Download Contemporary career models and organizational behavior

University of Jyvaskyla
September 24th, 2014
Contemporary career models
and organizational behavior
Alessandro Lo Presti
Seconda Università di Napoli, Department of Psychology
What’s important in this picture?
Career, /kəˈrɪəʳ/
It comes from the French word «carriere»
(XVI century) which means «road,
racecourse» which, in turn, comes from
the Latin word «via cararia» which means
«track from wheeled vehicles (originated
by the progressive erosion of the road)».
2
Talk outline and agenda
• Lecture
• The time and space elements in careers;
• Key contemporary issues: psychological contract, success, diversity, globalization;
• Implications for HRM practice
• Case study and discussion
• Learning objectives:
• To know the main traditional and contemporary career models and concepts
• To understand their implications for organizