen fish species include
the blue devil fish Paraplesiops
meleagris, butterfly perch Caesioperca
lepidoptera, jackass morwong
Nemadactylus macropterus, gurnards
Triglidae and goat fish Mullidae.
The sessile invertebrate communities
of the deep reefs in the Heads are
quite distinct from comparable deep
reefs in Point Addis and Wilsons
Promontory. Lonsdale Wall’s deep
subtidal vertical reef has a high
abundance and diversity of sessile
invertebrates, especially arborescent,
encrusting and flabellate sponges, and
gorgonian corals. Distinctive species
include hydroids Solanderia fusca,
Halopteris glutinosa, Nemertesia
procumbens and Gymnangium
superbum, jewel anemone Corynactis
australis and the bryozoan
Orthoscuticella ventricosa.
Over two hundred and seventy one
species of sponges have been recorded
at the Heads, which is a substantial
proportion of the known species from
Victoria and Australia. At least 115
of the sponge species are endemic
to the Heads. Port Phillip Bay also has
high bryozoan diversity and is particularly
rich in hydroid fauna. The Heads are
the type locality for three ascidian
species, one of which is endemic.
Deep subtidal reef in Lonsdale Wall
has a diverse fish community
dominated by barber perch
Caesioperca razor, southern hulafish
Trachinops caudimaculatus and rosy
wrasse Pseudolabrus psittaculus.
Water Column:
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals,
a marine reptile and seabirds are
also found in or use the water
column in the park.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
There are thirteen sites of biotic
significance in the park, seven
of which are minor roost sites
for wader birds in Swan Bay.
41
The park provides important feeding
and roosting habitat for fifty-eight
threatened bird species such as the
critically endangered grey-tailed tattler
Heteroscelus brevipes.
It protects feeding areas for fortythree internationally important
migrant bird species.
There are two hooded plover Thinornis
rubricollis nesting sites inside the
Heads on the beaches at Nepean Bay
and Observatory Point in Point Nepean.
Popes Eye is a minor roost for cormorants
and a breeding colony for Australian
gannets Morus serrator.
Mud Islands is the second largest
crested tern Sterna bergii nesting
colony in Victoria and the largest
wader roost site in Port Phillip Bay
with up to 5000 birds in summer.
The islands also have large breeding
colonies of terns, cormorants
and gulls.
The park provides habitat for the
southern right whale Eubalaena
australis, humpback whale Megaptera
novaeanglia, southern elephant seal
Mirounga leonine and Australian fur
seal Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus.
Ticonderoga Bay off inner Point
Nepean is a Sanctuary Zone for
protection of the bottlenose dolphin
Tursiops truncatus.
The open waters off the Heads
provide habitat for conservation
listed southern bluefin tuna Thunnus
maccoyii, grey nurse shark
Charcharias taurus and white
shark Carcharodon carcharias.
The conservation listed loggerhead
turtle Caretta caretta is a vagrant that
has been recorded in the bay.
The deep reef of Point Lonsdale is part
of the Port Phillip Bay entrance deep
canyon marine community which is
conservation listed in Victoria.
One shrimp, a chiton, and a bivalve
are endemic and one bivalve and
a marine snail are presumed to
be endemic to the park. One hundred
and four species of marine flora and
fauna are believed to be at their
distributional limits within the park.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Port Phillip Heads
Marine National Park form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include invasive marine
pests; increased sedimentation
impacting seagrass, benthic fauna,
birds and the water column; coastal
development; visitor impacts;
poaching and major oil spills.
The introduced Northern Pacific
Seastar Asterias amurensis and the
algae Codium fragile subspecies fragile
have been recorded in the Mud Islands
and Swan Bay sections of the park.
The introduced green shore crab
Carcinus maenas is confirmed from
Mud Islands but is thought to be
present in the intertidal zone
throughout the park.
Weeds are also a threat in terrestrial
parts of Mud Islands and can impact
on the islands’ bird populations,
ecology and landscape values.
Small patches of dieback of the
common kelp Ecklonia radiata have
been observed in recent years on reefs
in the Point Lonsdale section of the
park, however the cause of the
dieback is unknown.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken as part
of the Research Partners Program
involving collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are eight ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Port Phillip
Heads Marine National Park, while ten
research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already been
completed. The park has ongoing
intertidal and shallow subtidal reef
monitoring programs. Community
based monitoring programs have been
undertaken by Reef Life Survey, Reef
Watch and Sea Search, and a number
of Friends groups are active in the park.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
The introduced Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida has also recently been
found in Queenscliff Harbour and
there are serious concerns about its
possible spread to Swan Bay and other
sections of the park.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges for
the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
42
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Point Cooke
Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Point Cooke Marine Sanctuary
is the one of three marine
sanctuaries and one marine
national park in Port Phillip
Bay, which is part of the
Victorian Embayments
bioregion.
Image left:
Purple sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma on the subtidal
reef. Photo by Andrew Christie, Marine Care Point Cooke.
Image right:
Pipefish Stigmatopora nigra are found in the seagrass
beds of Point Cooke Marine Sanctuary. Photo by Andrew
Christie, Marine Care Point Cooke.
Description
The sanctuary covers 292 hectares on
the north-west side of Port Phillip Bay
at Point Cook, about 30 kilometres
west of Melbourne. It is the largest
marine sanctuary in Victoria and
protects an area of relatively intact
habitat of the western shoreline
environments of the bay.
It extends along 3.4 kilometres
of coast from the high water mark
to between 750 metres and 1.1
kilometres offshore, from just west
of Point Cook Homestead to the
Cheetham Wetlands. It is accessible
from the shore or by boat.
The sanctuary forms part of the Port
Phillip Bay (Western Shoreline) and
Bellarine Peninsula Ramsar Site, along
with nearby Point Cook Coastal Park
and Cheetham Wetlands.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Boonwurrung.
summer and 11.4°C in the winter.
The sanctuary has an unequal
semidiurnal tidal pattern. Spring
tides are 0.8 metres and neap tides
0.2 metre and the water in the
sanctuary is exchanged every 28–50
tidal cycles. It is not subject to large
waves, strong currents or swell, but
in strong westerly conditions waves
can reach heights of two metres.
Natural hydrodynamic events such
as storm surges displace seaweed and
kelp communities, erode beaches
and deposit sand over the reefs.
During periods of strong winds wrack
can form a thick blanket over the
intertidal area.
There are no rivers or creeks that flow
directly into the sanctuary, but nearby
freshwater runoff, phytoplankton
blooms and disturbance of nearby
fine sediments frequently create
turbid conditions.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The shoreline geology is basalt, the
remains of lava flow across the plains
of northern Port Phillip Bay.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include narrow beaches
of mud and sand, low intertidal and
shallow subtidal basalt reef with algae
and associated epibenthic fauna,
and the water column.
The sanctuary is shallow, less than
four metres deep, with surface water
temperatures averaging 20.4°C in the
Beds of the habitat forming cunjevoi
Pyura stolonifera and beds of seagrass
are found on the soft subtidal sediment.
43
Sand patches and associated seagrass
Zostera muelleri beds extend across
a wide band of the intertidal reef.
The macroalgal coverage on the
intertidal reef is highly variable,
especially the coverage of sea lettuce
Ulva spp.. Green algae Caulerpa
remotifolia, brown algae Padina fraseri
and red algae Ahnfeltiopsis fastigata
also grow on the reef.
There are small patches of aggregating
intertidal reef invertebrates, tubeworms Galeolaria caespitosa and
blue mussel Mytilis edulis, low on the
shoreline. The anemones, red waratah
Actinia tenebrosa, green Aulactinia
veratra, sand Oulactis muscosa and
white-striped Anthothoe albocincta
are also found on the intertidal reef.
Twenty-six species of mobile
invertebrates, including 20 species
of molluscs have been found in low
abundance on the intertidal reefs. The
herbivorous gastropod Austrocochlea
porcata is the most abundant
invertebrate. Other less common
molluscs are the warrener Turbo
undulatus, conniwink Bembicium spp.,
limpet Cellana tramoserica, and the
carnivorous gastropods Cominella
lineolata and Lepsiella vinosa.
Other intertidal reef invertebrates
include the shore crabs Cyclograpsus
granulosus and Leptograpsodes
octodentatus, seastars Tosia australis
and Patiriella calcar and the invasive
marine pest the green shore crab
Carcinus maenas.
The intertidal rockpools contain fish,
including the Tasmanian blenny
Basalt boulders rimmed by the encrusting tubeworm
Galeolaria caespitosa with intertidal Zostera muelleri
seagrass beds.
Photo by Trish Rice, Marine Care Point Cooke.
Parablennius tasmanianus and the
weedfish Clinidae.
On the subtidal soft sediment the
seagrasses Heterozostera nigricaulis
and Halophila australis, and cunjevoi
Pyura stolonifera, form patches of
habitat. Large beds of green algae
Caulerpa remotifolia, C. longifolia, C.
brownii and C. flexilis also grow on
the soft sediment.
Over nineteen species of macroalgae
have been recorded in low density
from the subtidal reef of the sanctuary.
Dominant species include kelp
Ecklonia radiata, green algae Caulerpa
remotifolia and encrusting coralline
algae. With low cover of sea lettuce
Ulva sp., brown algae Dilophus
marginatus and Dictyota dichotoma,
and thallose red algae such as
Gigartina sp.
Over twenty one species of mobile
marine invertebrates, dominated by
echinoderms including the purple sea
urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma
and seastars Tosia australis, Meridiastra
gunnii, Coscinasterias muricata,
are found on the subtidal reef. Also
abundant are black lip abalone
Haliotis rubra and the granular
seastar Uniophora granifera.
Over sixteen species of fish, dominated
by the southern hulafish Trachinops
caudimaculatus occur on subtidal
reefs in the sanctuary. Other typical
species are the little rock whiting
Neoodax balteatus and southern
goatfish Upeinichthys vlaminghii.
There are occasional sightings of banjo
ray Trygonorrhina fasciata, zebrafish
Girella zebra, moonlighter Tilodon
sexfasciatus, dusky morwong
Dactylophora nigricans and globefish
Diodon nichthemerus.
The introduced Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida, red algae Grateloupia
turuturu and European fanworm
Sabella spallanzani grow on the reef.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include sea
jellies, salps, fish, and phytoplankton
and zooplankton. A number of
seabirds also use the water column
in the sanctuary.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
Saltmarsh, dunes and wetlands back
onto the sanctuary. Its sandy beaches,
intertidal reefs and mudflats, offshore
banks and waters provide roosting
and foraging habitat for migratory
seabirds and shorebirds.
Forty-four threatened bird species
have been recorded in or in the
immediate surrounds of the sanctuary.
These include the critically endangered
orange-bellied parrot Neophema
chrysogaster, Australian painted snipe
Rostratula australis and the intermediate
egret Ardea intermedia.
The sanctuary protects feeding areas
for thirty internationally important
migrant bird species. Six species of
marine flora and fauna, including the
ghost shrimp Axiopsis werribee, are
believed to be at their distributional
limits within the sanctuary.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Point Cooke
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
44
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include invasive marine
pests, illegal fishing, disturbance and
predation of birds, nutrients from
runoff, increased sedimentation,
industrial spills, trampling and
contaminated groundwater.
Several introduced species have been
found including the Japanese kelp
Undaria pinnatifida, red algae
Grateloupia turuturu, green shore
crab Carcinus maenas and Eurpoean
Fan Worm Sabella spallanzanii.
There have also been reports
of the purple urchin Heliocidaris
erythrogramma increasing in
abundance and forming barrens
habitat (usually devoid of macroalgae)
in the northern part of the bay,
including in Point Cooke Marine
Sanctuary. It is unclear whether the
recent increases in abundance are part
of a natural cycle or a persistent
increase in this native species.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that are likely to be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the parks in
2002 our knowledge and understanding
of natural values and threats for the
system have improved significantly
through the marine science program.
Much of the research has been
undertaken as part of the Research
Partners Program involving
collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Point
Cooke Marine Sanctuary, while six
research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already been
completed. The sanctuary has ongoing
intertidal and shallow subtidal reef
monitoring programs.
The blubber jellyfish Catostylus mosaicus.
Photo by Andrew Christie, Marine Care Point Cooke.
45
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Jawbone Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Jawbone Marine Sanctuary
is the one of three marine
sanctuaries and one marine
national park in Port Phillip
Bay, which is part of the
Victorian Embayments
bioregion.
Image left:
Intertidal basalt reef in Jawbone Marine Sanctuary.
Photo by Australian Marine Ecology.
Image right:
The hard coral Plesiastrea versipora on subtidal reef.
Photo by Australian Marine Ecology.
Description
The sanctuary covers 30.5 hectares
in the north-west of the bay, offshore
from Williamstown. It extends along
1.9 kilometres of coast from the high
water mark to a maximum of 300
metres offshore, from the fishing
clubs in Bayview Street west to
Wader Beach.
over the reefs. The sanctuary has an
unequal semidiurnal daily tidal
pattern. Spring tides are 0.8 metres
and neap tides 0.2 metres, with the
water in the sanctuary exchanged
every 28 – 50 tidal cycles.
The sanctuary abuts the Jawbone
Flora and Fauna reserve.
Kororoit Creek and stormwater drains
create episodes of lower salinities in
the sanctuary. This freshwater runoff,
phytoplankton blooms and disturbance
of nearby fine sediments frequently
create turbid conditions.
Access is on designated walking tracks
via Jawbone Reserve and Jawbone
Flora and Fauna Reserve.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Boonwurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
Jawbone Marine Sanctuary shoreline
geology is basalt, the seaward end
of lava flows that characterize
Melbourne’s western plains. The
sanctuary is shallow and mostly
< 4 metres deep. It is not subject to
large waves, strong currents or swell
but in strong westerly conditions
waves can reach heights of 2 metres.
Natural hydrodynamic events such
as storm surges displace seaweed and
kelp, erode beaches and deposit sand
Surface water temperatures average
20.4°C in the summer and 11.6°C
in the winter.
The former Merrett Rifle Range, now
a Special Protection Area, with its
limited access for over 110 years has
protected this shoreline. Merrett Rifle
Range shore platform, with its
Quaternary volcanics, intertidal reef,
shell deposits and mangroves is of
regional geological significance.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include intertidal and
subtidal basalt reef, intertidal
and subtidal soft sediment, seagrass
and the water column. Its basalt reefs,
shallow inshore waters, mudflats
and seagrass beds provide foraging
and roosting areas for local and
migratory seabirds and shorebirds.
46
The mangrove Avicennia marina
grows on the soft sediment between
the massive intertidal basalt boulders.
Associated with the mangroves is an
extensive Wet Saltmarsh herbland
dominated by the beaded glasswort
Sarcocornia quinqueflora and backed
by coastal hypersaline shrubland.
Macroalgae and sessile invertebrate
cover on the intertidal reef is very low
and the cover of sea lettuce Ulva spp.
is ephemeral. Turfing and coralline
algae, seagrass Zostera muelleri and
the calcareous tube-worm Galeolaria
caespitosa are present low in the
intertidal zone.
The mobile invertebrate fauna on
the intertidal reef is dominated
by molluscs including the top shell
Austrocochlea porcata, conniwink
Bembicium spp., black nerite Nerita
atramentosa and variegated limpet
Cellana tramoserica. Also found, in
low abundance, are whelk Lepsiella
vinosa, top shell Austrocochlea
odontis, warrener Turbo undulatus,
limpets Notoacmea mayi, Patelloida
alticostata, Siphonaria spp. and the
seastar Parvulastra exigua.
The introduced green shore crab
Carcinus maenas is found on the
intertidal reefs.
The biscuit seastar Tosia australis is an abundant
invertebrate on the subtidal reefs.
Photo by Australian Marine Ecology.
Much of the subtidal soft sediment
is bare of vegetation, but in the north
west of the sanctuary there is a large
Zostera/ Heterozostera seagrass bed.
The subtidal reef is not diverse, with
low to moderate abundances of the
common kelp Ecklonia radiata, large
browns Sargassum spp, filamentous
brown algae Ectocarpales and often
abundant encrusting coralline algae.
The algal communities are indicative
of high nutrients and low salinities
which suggests a large estuarine
influence from Kororoit Creek.
The invasive marine pest Japanese
kelp Undaria pinnatifida and broccoli
weed Codium fragile subspecies
fragile have been observed in the
sanctuary since 2009.
Sessile invertebrates include the coral
Plesiastrea versipora and sponges.
The mobile invertebrate assemblage
of the subtidal reef is dominated
by the sea urchin Heliocidaris
erythrogramma, seastars Meridiastra
gunnii, M. calcar and Coscinasterias
muricata and blacklip abalone Haliotis
rubra and to a lesser extent the biscuit
star Tosia australis.
The introduced northern Pacific
seastar Asterias amurensis and
European fanworm Sabella
spallanzanii have been observed
sporadically in low numbers
in the sanctuary.
More than seventeen species of fish
have been observed on the subtidal
reefs with the southern hulafish
Trachinops caudimaculatus the most
abundant. Present in very low
abundance are zebrafish Girella zebra,
dusky morwong Dactylophora
nigricans and little rock whiting
Neoodax balteatus.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include sea
jellies, salps, fish, and phytoplankton
and zooplankton. Some seabirds also
use the waters of the sanctuary.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The sanctuary provides important
feeding and roosting habitat for
thirty-six threatened bird species such
as the critically endangered orangebellied parrot Neophema chrysogaster,
grey-tailed tattler Heteroscelus
brevipes and the intermediate egret
Ardea intermedia.
It protects feeding areas for twentyfour internationally important migrant
bird species, including the black-tailed
godwit Limosa limosa and great knot
Calidris tenuirostris. Five species of
marine flora and fauna are believed
to be at their distributional limits
including the brushtail pipefish
Leptoichthys fistularius.
47
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Jawbone Marine
Sanctuary form part of the park
management plan. Parks Victoria also
uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses and actions.
Serious threats include trampling,
illegal fishing, increased
sedimentation, disturbance of birds,
nutrients from stormwater, pollutants
from Kororoit Creek and invasive
marine pests.
Several introduced species have been
found in the sanctuary including the
Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida,
green algae Codium fragile subspecies
fragile, Northern Pacific Seastar
Asterias amurensis, green shore
crab Carcinus maenas and Eurpoean
Fan Worm Sabella spallanzanii.
There have also been reports of the
purple urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma
increasing in abundance and forming
Encrusting ruffled orange sponge and the hard coral
Plesiastrea versipora on subtidal reef.
Photo by Australian Marine Ecology.
barrens (areas devoid of macroalgae)
in the northern part of the bay,
including the sanctuary. It is unclear
whether the recent increases in
abundance are part of a natural
cycle or a persistent increase in this
native species.
Climate change poses a serious
medium to long term threat to
natural values. Parks Victoria will use
an adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that are likely to be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
There are five ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Jawbone
Marine Sanctuary, while nine research
projects and one habitat mapping
project have already been completed.
The sanctuary has ongoing intertidal
and shallow subtidal reef monitoring
programs. Community based
monitoring of seagrass habitat
through Sea Search, and fish through
Reef Watch, is also conducted.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria
will continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine science
program. Much of the research has
been undertaken as part of the
Research Partners Program involving
collaboration with various
research institutions.
48
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Ricketts Point
Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into
five bioregions according
to a nationally agreed
scheme based on physical
and biological attributes.
Ricketts Point Marine
Sanctuary is the one of three
marine sanctuaries and one
marine national park in Port
Phillip Bay, which is part of
the Victorian Embayments
bioregion.
Image left:
Zebra fish Girella zebra on the subtidal reef.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
Purple sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma
on macroalgal covered subtidal reef.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
Description
The Sanctuary covers 120.6 hectares
in the north-east of Port Phillip Bay
along 2.9 kilometres of coast from
Table Rock Point in Beaumaris
to Quiet Corner in Black Rock.
It extends from the high water mark
to approximately 450 metres offshore
and abuts the Bayside City Council
Foreshore Reserve.
The sanctuary is accessible from the
shore or by boat.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Boonwurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The sanctuary is not subject to large
waves, strong currents or swell like
on the open coast, it is exposed
to westerly weather across the long
fetch of Port Phillip Bay that can
create turbulent wind-driven waves.
It is shallow with the majority of the
sanctuary less than four metres deep.
Tidal variation is 0.8 metres for spring
tides and 0.2 metres for neap tides.
Surface water temperatures average
20.3 °C in the summer and 11.6 °C
in the winter.
The sanctuary experiences episodes
of lower salinities from stormwater
drains and the plume of the Yarra
River. This freshwater runoff,
phytoplankton blooms and
disturbance of nearby fine sediments
frequently create turbid conditions.
The shoreline geology is sandstone.
The wide shore platform at Ricketts
Point, and the Beaumaris monocline
and sea caves at Table Rock Point, are
recognised as regionally significant
geological features.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include sandy beaches,
intertidal and subtidal sandstone reef,
subtidal soft sediments and seagrass
meadows, and the water column.
The reef has a variety of microhabitats
including rock pools, numerous holes
and gullies, boulders and crags.
Materials washed up on intertidal soft
sediment contribute to the detrital
cycle that nourishes many of the
invertebrates, such as bivalves living
in the sand, and are a significant
source of food for scavenging birds.
Intertidal seagrass beds of Zostera
muelleri support gastropods, bivalves,
barnacles, sea stars, polychaetes,
ascidians, sea jellies, hydroids,
sponges and fish.
Plants growing on the intertidal reef
include Neptune’s necklace Hormosira
49
banksii, as well as sea lettuce Ulva
spp., algal turf, Corallina officinalis,
Notheia anomala and Gelidium
pusillum and patches of the bluegreen algae Symploca sp. Aggregating
intertidal invertebrates on the reef
include tube-worms Galeolaria
caespitosa, barnacles Chthamalus
antennatus and mussels
Limnoperna pulex.
Relatively common mobile invertebrates
found on the intertidal reef include
the top shell Austrocochlea porcata,
variegated limpet Cellana tramoserica
and conniwink Bembicium spp. Other
invertebrates include the warrener
Turbo undulatus, black nerite Nerita
atramentosa and the carnivorous
gastropods Lepsiella vinosa and
Cominella lineolata.
The intertidal rock pools contain fish,
including the Tasmanian blenny
Parablennius tasmanianus, weedfish
Heteroclinus perpicillatus and
dragonet Bovichtus angustifrons.
The introduced green crab Carcinus
maenas is also found on the
intertidal reef.
The subtidal soft sediments provide
habitat for infauna (small crustaceans
and worms that burrow into the sand)
and bottom-dwelling skates and rays.
The shallow subtidal soft sediments
Shrimp Palaemon serenus in amongst peacock-weed
Lobophora variegata on the subtidal reef.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
are also highly suitable for sub-adult
King George whiting Sillaginodes
punctata and greenback flounder
Rhombosolea tapirina.
Seagrass beds of Heterozostera
nigricaulis are also found in the
sanctuary.
Macroalgae on the subtidal reefs
includes the green Caulerpa geminata
and C. remotifolia, along with the
brown Sargassum spinuligerum,
sparse kelp Ecklonia radiata and
a mixture of smaller red and brown
seaweeds. There are also urchin
barrens on the reef, in which
encrusting coralline algae and
the hard coral Plesiastrea versipora
are common.
The invasive Japanese kelp Undaria
pinnatifida has recently been found
in the sanctuary. The invasive marine
pest broccoli weed Codium fragile
subspecies fragile is also found
on the subtidal reefs.
There are relatively few mobile
invertebrate species on the subtidal
reef – most common is the purple sea
urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma.
Other common species include the
blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra, biscuit
star Tosia australis, eleven-armed
seastar Coscinasterias muricata and
velvet star Petricia vernicina. The
invasive Northern Pacific seastar
Asterias amurensis has also recently
been found at Ricketts Point.
The southern hulafish Trachinops
caudimaculatus is the most common
subtidal reef fish in the sanctuary,
along with the southern goatfish
Upeneichthys vlaminghii and little rock
whiting Neoodax balteatus. Other
prominent large species of fish include
zebra fish Girella zebra, moonlighter
Tilodon sexfasciatus and horseshoe
leatherjacket Meuschenia hippocrepis.
Transient species such as Australian
salmon Arripis trutta and snapper
Chrysophrys auratus have
been observed.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, fish, and phytoplankton
and zooplankton. A number of
seabirds also use the waters
of the sanctuary.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The intertidal reef platforms are
regionally significant for feeding
and roosting shorebirds. Eleven
threatened bird species, including
the white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus
leucogaster and the royal spoonbill
Platalea regia can be found
in the sanctuary.
50
It also protects feeding areas for seven
internationally important migrant bird
species, including the glossy ibis
Plegadis falcinellus and ruddy
turnstone Arenaria interpres.
The red algae Bonnemaisonia australis
and the swimming crab Ovalipes
catharus are believed to be at their
distributional limits within the
sanctuary. The southern hooded shrimp
Athanopsis australis is presumed
endemic to the sanctuary.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Ricketts Point
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include trampling,
nutrients from discharges, increased
sedimentation, disturbance of birds
and invasive marine pests.
Several introduced species have been
found in the sanctuary including the
Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida,
The nudibranch Ceratosoma brevicaudatum is found
on the subtidal reefs in Ricketts Point Marine Sanctuary.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
green algae Codium fragile subspecies
fragile, Northern Pacific Seastar
Asterias amurensis and green shore
crab Carcinus maenas.
There have also been reports of the
purple urchin Heliocidaris
erythrogramma increasing in
abundance and forming barrens
(usually devoid of macroalgae) in the
northern part of the bay, including
in Ricketts Point Marine Sanctuary.
It is unclear whether the recent
increases in abundance are part
of a natural cycle or a persistent
increase in this native species.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that are likely to be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
significantly through the marine science
program. Much of the research has been
undertaken as part of the Research
Partners Program involving
collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are six ongoing research projects,
and one habitat mapping project that
are relevant to Ricketts Point Marine
Sanctuary, while nine research projects
and two habitat mapping projects
have already been completed.
The sanctuary has ongoing intertidal
and shallow subtidal reef monitoring
programs. Several community based
monitoring programs have been
implemented in the sanctuary
including Reef Life Survey and
Sea Search, as well as a number
of other research and monitoring
programs conducted by an active
volunteer group.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria
will continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the
parks in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
51
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Yaringa Marine National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Yaringa Marine National Park
is one of three marine national
parks in Western Port Bay,
which is part of the Victorian
Embayments bioregion.
Image left:
Periwinkle Austrocochlea sp. on submerged mangrove
leaves. Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
Intertidal bare sediment and mangroves in Yaringa Marine
National Park. Photo by Adam Pope, Deakin University.
Description
The park covers 776 hectares, in the
north west of Western Port Bay in
Watsons Inlet between Watsons
Creek and Quail Island. It is about
9 kilometres south-west of the
township of Tooradin.
It extends from the high water mark
along 20 kilometres of the Watsons
Inlet coastline. Its southern boundary
is between the shore north of the
Yaringa Marina channel and the
southern tip of Quail Island.
The park is accessible only by boat.
It is part of three special protection
areas that cover Western Port Bay.
These include the Western Port Ramsar
site, the East Asian-Australasian
Flyway, and Mornington Peninsula
and Western Port UNESCO
Biosphere Reserve.
The park also includes a Special
Protection Area for sensitive mangrove
and saltmarsh, areas of value for
roosting and feeding for seabirds
and shorebirds.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Boonwurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The substrate in the marine national
park is soft sediment and the park
is influenced by high turbidity in
Western Port Bay, which arises from
daily reworking and re-suspension
of fine sediment by tidal, wind and
wave action.
The park is not subject to large waves
or swell and the large tides are the
major driving force. Tidal variation
is 2.6 metres for spring tides and
0.9 metres for neap tides.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 20.5°C in the
summer and 11.5°C in the winter.
Watsons Creek flows into the park
north of Bungower Rd in Watsons
Inlet. Langwarrin Creek flows into
the park in the north-west and
Cannon Creek from behind Quail
Island in the north east.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include subtidal and
intertidal soft sediments (including
mangroves, saltmarsh, mudflats and
seagrass), and the water column.
More than 82 per cent of the park
is intertidal.
The park includes areas of saltmarsh
(dominated by Tetricornia arbuscula
52
and/or Sarcocornia quinqueflora) and
mangrove (Avicennia marina) habitat.
The mangrove fringes are inhabited
by crabs and at high tide fish such
as gobies, mullet, and toadfish.
The park also includes extensive
intertidal seagrass (Zostera /
Heterozostera) beds that provide
habitat for epiphytic algae, hydroids,
ascidians, diatoms and sponges, and
grazing invertebrates including many
molluscs, crustaceans, polychaetes
and crabs. They are important nursery
areas for many fish including
conservation listed syngnathids
(a group that includes seahorses
and pipefish).
Large intertidal flats of unvegetated
mud and sand support invertebrates,
microphytobenthos and demersal
fish. Benthic invertebrates in both
unvegetated and vegetated mudflats
are an important food resource for the
many migratory shorebird species that
use the park.
Of the thirty one macroinvertebrate
species found in the mudflats the
most common are the ghost shrimp
Biffarius arenosus (which is an
important ecosystem engineer),
sentinel crab Macrophthalamus
latifrons, polychaete worms Barantolla
lepte and Lumbrineris sp. and the
The oyster blennie Omobranchus anolius.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
introduced bivalve mollusc
Musculista senhousia.
The most abundant of the thirteen
species of fish that have been sampled
over intertidal seagrass and unvegetated
soft sediment in the intertidal zone
were the yelloweye mullet Aldrichetta
forsteri and smooth toadfish
Tetractenos glaber. Also widespread
were the common galaxid Galaxias
maculatus, short fin eel Anguilla
australis and tupong Pseudaphritis
urvillii. Other fish recorded include the
black bream Acanthopagrus butcheri,
greenback flounder Rhombosolea
tapirina, skipjack trevally Pseudocaranx
wrighti and Western Australian
salmon Arripis truttaceus.
Subtidal soft sediments are mostly
unvegetated though they do include
seagrass beds dominated by
Heterozostera nigricaulis. Most of the
subtidal habitat is on the edge or
in the deeper channels that drain
the intertidal mudflats. Fish associated
with the subtidal sediments and in
the channels include stingrays, perch,
flathead and gobies.
Post-larvae of King George whiting
Sillaginodes punctatus appear in
Western Port Bay from September
to November each year from adults
spawning in South Australia and far
western Victoria.
The water column is dominated by
drifting planktonic species, which rely
on currents for movement, nutrients
and food. Common plankton found
in the park includes phytoplankton
such as diatoms, and zooplankton
including copepods, jellyfish and
ctenophores. Highly mobile fish,
sharks and stingrays probably inhabit
the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
Yaringa Marine National Park provides
important feeding and roosting
habitat for 39 conservation listed bird
species such as the orange-bellied
parrot Neophema chrysogaster,
grey-tailed tattler Heteroscelus
brevipes and the intermediate egret
Ardea intermedia, which are listed
under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee
Act and regarded as critically
endangered in Victoria.
The park protects feeding areas for
twenty seven internationally important
migrant species protected under the
Australia Migratory Bird Agreement
with either China (CAMBA)
or Japan (JAMBA).
In addition to birdlife, syngnathids
(the group that includes seahorses
and pipefish) are likely to be present
and are listed as threatened.
Potentially thirty two species
of marine flora and fauna are
53
at their distributional limits in Western
Port Bay and could occur within
the park.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Yaringa Marine
National Park form part of the park
management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats for Yaringa Marine
National Park include coastal erosion,
litter, sediment and nutrients from the
land and increasing urbanisation,
vessels disturbing shorebirds, marine
pollution and invasive marine pests.
The introduced Asian Date Mussel
Musculista senhousia has been found
in the park.
The Northern Pacific seastar Asterias
amurensis is well established in Port
Phillip Bay and was recently found
at San Remo (although the San
Remo population may have been
Worm holes in the soft sediment.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria
eradicated). There are concerns about
possible spread of this species.
Poor water quality from Watsons
Creek at the northern end of the park
poses a risk to natural values with
market gardens contributing to the
high nutrient and pesticide levels
in the creek.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use
an adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events
and existing risks that will likely
be exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
with various research institutions.
There are four ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Yaringa
Marine National Park, while four
research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already been
completed.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
54
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
French Island Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
French Island Marine National
Park is one of three marine
national parks in Western
Port Bay, which is part
of the Victorian
Embayments bioregion.
Image left:
Stalked barnacle Smillium peronii.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
The pencil urchin Goniocidaris sp.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
Description
The park is 2,978 hectares in size and
approximately 10 kilometres south of
the township of Tooradin. It extends
offshore from the high water mark
for 15 kilometres along the northern
shore of French Island, from Scrub
to Palmer Points. The northern
boundary surrounds Barrallier Island
and follows the North Arm and the
Horseshoe Channels. Its southern
boundary abuts French Island
National Park.
It is accessible only by boat from
Warneet, Blind Bight, Tooradin and
other shore jetties.
The park is part of three special
protection areas that cover the bay.
These include the Western Port
Ramsar site, the East Asian-Australasian
Flyway, and Mornington Peninsula
and Western Port UNESCO
Biosphere Reserve.
Within the park a Special Protection
Area for Natural Values of 450
hectares (16 per cent) covers the
saltmarsh and mangrove areas.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Boonwurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park is influenced by high turbidity
in Western Port which arises from daily
reworking and re-suspension of fine
sediment by tidal, wind and wave
action. Water moves through the
bay in a clockwise direction around
French Island.
The park is not subject to large waves
or swell and the large tides are the
major driving force. Tidal variation
is 2.6 metres for spring tides and
0.9 metres for neap tides.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 20.8°C in the
summer and 11.3°C in the winter.
The substrate is predominantly soft
sediment though some gravel-cobble
reef occurs in intertidal and subtidal
areas. No rivers or creeks flow into
the park.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park include subtidal and intertidal
soft sediments (including seagrasses,
mangroves and a small area of
saltmarsh), and the water column.
Over 73 per cent of the park is intertidal.
The Avicennia marina Mangrove
Shrubland community grows on the
sediment on intertidal mudflats below
the saltmarsh communities. The trunks
and pneumatophores of mangroves
55
provide habitat for epiphytic
filamentous algae, gastropods,
barnacles, and mussels. The mangrove
fringes are inhabited by crabs and
at high tide fish such as gobies,
mullet, and toadfish.
On intertidal soft sediments, dense
seagrass beds (Zostera/ Heterozostera),
and two small patches of Halophila
australis occur. Intertidal seagrass beds
of Zostera muelleri and subtidal beds
of Heterozostera nigricaulis cover
approximately a third of the park.
Large areas of unvegetated mud
and sand support invertebrates,
microphytobenthos and demersal
fish. Benthic invertebrates in both
unvegetated and vegetated mudflats
are an important food resource for
the many migratory shore bird species
that use the park.
Of twenty eight species surveyed in
the mudflats, the most common was
the ghost shrimp Biffarius arenosus.
Also common were the polychaete
worms Barantolla lepte and
Lumbrineris sp.
Intertidal gravel-cobble reef occurs
around Barrallier Island and along
the shores of French Island. Shorebirds
and waders use the reef and sand
Wavy volute Amoria undulata on the soft sediment.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
shoals to roost. Subtidal gravel-cobble
reef is thought to occur around
Barrallier Island.
The subtidal seagrass beds, which
are predominately H. nigricaulis, have
a different epifaunal assemblage from
that found in intertidal Z. muelleri
beds. Dialids, Mysid shrimps and
Dexaminid amphipods are at much
higher densities in the subtidal
seagrass than in the intertidal seagrass.
Subtidal soft sediments in the channels
are generally coarse sand and are
home to infauna including polychaetes,
crustaceans, bivalves and gastropods.
Epifaunal species living on the subtidal
channel sediments in the bay include
gastropods, sea stars, urchins and
ascidians. Seapens Sarcoptilus grandis
can be abundant along with the brooch
shell Neotrigonia margaritacea, the
Mud Ark Anadara trapezia and
the brachiopod lamp shell
Magellania flavescens.
Fish associated with the subtidal
sediments and in the deep channels
include stingrays, perch and gobies.
The park used to be fished recreationally
for King George whiting Sillaginodes
punctatus, and rock flathead
Platycephalus laevigatus, mostly in the
deeper channels. Post-larvae of King
George whiting Sillaginodes punctatus
appear in the water column from
September to November each year
from adults spawning in South
Australia and far western Victoria.
The park also used to be fished
recreationally for snapper Pagrus
auratus, and southern sea garfish
Hyporhamphus melanochir, mostly
in the deeper channels.
The water column is dominated by
drifting planktonic species, which rely
on currents for movement, nutrients
and food. Common plankton found
in the park includes phytoplankton
such as diatoms, and zooplankton
including copepods, jellyfish and
ctenophores. Highly mobile fish,
sharks and stingrays also inhabit
the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
French Island Marine National Park
provides important feeding and
roosting habitat for forty conservation
listed bird species such as the
orange-bellied parrot Neophema
chrysogaster, grey-tailed tattler
Heteroscelus brevipes and the
intermediate egret Ardea intermedia,
which are listed under the Flora and
Fauna Guarantee Act and regarded
as critically endangered in Victoria.
The park protects feeding areas for
twenty-seven internationally important
migrant species protected under the
Australia Migratory Bird Agreement with
either China (CAMBA) or Japan (JAMBA).
56
The brittle star Amphiura triscacantha
is listed under the Flora and Fauna
Guarantee Act and has been recorded
in the park.
Syngnathids (the group that includes
seahorses and pipefish) are protected
and are found in the park.
Potentially forty species of marine
flora and fauna are at their
distributional limits in Western Port
Bay and could occur within the park.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for French Island
Marine National Park form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include coastal erosion,
litter, sediment and nutrients from the
land and increasing urbanisation,
vessels disturbing shorebirds, marine
pollution and invasive marine pests.
French Island Marine National Park.
Photo by Chris Hayward, Parks Victoria.
The Northern Pacific seastar Asterias
amurensis is well established in Port
Phillip Bay and was recently found at
San Remo (although the San Remo
population may have been
eradicated). There are concerns about
possible spread of this species to
French Island Marine National Park.
Climate change poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that are likely to be
exacerbated by climate change.
There are four ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to French
Island Marine National Park, while
four research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already
been completed.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine science
program. Much of the research has
been undertaken as part of the Research
Partners Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
57
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Churchill Island Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Churchill Island Marine
National Park is one of three
marine national parks in
Western Port Bay, which
is part of the Victorian
Embayments bioregion.
Image left:
The ‘living fossil’ lampshell or brachiopod Magellania
flavescens on subtidal sediments. Photo by NRE.
Image right:
Churchill Island Marine National Park.
Photo by Chris Hayward, Parks Victoria.
Description
The park covers 670 hectares and is
located south of Rhyll on the eastern
shore of Phillip Island. It extends from
the high water mark along 11 kilometres
of the Swan Bay coastline. The north
boundary of the park is between Long
Point on Phillip Island and North Point
on Churchill Island.
The intertidal areas of the park can
only be accessed from the cobble and
shingle beaches and the rest of the
park by boat.
The park is part of three special
protection areas that cover Western
Port Bay including the Western
Port Ramsar site, the East AsianAustralasian Flyway, and the
Mornington Peninsula and Western
Port UNESCO Biosphere Reserve.
The mudflats, mangroves and saltmarsh
of Churchill Island and Swan Bay are
recognised as locally significant
on the National Trust Register.
Within the park a Special Protection
Area for Natural Values covers the
saltmarsh and mangrove areas,
extending seaward from the high
water mark to the edge of the
intertidal vegetation.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Boonwurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park is influenced by high
turbidity in the bay which arises from
daily reworking and re-suspension
of fine sediment by tidal, wind and
wave action.
The park is protected from prevailing
south-westerly winds, but is exposed
to some wind-driven waves. Tidal
variation is 2 metres for spring tides
and 0.8 metres for neap tides. Surface
water temperatures vary between
an average 20.4°C in the summer
and 11.7°C in the winter.
The substrate is predominantly soft
sediment though some gravel-cobble
reef occurs in intertidal areas. No rivers
or creeks flow directly into the park.
Active and reflective cliffs indicative
of higher sea levels at Swan Corner,
and raised beach and emerged coastal
forms between Chambers Point and
Long Point are significant geological
features within the park.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park include intertidal and subtidal
soft sediments (including small areas
58
of mangroves and saltmarsh, and
seagrasses), some shingle-cobble rock
areas, and the water column.
habitat and is covered with dense
beds of Zostera / Heterozostera
seagrass and algae.
The majority of the saltmarsh in the
park is Wet Saltmarsh Herbland
community dominated by
Sarcocornia quinqueflora.
The soft sediments in the park have
abundant microalgae growing on their
surface, considerably more than many
other areas in the bay. Of the
seventeen macroinvertebrate species
found in the intertidal mudflats, the
most common were the sentinel crab
Macrophthalamus latifrons and the
Phoronid Phoronopsis albomaculata.
Also common were the polychaete
worms Barantolla lepte and
Lumbrineris sp. and the bivalve
mollusc Tellina deltoids.
Stands of the mangrove Avicennia
marina are home to the barnacle
Elminius covertus which is the dominant
epifaunal organism on pneumatophores,
the lower parts of mangrove trees and
on mangrove seedlings at the seaward
edge of the forest. Also found in the
Mangrove shrublands are the common
littorinid Bembicium auratum. The
trunks and pneumatophores of
mangroves also provide habitat for
epiphytic filamentous algae, gastropods
and mussels. The mangrove fringes
of the park are also inhabited by crabs
and, at high tide, fish such as gobies,
mullet, and toadfish.
Small shingle and cobble spits provide
habitat for reef associated fauna
off the bluffs and promontories
in the park.
The exposed intertidal flats are largely
bare of vegetation or have sparse
cover of the seagrass Zostera muelleri.
The majority of the park is subtidal
Seagrass in Churchill Island Marine National Park.
Photo by Parks Victoria.
Dense populations of the highly
unusual and rare ‘living fossil’
lampshell or brachiopod Magellania
flavescens are found on the subtidal
sediments in the park.
The dendritic network of tidal
channels provide a habitat for
a range of invertebrate species
such as gastropods, sea stars, urchins,
ascidians, and the seapen Sarcoptilus
grandis. Fish associated with the
subtidal sediments and in the channels
include stingrays, perch, flathead
and gobies.
The water column habitat is dominated
by drifting planktonic species, which
rely on currents for movement,
nutrients and food. Common
plankton found in the water column
includes phytoplankton such as
diatoms, and zooplankton including
copepods, jellyfish and ctenophores.
Highly mobile fish, sharks and stingrays
also inhabit the water column.
Post-larvae of King George whiting
appear in the bay from September
to November each year from adults
spawning in South Australia and far
western Victoria.
Species and Communities of
Conservation Significance
The park provides important feeding
and roosting habitat for forty-one
conservation listed bird species such
as the orange-bellied parrot
Neophema chrysogaster and
grey-tailed tattler Heteroscelus
brevipes, which are listed under
the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act
and regarded as critically endangered
in Victoria.
The park and surrounds is a feeding
area for twenty-nine internationally
important migrant species protected
under the Australia Migratory Bird
Agreement with either China
(CAMBA) or Japan (JAMBA).
The rare ‘living fossil’ lampshell
Magellania flavescens occurs in high
densities on the subtidal sediments
in the park.
59
Potentially thirty two species of
marine flora and fauna are at their
distributional limits in Western Port
Bay and may occur within the park.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats form part of the park
management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses and actions.
Serious threats for Churchill Island
Marine National Park include oil spills,
invasive marine pests, human
disturbance and fox predation of
birds, and excessive nutrients and
sediments from the catchment.
The Northern Pacific seastar Asterias
amurensis is well established in Port
Phillip Bay and was recently found
at San Remo (although the San Remo
population may have been eradicated).
There are concerns about possible
spread of this species to the park.
Mangroves Avicennia marina fringing Churchill Island
Marine National Park. Photo Chris Hayward, Parks Victoria.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to
natural values. Parks Victoria will use
an adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken as
part of the Research Partners Program
involving collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are four ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Churchill
Island Marine National Park, while
four research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already
been completed.
60
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Corner Inlet Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into
five bioregions according
to a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Corner Inlet Marine National
Park is the only marine
national park in Corner Inlet,
which is part of the Victorian
Embayments bioregion.
Image left:
Solitary corals Culicia australiensis on subtidal reef.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
Potbellied seahorse Hippocampus abdominalis in Posidonia
australis seagrass bed.
Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Description
The park covers 1,333 hectares and
comprises two separate sections in the
south-east coast of Corner Inlet.
The northern section of the park
extends west from near White Dog
Point to a point approximately
6 kilometres offshore and then back
to the shore at Tin Mine Cove. The
near shore areas include the deep
waters of Bennison Channel. The
southern section extends west from
the southern part of Chinaman Long
Beach to Bennison Island, and from
Bennison Island south to Barry Hill.
It can be accessed by boat, or on foot
from Wilsons Promontory National Park.
The park forms part of an area that
has been recognised as a wetland
of international significance under
the Ramsar Convention. It is part
of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway
for migratory waders. A special
Protection Area – Natural Values Area
management overlay covers the park
except Bennison Channel, to protect
the significant seagrass beds and
wading bird habitats from disturbance.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Gunai/Kurnai and Country
of Boonwurrung.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park is influenced by tidal variations
which are further complicated by
changes in wind speed and direction,
high and low pressure systems,
wave action and storm surges. Tidal
variation is 2.1 metres for spring tides
and 1 metre for neap tides. Surface
water temperatures vary between
an average 20°C in the summer
and 12°C in the winter.
The substrate is predominantly soft
sediment though a regionally
significant area of weathered granite
shore platform and active granite
sand spit development occurs
between Barry Hill and Bennison
Point. Direct discharges into the park
include Chinaman Creek and several
intermittent creeks from Wilsons
Promontory National Park.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The park protects a wide variety
of marine habitats ranging from deep
channels to extensive shallow seagrass
beds, tidal sand and mud flats, sandy
beaches, and some rocky reefs,
mangroves and saltmarsh.
The park is especially significant for
over-wintering migratory wading
birds, supporting up to 50 per cent
61
of Victoria’s migratory waders and
20 per cent of Victoria’s total wader
population. Another important natural
value of the park is the extensive beds
of the seagrass Posidonia australis,
the only large beds in Victoria.
many migratory shorebirds. Intertidal
cobbly reef occurs around Granite and
Bennison Islands and along the shore
in the northern section of the park.
Shorebirds use the reef and sand
shoals to roost.
Mangrove and saltmarsh communities
in and adjacent to the park contribute
organic matter to Corner Inlet, and
are breeding and nursery grounds
for many organisms including
microcrustacea, bivalves and fish,
and act as filters for sediments and
other matter.
Subtidal soft sediments are home
to invertebrates such as polychaetes,
crustaceans, bivalves and gastropods.
Epifaunal species of Corner Inlet
include gastropods, sea stars, urchins
and ascidians. Fish associated with the
subtidal sediments and in the deep
channels of Corner Inlet include
stingrays, perch, flathead, and gobies.
The white mangrove Avicennia marina
subsp. australasica reaches the most
southern extent of its distribution in
Corner Inlet. The A. marina Mangrove
Shrubland community grows on the
sediment on intertidal mudflats on
the shores of the southern section of
the park and fringes the seaward edge
of saltmarsh. The main saltmarsh
community is Wet Saltmarsh Herbland
dominated by beaded glasswort
Sarcocornia quinqueflora.
Large areas of unvegetated intertidal
mud and sand support invertebrates,
microphytobenthos and demersal
fish. Benthic invertebrates in both
unvegetated and vegetated mudflats
are an important food resource for
Sparsely spotted stingaree Urolophus paucimaculatus
over subtidal soft sediment. Photo by Mark Norman,
Museum Victoria.
Four of Victoria’s five main species
of seagrass form meadows in the
intertidal and subtidal soft sediments.
The short eelgrass Zostera muelleri
forms dense mats around the
intertidal fringes and frequently lies
exposed at low tide. The long eelgrass
Heterozostera nigricaulis is found
in slightly deeper water. Broad-leaf
seagrass or strapweed Posidonia
australis is the dominant seagrass
on the submerged banks and is
considered to be a “keystone” species
providing shelter and food for many
other creatures in Corner Inlet. The
southern paddleweed Halophila
australis occurs sparsely around
broad-leaf P. australis seagrass beds
or across sandy patches, although
it can be locally common.
Seagrass beds are home to
leatherjackets, conservation listed
syngnathids (the group that includes
seahorses and pipefish), and small
juvenile fish (e.g. Whiting Sillaginodes
punctata). Rock flathead Platycephalus
laevigatus are permanent residents
of seagrass beds.
Small areas of subtidal reef occur mostly
in shallow waters (<5 metres), but
at least one area occurs in the deeper
waters of Bennison Channel. The
headland separating Tin Mine Cove
and Chinaman Long Beach is the main
example of a deep subtidal rocky reef
within the park. Diverse marine life
is present in these habitats.
The water column habitat is dominated
by drifting planktonic species, which
rely on currents for movement, nutrients
and food. Common plankton found
in the water column includes
phytoplankton such as diatoms and
zooplankton including copepods,
jellyfish and ctenophores. Highly
mobile fish, sharks and stingrays
also inhabit the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
Corner Inlet Marine National Park
habitats provide important feeding
and roosting habitat for twenty-four
conservation listed bird species such as
the orange-bellied parrot Neophema
chrysogaster, which is listed under the
62
Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act and
regarded as critically endangered both
in Victoria and nationally.
The park protects feeding areas for
fourteen internationally important
migrant species protected under the
Australia Migratory Bird Agreement
with either China (CAMBA) or Japan
(JAMBA).
Ten species of marine flora and fauna
are believed to be at their distributional
limits within the park.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise threats
identified for Corner Inlet Marine
National Park form part of the park
management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include increased
sediment and nutrients from the
catchment, seawalls, invasive marine
pests, changed catchment hydrology,
dredging, propeller scour, and oil
or chemical spills.
Two marine pests, the green shore
crab Carcinus maenas and broccoli
weed Codium fragile subspecies fragile,
have been recorded in the park.
The cordgrass Spartina anglica is also
present in the park, but is more
widespread in northern Corner Inlet
in the Marine and Coastal Park.
Six-spine leatherjacket Meuschenia freycinetti above
Posidonia australis seagrass bed.
Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Since the 1970s large areas of the
seagrass Posidonia australis have
been lost in Corner Inlet through
dieback, particularly in the west.
The most probable cause is thought
to be associated with the increased
sediment and nutrient loads.
P. australis loss has not been observed
in the park, although the potential
for it to occur is a significant threat.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to
natural values. Parks Victoria will use
an adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that are likely to be
exacerbated by climate change.
community based monitoring program
(Sea Search), which monitors the
broad-leaf seagrass in the park.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken as part
of the Research Partners Program
involving collaboration with various
research institutions.
There are four ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Corner
Inlet Marine National Park, while five
research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already been
completed. There is one ongoing
63
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Wilsons Promontory Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
Description
The park covers 15,580 hectares and
is the largest of the marine national
parks. It surrounds the southernmost
tip of Wilsons Promontory National Park.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
The park extends offshore from the
high water mark along 44.6 kilometres
of coastline from the southern end
of Norman Bay to Cape Wellington,
and offshore to within 300 metres
of the Glennie Group of islands.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Wilsons Promontory Marine
National Park is the only
marine national park
in the Flinders bioregion.
The park surrounds the Anser Group
of islands (Anser, Wattle and Kanowna
Islands and Anderson Islets, part of
Wilsons Promontory National Park)
to the mean high water mark along
13.3 kilometres of island coastline.
The park adjoins the section of
Wilsons Promontory Marine Park that
extends north along the west coast
of Wilsons Promontory from
Norman Bay.
It also adjoins the sections of Wilsons
Promontory Marine Reserve near
Cape Wellington and surrounding
the Glennie Group of islands.
The park is accessible by boat
or by foot through Wilsons
Promontory National Park.
Image left:
Yellow zoanthid Parazoanthus sp. and sponge.
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
Australian fur seal pups Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus
on Kanwona Island. Photo by Michael Sale.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Boonwurrung and Country
of Gunai/Kurnai.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The Wilsons Promontory coastline is
less exposed to swells than other parts
of the Victorian coast, but is subject
to strong current flows and high
winds. These winds can create
substantial surface waves, affect
local currents and cause turbidity.
Strong and complex tidal patterns
occur in the park. The western coast
is generally subject to a south-west
swell, and the eastern coast to
a south-east swell. The only major
current in the park area is the very
weak termination of the East
Australian Current.
The seafloor is predominantly more
than 20 metres deep. Surface water
temperatures vary between an
average 17.5°C in the summer and
13°C in the winter. Tidal variation
is 1.8 metres for spring tides and
1.4 metres for neap tides.
Numerous small estuaries run directly
into the park.
The shoreline geology is dominated
by a massif of Devonian granite.
The area includes numerous geological
and landform features of national
geological and geomorphological
significance.
64
Within the park, Cleft Island in the
Anser Group is listed as having State
geological significance.
the brown algae Ecklonia radiata and
Phyllospora comosa, along with
coralline red algae.
Just outside the park the numerous
sheets of granite at Norman Point
are also listed while the sea caves
of Great Glennie Island are of
regional significance.
Aggregating invertebrates found in
the rocky intertidal zone include the
mussel Austromytilus rostratus; the
barnacles Chthamalus antennatus,
Chamaesipho columna, Catomerus
polymerus and Austromegabalanus
nigrescens; and the ascidian Pyura
stolonifera.
Wilsons Promontory is an important
biogeographic barrier for biological
communities.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park include intertidal and subtidal
soft sediment, intertidal and subtidal
reefs, and the water column.
The intertidal boulders in the park are
home to marine plants such as lichens
(e.g. Lichina confinis, Gasparinnia
murorum), various brown algae
(e.g. Splachnidium rugosum), and the
globular cyanobacteria Rivularia firma.
Near the low water mark encrusting
calcareous red algae, and medium
sized brown algae Cystophora spp.
can be common. Further down the
shore the large brown algae Durvillaea
potatorum is dominant.
Also dominant in the surge zone
exposed only by low spring tides are
The Red Velvetfish Gnathanacanthus goetzeei.
Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Mobile invertebrates found on the
intertidal rocks include the periwinkles
Austrolittorina unifasciata and
Afrolittorina praetermissa. In amongst
the mussels and barnacles are the
limpets Cellana solida, C. tramoserica,
Notoacmea alta, N. mayi, N. petteridi,
Patelloida victoriana, and P. latistrigata.
The predatory gastropods Dicathais
orbita and Lepsiella vinosa are also
common and feed on the mussels and
barnacles. Near the low-water mark
the gastropods Dicathais orbita and
Turbo undulatus, chitons of the genus
Plaxiphora spp. and the limpet Patella
peroni are common.
The subtidal soft sediments are
predominantly inhabited by infauna
(small crustaceans and worms
that burrow into the sand) and
bottom-dwelling skates and rays.
Drift algae and algae attached
to shells and debris are also
common on soft sediments.
Seagrass beds of Halophila australis
and Heterozostera nigricaulis are
restricted to sheltered waters, in
particular Waterloo and Oberon Bays.
A variety of fish have been recorded
on seagrass and associated sand
substrate including the southern
goatfish Upeneichthys vlamingii,
silverbelly Parequula melbournensis,
wide-bodied pipefish Stigmatopora
nigra, spotted pipefish S. argus,
slender weed whiting Siphonognathus
attenuatus, blue-throated wrasse
Notolabrus tetricus, gobies
Nesogobius spp., weedfish
Heteroclinus spp. and Cristiceps spp.
and toothbrush leatherjackets
Acanthaluteres vittiger.
The demersal fish fauna of subtidal
soft sediment environments are typical
of much of the shallower parts of Bass
Strait and include the sparsely spotted
stingaree Urolophus paucimaculatus,
Tasmanian numbfish Narcine
tasmaniensis, banded stingaree
Urolophus cruciatus, angel shark
Squatina australis, shortnose sawshark
Pristiophorus nudipinnis, sand flathead
Platycephalus bassensis, silver trevally
Pseudocaranx dentex, and prickly
toadfish Contusus brevicaudus.
Benthic invertebrates found within
the sediments are made up mostly
of crustaceans including amphipods,
cumaceans, isopods and ostracods
65
and polychaetes.
Subtidal reefs and the assemblages
associated with them are strongly
influenced by the position of the reef,
its orientation, slope, depth, exposure
and topography. These physical
parameters influence key physical
processes such as light, water flow
and sedimentation, and biological
processes such as foraging and
recruitment.
Shallow subtidal reefs are often
dominated by canopy forming algae.
Deep reefs, where light penetration
is limited, may be dominated by large
sessile invertebrates such as massive
sponges, whip corals (Primnoella
australasia), soft corals and
colonial ascidians.
Sessile invertebrates on more
shallow reefs include zoanthids
(e.g. Parazoanthus sp.) and
gorgonians (e.g. Pteronisis sp. and
Acabaria sp.). Both canopy forming
algae and large sessile invertebrates
can form habitat and food sources
for invertebrates and fish.
The diversity and species composition
of subtidal reefs in the park varies
with location.
Some of the common macrophytes
include canopy forming brown algae
(e.g. Phyllospora comosa, Ecklonia
radiata and Seirococcus axillaris),
understorey species (predominantly
red algae, e.g. Phacelocarpus
peperocarpus, Plocamium spp.,
Pterocladia lucida, Ballia callitricha,
Haliptilon roseum and Melanthalia
Image left:
A common species in the park: butterfly perch
Caesioperca lepidoptera.
Image right:
Hermit crab (probably Strigopagurus strigimanus).
Photo by Julian Finn, Museum Victoria.
obtusata), and mixed brown algae
(e.g. Sargassum spp. Perithalia cordata
and Acrocarpia paniculata).
Mobile invertebrates found on
subtidal reefs in the park include
sea urchins (e.g. Heliocidaris
erythrogramma), sea stars (e.g.
Cenolia trichoptera, Nectria spp.
and Plectaster decanus), molluscs
(e.g. Haliotis rubra, Turbo undulatus),
pycnogonids (e.g. Stylopallene
dorsospinum and Achelia
transfugoides) and bryozoans
(e.g. Canda arachnoides, Amathia
spp., Euthyroides episcopalis and
Triphyllozoon munitum).
The fish fauna includes wide-ranging
cool temperate species endemic
to Southern Australian, with a much
smaller proportion of warmer-water
temperate species towards the
southern limits of their range.
Common species include old wives
Enoplosus armatus, the large bastard
trumpeter Latriopsis forsteri, various
perch Caesioperca spp., various
wrasse Notolabrus spp., southern
hulafish Trachinops caudimaculatus,
various sweep Scorpis spp., magpie
perch Cheilodactylus nigripes,
the toothbrush leatherjacket
Acanthaluteres vittiger, herring
cale Odax cyanomelas and mado
Atypichthys strigatus.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals,
turtles and seabirds are also found
in or use the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The park has many species of
conservation significance including
twenty five bird species (e.g. Latham’s
snipe Gallinago hardwickii, sanderling
Calidris alba, Caspian tern
Hydroprogne caspia and white-bellied
sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster),
5 marine mammals (e.g. humpback
whale Megaptera novaeangliae and
the killer whale Orcinus orca) and the
leatherback turtle Dermochelys
coriacea on state, national or
international conservation lists.
The conservation listed green turtle
Chelonia mydas is a vagrant that
has also been recorded in or near
the park.
Seven species of fish found in the
park are also regarded as being
of conservation significance as they
are numerically and spatially rare
at the state level (e.g. Sphyraena
novaehollandiae and Pentaceropsis
recurvirostris).
The park is also a nationally significant
area for recovery of white shark
Carcharodon carcharias populations.
It is home to one hundred and twenty
six biota that have been recorded or
presumed to be at their distributional
limit including algae (e.g. Caulerpa
spp. and Cystophora spp.), seagrass
(Amphibolis antarctica), shrimp (e.g.
Rhynchocinetes kuiteri), sea stars
(e.g. Nectria multispina and
Euantedon paucicirra), molluscs
(e.g. Pisinna tumida tumida and
Notoplax speciosa), sea urchins
(e.g. Centrostephanus rodgersii
and Spatangus luetkeni), and fish
(e.g. Dotalabrus aurantiacus and
Upeneichthys vlamingii).
66
Two species of marine snail (Liotella
vercoi, Cystiscus halli) and two species
of chiton (Eulima styliformis, Eulima
victoriae) are presumed to be endemic
to the park, though this may reflect
collection effort in this area rather
than actual Victorian distributions.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Wilsons
Promontory Marine National Park
form part of the park management
plan. Parks Victoria also uses an
adaptive management approach
which includes periodic reviews of
priority natural values and threats
through processes such as the State
of the Parks evaluation and setting
of desired conservation outcomes.
Through these processes Parks Victoria
has identified emerging threats
and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include invasive
marine pests, nutrients from sewage,
propeller scour, major oil spills and
boat disturbance of seal colonies.
One introduced species has been
recorded from the south-east of the
park, the bryozoan Bugula neritina.
It is thought that the introduced green
shore crab Carcinus maenas is also
found within the park.
The invasive New Zealand seastar
Astrostole scabra and screw shell
Maoricolpus roseus have been
Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni.
Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
reported from marine protected areas
to the east of Wilsons Promontory
and there are concerns about their
possible spread.
The Northern Pacific seastar Asterias
amurensis was found at nearby
Anderson Inlet in 2004–05, at San
Remo in 2011, and most recently
in 2012 in Tidal River in the Wilsons
Promontory National Park. These
populations appear to have been
controlled, however there are
concerns that this species
could spread.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
There are already some signs of
climate change related effects in
eastern Victoria with the black spined
urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii
expanding its range from NSW with
a strengthening of the East Australian
Current. This species forms urchin
barrens (devoid of macroalgae)
when it reaches high densities and
significantly reduces biodiversity
of subtidal reefs. At present,
densities of this urchin in the park
are relatively low.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values
and threats for the system have
improved significantly through the
marine science program. Much
of the research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are nine ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Wilsons
Promontory Marine National Park,
while nine research projects and one
habitat mapping project have already
been completed. The park has an
ongoing shallow subtidal reef
monitoring program.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
67
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Ninety Mile Beach
Marine National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Ninety Mile Beach Marine
National Park is one of three
marine national parks and
one marine sanctuary in the
Twofold Shelf bioregion.
Intertidal soft sediment of Ninety Mile Beach Marine
National Park.
Description
The park covers 2,650 hectares and
is located immediately southwest of
the township of Seaspray extending
offshore for approximately five
kilometres (three nautical miles) to
the limit of Victorian waters from the
high water mark along 5 kilometres
of coastline.
The park is adjacent to Ninety Mile
Beach, which extends from Corner
Inlet to Red Bluff, broken only by the
artificial entrance at Lakes Entrance.
It is part of a major barrier system
that fronts the Gippsland Lakes.
The park is relatively inaccessible
from the land, except through private
property, but is readily accessible
by boat from Seaspray. It includes
areas between the high and low
water mark that were formerly part
of McLoughlins Beach – Seaspray
Coastal Reserve.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country
of Gunai/Kurnai.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park is protected from southwesterly swells by Tasmania but is
strongly influenced by south-easterly
and easterly swells. The combination
of these tidal currents and high
energy swells result in well-mixed
coastal waters.
Wind patterns also influence
hydrodynamics, with south-westerly
winds dominating in winter, resulting
in an overall north-easterly movement
of water and sand along the coast.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 18°C in the
summer and 13°C in the winter.
Tidal variation is 0.9 metres for spring
tides and 0.6 metres for neap tides.
The shoreline geology is quartzose
sands and the subtidal soft sediment
is recent Holocene sand.
Three waterways and one saline waste
water outfall discharge into the sea
in the vicinity of the park.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park include intertidal and extensive
subtidal soft sediments, and the
water column.
The intertidal soft sediment contains
a low biodiversity of invertebrate
fauna including isopods, bivalves,
polychaetes, amphipods and insect
larvae. Flora is restricted to macroalgae
drift and macroalgal epiphytes.
The intertidal zone is an important
68
roosting and feeding area for several
threatened shorebirds.
The subtidal soft sediments are home
to a highly diverse invertebrate
assemblage (regarded as one of most
diverse in the world) and crustaceans
are the dominant group found in grab
samples. Ascidians (mainly Pyura
australis), seastars including
Coscinasterias muricata that occur
along this coast in large numbers,
as well as an unusual soft coral
Pseudogorgia godeffroyi, are the
most common of the large
invertebrates found in the park.
While there have been no detailed
surveys of nearshore fish in the park,
recreational fishing guides for areas
outside the park indicate Australian
salmon Arripis sp., snapper Pagrus
auratus, tailor Pomatomus saltatrix
and flathead are present in the area.
Newborn pups of gummy sharks
Mustelus antarcticus inhabit shallow
inshore areas and there is some
evidence to suggest the park may
be an important feeding area for
these sharks.
Subtidal low calcarenite rocky reefs
may occur along Ninety Mile Beach.
Preliminary mapping has not located
the reefs within the park, although
they may have been covered by sand.
The water column is occupied by
planktonic (drifting with the current)
and pelagic (actively swimming)
species, for example snapper Pagrus
auratus, Australian salmon Arripis sp.,
long-finned pike Dinolestes lewini,
short-finned pike Sphyraena
novaehollandiae and white shark
Carcharodon carcharias. A number
of marine mammals, reptiles and
seabirds are also found in or use the
water column in the park.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The open waters are a transient
habitat for the endangered southern
right whale Eubalaena australis,
Australian fur seal Arctocephalus
pusillus doriferus and vulnerable New
Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri.
olivacea, leatherback turtle Dermochelys
coriacea, and yellow-bellied sea snake
Pelamis platurus are vagrants that are
occasionally recorded in or near the park.
Twenty-eight conservation listed shore
or sea birds have been sighted in or
in the immediate surrounds of Ninety
Mile Beach Marine National Park and
include terns (e.g. Sternula spp. and
Hydroprogne caspia), plovers (e.g.
Thinornis rubricollis and Pluvialis fulva)
sandpipers (e.g. Tringa stagnatilis and
Calidris acuminata) and many others.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise threats
identified for Ninety Mile Beach Marine
National Park form part of the park
management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values
and threats through processes such
as the State of the Parks evaluation
and setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are four ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Ninety
Mile Beach Marine National Park,
while three research projects and
one habitat mapping project have
already been completed.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Serious threats include human
disturbance of shorebirds, invasive
marine pests and introduced
pathogens via fish bait.
The invasive New Zealand screw shell
Maoricolpus roseus has been reported
from Point Hicks and Cape Howe
marine national parks to the east
of Ninety Mile Beach and there are
concerns about its possible spread.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions
that focus on priority climate change
issues such as extreme weather events
and existing risks that will likely be
exacerbated by climate change.
The park also is likely to provide
habitat for aggregations of juvenile
white shark Carcharodon carcharias.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established extensive
marine research and monitoring
programs that address important
management challenges for the
marine national parks and sanctuaries.
These focus on improving baseline
knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Five conservation listed marine reptiles
including the loggerhead turtle
Caretta caretta, green turtle Chelonia
mydas, Pacific ridley turtle Lepidochelys
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
69
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Beware Reef
Marine Sanctuary
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary
is the only marine sanctuary
in the Twofold Shelf bioregion,
which also includes three
marine national parks, and
completely encapsulates
Beware Reef.
Image left:
Eastern red sea fan Mopsella sp. Photo taken by Friends
of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary.
Image right:
Female herring cale Odax cyanomelas. Photo taken
by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary.
Description
The sanctuary covers 220 hectares,
and is around 5 kilometres south
east of Cape Conran and around
2.6 kilometres offshore from the
Cape Conran Coastal Park.
Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary is
accessible by boat from the West
Cape ramp at Cape Conran.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the sanctuary is part of Country
of Bidwell and Country of Gunai/
Kurnai. The Monero-Ngarigo people
and Moogji Aboriginal Council people
also have an association with the
coastal region of this area.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The sanctuary is influenced by the
warm East Australian Current, cooler
Bass Strait waters and frequent cool
productive upwelling at the edge of
the continental shelf. Surface water
temperatures vary between an
average 18.5°C in the summer and
13.5°C in the winter. Tidal variation
is 0.9 metres for spring tides and
0.6 metres for neap tides. The
geology of the sanctuary is granite.
No estuaries or intermittent creeks
run directly into the park as it is an
isolated offshore reef.
In addition to Beware Reef itself,
three steamship wrecks, the Auckland,
Ridge Park and Albert San are also
important recreational diving sites
in the sanctuary.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
sanctuary include subtidal soft
sediments, intertidal and subtidal reef,
and the water column. Most of the
subtidal area of the sanctuary is
deeper than 20 metres.
The shallow (< 10 metres) subtidal
reef is home to stands of canopy
forming algae such as bull kelp
Durvillaea potatorum and crayweed
Phyllospora comosa, with a lesser
contribution by the common kelp
Ecklonia radiata. Red algaedominates
the understorey and includes
Rhodymenia wilsonii, R. linearis
and Plocamium dilatatum.
The subtidal reef invertebrate
assemblage includes a large number
of the feather star Cenolia trichoptera,
and high densities of the black sea
urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii and
blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra.
Common fish found on the subtidal
reef are blue throated wrasse
Notolabrus tetricus and purple wrasse
N. fucicola. Other fish species include
the Maori wrasse Ophthalmolepis
70
lineolata, one-spot puller Chromis
hypsilepis, white-ear damselfish Parma
microlepis, toothbrush leather jacket
Acanthaluteres vittiger and large
aggregations of butterfly perch
Caesioperca lepidoptera.
A small intertidal granite reef area
is present which is wave-swept
in high seas. Thick stands of bull kelp
Durvillaea potatorum dominate the
lower intertidal reef, with coralline
algae and fleshy green and brown
algae occurring elsewhere. The
cunjevoi Pyura stolonifera is the
dominant invertebrate on the
intertidal reef. Large barnacles and
mussels cover much of the rock,
while other areas are bare.
Subtidal soft sediments are extensive.
No biological surveys have been
undertaken of this community within
the sanctuary to date, but it probably
supports numerous polychaetes,
isopods, gastropods, euphausiids,
ophiuroids, bivalves, amphipods,
cumaceans and cephalopods.
Surveys of nearby areas have revealed
a number of common fish and shark
species likely to inhabit the sanctuary.
Examples include sparsely spotted
stingaree Urolophus paucimaculatus,
gurnard Lepidotrigla spp., flathead
Finger sponge, feather stars, zoanthids and butterfly perch
Caesioperca lepidoptera on subtidal reef. Photo by Mark
Norman, Museum Victoria.
Platycephalus spp., common gurnard
perch Neosebastes scorpaenoides.
Numerous shark species were also
found in the survey including swell
shark Cephaloscyllium laticeps, angel
shark Squatina australis, and Port
Jackson shark Heterodontus
portusjacksoni. Newborn pups of
gummy sharks inhabit shallow inshore
areas and there is evidence to suggest
that the inshore sandy areas east of
Wilson Promontory may be important
feeding areas for gummy shark pups.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals,
reptiles and seabirds are also found
in or use the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
The sanctuary provides important
feeding habitat for several threatened
bird species such as the shy albatross
Thalassarche cauta and wandering
albatross Diomedea exulans.
The threatened southern right whale
Eubalaena australis, humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae, southern
elephant seal Mirounga leonina and
New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca
forsteri use the waters in the
sanctuary. New Zealand fur seals and
Australian fur seals Arctocephalus
pusillus doriferus use the intertidal
reef as a haul-out site for much
of the year.
The killer whale Orcinus orca,
bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus
and common dolphin Delphinus
delphis have been observed in the
waters in and around the sanctuary.
Seventeen species of marine flora
and fauna are believed to be at their
eastern or western distributional limits
within the sanctuary.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Beware Reef
Marine Sanctuary form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values
and threats through processes such
as the State of the Parks evaluation
and setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats for Beware Reef
marine sanctuary include invasive
marine pests from commercial and
recreational boats, anchor damage,
poaching of abalone and increased
sediments from catchment runoff.
71
The introduced New Zealand seastar
Astrostole scabra has been reported in
the sanctuary, while the New Zealand
screw shell Maoricolpus roseus has
been recorded within the Point Hicks
and Cape Howe Marine National Parks
and there are concerns about possible
spread to the sanctuary.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks likely to be exacerbated
by climate change.
There are already some signs of
climate change related effects in
eastern Victoria, including Beware
Reef Marine Sanctuary, with the black
spined urchin Centrostephanus
rodgersii expanding its range from
NSW with a strengthening of the East
Australian Current. This species forms
urchin barrens (devoid of macroalgae)
when it reaches high densities and
significantly reduces biodiversity
of subtidal reefs.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Since the establishment of the
parks in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Beware
Reef Marine Sanctuary, while eight
research projects and one habitat
mapping project have already been
completed. The sanctuary has an
ongoing subtidal reef monitoring
program in addition to high quality
community monitoring by Reef
Life Survey.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
information needs that will
assist management.
Green moray eel Gymnothorax prasinus.
Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary.
72
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Point Hicks Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Point Hicks Marine National
Park is one of three marine
national parks and one marine
sanctuary in the Twofold
Shelf bioregion.
Image left:
A school of butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera over
a subtidal reef sponge garden. Photo by Mark Norman,
Museum Victoria.
Image right:
Featherduster worms Sabellastarte australiensis on subtidal
reef. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Description
The park covers 3,810 hectares and
adjoins Point Hicks Lighthouse Reserve
and the Croajingolong National Park.
It extends offshore to state limits
from the high water mark along
9.6 kilometres of coastline from
2 kilometres east of Clinton Rocks
to Stable Bay.
The park includes Whaleback Rock
and Sensation Reef and is accessible
by a short walk from Point Hicks Road,
or less readily by boat.
Parks Victoria acknowledges the
Aboriginal Traditional Owners of
Victoria – including its parks and
reserves. Indigenous tradition indicates
that the park is part of Country of
Bidawal and Country of Gunai/Kurnai.
The Monero-Ngarigo people also
have an association with the coastal
region of this area.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park is subject to high energy
waves and twice daily tides. Prevailing
winds and swells are generally from
the south-west and north-east. It
is influenced by both cool southern
waters and the warm East Australian
Current. The continental slope is quite
close and cold-water upwellings
are frequent.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 19°C in the
summer and 14°C in the winter. Tidal
variation is 0.9 metres for spring tides
and 0.6 metres for neap tides.
The geology is granite with some
metamorphic outcrops west of the
lighthouse. No estuaries or creeks run
directly into the park.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park include the water column, subtidal
and intertidal soft sediments, and
subtidal and intertidal reefs. Over
80 per cent of the subtidal area of the
park is deeper than 20 metres.
It has been reported that the
composition of invertebrate
assemblages living on the intertidal
reefs are more similar to those found
at Mallacoota, Merimbula and
Bermagui than to assemblages
found further west along the Victorian
coast. East coast species contributing
to these differences have lower
densities at Point Hicks than in NSW.
The subtidal reef consists of highly
exposed granite slopes, boulders, rock
gullies and outcrops and includes
shallow reefs, as well as deep reefs
that extend below 80 metres depth.
Eastern temperate and southern
cosmopolitan species co-occur,
as a result of the mixing of warm
eastern and cool southern waters.
73
The marine flora and fauna of the
subtidal reefs are spectacular and
include colourful and diverse sessile
invertebrates. In very shallow subtidal
waters red algae and the bull kelp
Durvillaea potatorum are the
dominant algae.
Other important characteristics
of are the canopy forming algae
(e.g. crayweed Phyllospora comosa
and common kelp Ecklonia radiata)
and small understorey algae (e.g.
Halopteris spp., Cladostephus
spongiosus, Dilophus marginatus,
Acrotylus australis and Sinkoraena
tasmanica), and encrusting and erect
sponges.
The Phyllospora invertebrate
community includes relatively high
abundances of the predatory whelk
Cabestana spengleri and the seastar
Patiriella calcar, and moderate
abundances of blacklip abalone
Haliotis rubra and the red bait crab
Plagusia chabrus.The herbivorous sea
urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii can
remove all erect algae to create
‘urchin barrens’ on the reefs.
Fish assemblages are a mixture of cool
southern and warm eastern species
and include large numbers of the
blue-throated and purple wrasse
(Notolabrus tetricus and Notolabrus
Black urchins Centrostephanus rodgersii and yellow
zoanthids. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
fucicola). Other fish species include
the banded morwong Cheilodactylus
spectabilis, sea sweep Scorpis
aequipinnis, Maori wrasse
Ophthalmolepis lineolata, one-spot
puller Chromis hypsilepis and
white-ear damselfish Parma
microlepis. The eastern blue
grouper Achoerodus viridis is also
present in low numbers.
Subtidal soft sediments include whole
and broken shells (known as biogenic
gravel) often encrusted in pink algae
suggesting that rhodoliths may be
present in these areas. Shell areas
tend to have many small orange ball
sponges (Tethya sp.) in amongst the
shells, and vertical sponges attached
to larger shells are also sometimes
present. Sand areas tend to be bare,
although if vegetation is present,
it is usually clumps of the green
algae Caulerpa spp.
Coastal surveys of benthic infauna
found that crustaceans were the
dominant taxa, mostly made up
of amphipods, cumaceans, as well
as isopods and ostracods. The invasive
New Zealand screw shell, Maoricolpus
roseus, was identified in very high
densities at 40 metres depth. This
species is associated with a reduction
in other infauna indicating that this
exotic species poses a serious threat
to the high diversity of infauna that
is characteristic of much of Bass Strait.
The dominant fish species on subtidal
soft sediment are school whiting
Sillago flindersi, sparsely spotted
stingaree Urolophus paucimaculatus,
piked dog shark Squalus megalops,
jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, round
snouted gurnard Lepidotrigla mulhalli,
red rock cod Scorpaena papillosus and
cocky gurnard Lepidotrigla vanessa.
Other important species include
banded stingaree Urolophus cruciatus,
short finned gurnard, scaber
leatherjacket Parika scaber and
gurnard perch Neosebastes
scorpaenoides.
There is some evidence to suggest
that the inshore sandy areas east
of Wilsons Promontory, including the
park, may be important feeding areas
for gummy shark pups. The subtidal
soft sediment may also be an
important feeding ground for
gummy sharks, saw sharks and
elephant sharks.
The water column is home to a variety
of planktonic and pelagic organisms.
Those that make their permanent
home in the water column include
sea jellies, salps, many fish, and
phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals,
reptiles and seabirds are also found
in or use the water column
in the park.
74
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
Twenty-six conservation listed shore
or sea birds have been sighted in
or in the immediate surrounds
of the park. Twenty are recognized
as threatened in Victoria and two are
regarded as endangered (the little
egret and fairy tern).
Four birds are listed as vulnerable
at both the state and national level,
including the northern giant-petrel,
fairy prion, and shy and black-browed
albatross. Twelve birds are recognized
internationally under the Australia
Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA
or JAMBA). Hooded plover nesting
sites have been recorded along the
coast to the east of the park and at
the mouth of the Mueller and Thurra
Rivers, and it is likely that they forage
along the park’s shore.
Two whales of conservation
significance including the southern
right whale Eubalaena australis
and humpback whale Megaptera
novaeangliae have been recorded
in or near the open waters of the
park. The killer whale Orcinus orca,
leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx,
Australian fur seal Arctocephalus
pusillus doriferus and New Zealand
fur seal Arctophoca forsteri have
been observed in the waters.
The yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis
platurus has been recorded in or near
the park. Four other conservation
listed marine turtles occur as vagrants
along the eastern Victorian coast
including loggerhead Caretta caretta,
green Chelonia mydas, Pacific ridley
Lepidochelys olivacea and leatherback
Dermochelys coriacea, and probably
transit through the park.
Fish of conservation significance
present include the state and
nationally vulnerable Australian
grayling, the nationally threatened
whale shark, and the recently
protected eastern blue groper
Achoerodus viridis.
Thirteen biota including algae and
invertebrates have been recorded or
presumed to be at their distributional
limit. The whale shark Rhincodon
typus is also presumed to be at the
limit of its distribution in the park.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Point Hicks
Marine National Park form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses.
Serious threats include introduced
marine pests from commercial and
recreational vessels, and abalone
poaching. The introduced New
Zealand seastar Astrostole scabra and
screw shell Maoricolpus roseus have
been reported in the park.
Marine National Park, while eight
research projects and two habitat
mapping projects have already been
completed. The park has an ongoing
subtidal reef monitoring program in
addition to high quality community
monitoring by Reef Life Survey.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports
on www.parks.vic.gov.au.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to
natural values. Parks Victoria will use
an adaptive management approach
to develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events
and existing risks that will likely
be exacerbated by climate change.
There are already some signs of
climate change related effects in
eastern Victoria, including Point Hicks
Marine National Park, with the black
spined urchin Centrostephanus
rodgersii expanding its range from
NSW with a strengthening of the East
Australian Current. This species forms
urchin barrens (devoid of macroalgae)
when it reaches high densities and
significantly reduces biodiversity of
subtidal reefs.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the
parks in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
research has been undertaken
as part of the Research Partners
Program involving collaboration
with various research institutions.
There are five ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Point Hicks
75
Marine Natural Values Study Summary
Cape Howe Marine
National Park
Australia’s southern waters are
unique. Ninety per cent of our
marine plants and animals are
found nowhere else on earth.
The system of Marine National
Parks and Sanctuaries has
been established to represent
the diversity of Victoria’s
marine environment, its
habitats and associated
flora and fauna.
Victoria’s marine environment
has been classified into five
bioregions according to
a nationally agreed scheme
based on physical and
biological attributes.
Cape Howe Marine National
Park is one of three marine
national parks and one marine
sanctuary in the Twofold
Shelf bioregion.
Image left:
The sea tulip Pyura sp. on subtidal reef.
Photo by Mark Norman, Museum Victoria.
Image right:
An adult cat shark in sponges, sea whips and algae
at about 30 metres depth. Photo by the Coastal CRC.
Description
The park covers 4,060 hectares and
is around 15 kilometres east of
Mallacoota. It borders the coastline
from approximately 1 kilometres east
of Telegraph Point and Gabo Island
to the New South Wales border,
excluding a section of coast and sea
around the Iron Prince Reef, extending
offshore to state limits from the high
water mark.
Abutting the Cape Howe Wilderness
Zone of Croajingolong National Park,
it is Victoria’s most easterly marine
national park. The park can be
accessed from the adjoining beach.
Aboriginal tradition indicates that
the park is part of Bidwell Country.
The Yuin Nation people also have
an association with the coastal region
of this area.
Physical Parameters and Processes
The park is subject to high energy
waves and swells, and twice daily
tides. Prevailing winds and swells are
generally from the south-west and
north-east. The park is influenced by
both the warm East Australian
Current, and cool productive waters
upwelling at the edge of the
continental shelf.
Surface water temperatures vary
between an average 19°C in the
summer and 14°C in the winter.
Tidal variation is 0.9 metres for spring
tides and 0.6 metres for neap tides.
The geology of the park is sandstone
and granite. A small intermittent
estuary, the outflow from Lake Wau
Wauka, runs directly into the park.
Marine Habitat Distribution
and Ecological Communities
The main habitats protected by the
park are intertidal and subtidal soft
sediments, intertidal and subtidal reef,
and the water column. Over 85 per
cent of the subtidal area of the park
is deeper than 20 metres.
The dominant intertidal reef algae
includes sea lettuce Ulva australis,
Neptune’s necklace Hormosira banksii
and various red coralline algae. The
bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum occurs
on the intertidal fringe, while most
of the upper intertidal rocks are
unvegetated. Invertebrate fauna
includes barnacles Tesseropora rosea,
Chthamalus antennatus and mussels
Xenostrobus pulex, with Sydney rock
oyster Saccostrea glomerata, red bait
crabs Plagusia chabrus, keyhole
limpets Fissurellidae and hermit crabs
Paguridae occurring in rock pools.
In deeper pools, the elephant snail
Scutus antipodes, abalone Haliotis
rubra and Haliotis coccoradiata,
seastars Patiriella spp. and swiftfooted crab Leptograpsus variegatus
are common. Little is known about
76
intertidal fish, although sea mullet
Mugil cephalus are sometimes found
in rockpools in the park.
The subtidal reef is a mixture of solid
reef and boulders. Eastern and
southern temperate species co-occur,
as a result of the mixing of warm
eastern and cool southern waters.
The shallow subtidal reef is dominated
by a mixture of crayweed Phyllospora
comosa and bull kelp Durvillaea
potatorum, the reef further offshore
tends to be dominated by a P. comosa
canopy with encrusting coralline algae
dominating the understorey. Other
understorey macrophytes include
browns (e.g. Carpomitra costata,
Zonaria turneriana) and reds (e.g.
Delisea pulchra, Phacelocarpus
peperocarpus, Arthrocardia wardii
and Haliptilon roseum).
Astralium tentoriformis. The deep
(30 metres to 50 metres) sandstone
reefs are heavily covered with
a diverse array of sponges, ascidians
and gorgonians.
Subtidal reef fish assemblages include
herring cale Odax cyanomelas, rock
cale Crinodus lophodon, leatherjacket
Meuschenia freycineti, striped mado
Atypichthys strigatus, banded
morwong Cheilodactylus spectabilis,
Maori wrasse Opthalmolepis lineolatus
and the damselfishes Parma microlepis
and Chromis hypsilepis. The eastern
hulafish Trachinops taeniatus and the
yellow tail mackerel Trachurus
novaezelandiae can be numerically
dominant at individual sites. Large
long-finned pike Dinolestes lewini
occurs widely on the shallow
subtidal reefs.
Deeper waters have macroalgal beds
on sand covered reef, including large
beds of the green algae Caulerpa spp.
in the north-east of the park. On these
reefs the herbivorous sea urchin
Centrostephanus rodgersii, can
remove all erect algae to create
‘urchin barrens’.
In waters deeper than 10 metres
the velvet leatherjacket Meuschenia
scaber and butterfly perch Caesioperca
lepidoptera are common over both
reef and sediment covered reef. The
eastern blue groper Achoerodus viridis
is strongly associated with solid reef
and boulders.
Common invertebrates on subtidal
reefs include the blacklip abalone
Haliotis rubra, the warrener Turbo
undulatus and another turban shell
Subtidal soft sediments include
Caulerpa spp. dominated macroalgal
beds at 30 metres to 40 metres depth.
Sponges dominate sediment deeper
than 40 metres, with orange ball
sponges of the genus Tethya
The introduced New Zealand screw shell Maoricolpus
roseus in high densities on deep soft sediments.
dominating sediments in 40 metres
to 60 metres depth. Sampling of the
invertebrate fauna has found
crustaceans were the dominant taxa
including amphipods, cumaceans,
isopods and ostracods. Polychaetes
were also common.
In deeper waters (> 10 metres) the
most common fish over sediments is
yellow scad Trachyurus
novaezelandiae. The ocean
leatherjacket Nelusetta ayraudi,
Grubfish Parapercis sp. and flathead
Platycephalus are associated with
deep sediments whilst schools of
whiting Sillago spp. are commonly
sighted over more shallow areas.
The eastern blue-spotted flathead
Platycephalus caeruleopunctatus is
found throughout the relatively
shallower depths of the park (<68m).
The velvet leatherjacket Meuschenia
scaber and the butterfly perch
Caesioperca lepidoptera are common
over both sediment and reef.
The draughtboard shark
Cephaloscyllium laticeps is also
common across the park. It mainly
lives over sediment and reef in
<59 metres, but it can be found
down to the deepest depths
(105 metres) of the park.
The water column is the largest
habitat in the park and is home
to a variety of planktonic and pelagic
77
organisms. Those that make their
permanent home in the water column
include sea jellies, salps, many fish,
and phytoplankton and zooplankton.
A number of marine mammals,
reptiles and seabirds are also found
in or use the water column.
Species and Communities
of Conservation Significance
One fish of conservation significance
is present in Cape Howe Marine
National Park – the protected eastern
blue groper Achoerodus viridis.
Thirty-eight conservation listed
shorebirds or seabirds have been
sighted in the park or in the
immediate surrounds. Twenty-six of
these are recognised as threatened
in Victoria. Four species including the
sooty oystercatcher Haematopus
fuliginosus, little tern Sternula
albifrons, short-tailed shearwater
Ardenna tenuirostris and white-faced
storm-petrel Pelagodroma marina
have been recorded as breeding
in or in the immediate surrounds
of the park.
Two whales of conservation
significance including the southern
right whale Eubalaena australis (which
has also been observed to calf in the
park) and humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae have been
recorded in or near the park. The killer
whale Orcinus orca and minke whale
Balaenoptera sp. have been observed
in the waters in and around the park.
The state vulnerable New Zealand fur
seal Arctophoca forsteri has also been
recorded breeding in the park.
Several conservation listed marine
reptiles have been recorded including
the leatherback turtle Dermochelys
coriacea, the green turtle Chelonia
mydas and the hawksbill turtle
Eretmochelys imbricata turtle. Three
other listed marine reptiles occur as
warm water transients along the
eastern Victorian coast: loggerhead
turtle Caretta caretta, Pacific ridley
turtle Lepidochelys olivacea and
yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis
platurus and probably use the waters
of the park.
Thirty-eight biota including algae,
seagrass and invertebrates have been
recorded or presumed to be at their
distributional limit in Cape Howe
Marine National Park.
Major Threats
Measures to address or minimise
threats identified for Cape Howe
Marine National Park form part of the
park management plan. Parks Victoria
also uses an adaptive management
approach which includes periodic
reviews of priority natural values and
threats through processes such as the
State of the Parks evaluation and
setting of desired conservation
outcomes. Through these processes
Parks Victoria has identified emerging
threats and developed appropriate
management responses and actions.
research has been undertaken as
part of the Research Partners Program
involving collaboration with various
research institutions.
Serious threats for Cape Howe Marine
National Park include introduced
marine pests from commercial and
recreational vessels, abalone poaching
and anchoring. The introduced New
Zealand seastar Astrostole scabra and
screw shell Maoricolpus roseus have
been reported in the park.
While recognising there are still
knowledge gaps Parks Victoria will
continue to focus on addressing
the information needs that will
assist management.
Climate change also poses a serious
medium to long term threat to natural
values. Parks Victoria will use an
adaptive management approach to
develop responses and actions that
focus on priority climate change issues
such as extreme weather events and
existing risks that are likely to be
exacerbated by climate change.
There are seven ongoing research
projects and one habitat mapping
project that are relevant to Cape
Howe Marine National Park, while
eight research projects and two
habitat mapping projects have already
been completed. The park has an
ongoing subtidal reef monitoring
program in addition to high quality
community monitoring by Reef
Life Survey.
For more information, including
marine habitat mapping products,
please see the full versions of the
Marine Natural Values reports on
www.parks.vic.gov.au.
There are already some signs of
climate change related effects in
eastern Victoria, including Cape Howe
Marine National Park, with the black
spined urchin Centrostephanus
rodgersii expanding its range from
NSW with a strengthening of the East
Australian Current. This species forms
urchin barrens (devoid of macroalgae)
when it reaches high densities and
significantly reduces biodiversity of
subtidal reefs. Urchin barrens have
been observed in Cape Howe Marine
National Park.
Research and Monitoring
Parks Victoria has established
extensive marine research and
monitoring programs that address
important management challenges
for the marine national parks and
sanctuaries. These focus on improving
baseline knowledge, as well as applied
management questions.
Since the establishment of the parks
in 2002 our knowledge and
understanding of natural values and
threats for the system have improved
significantly through the marine
science program. Much of the
78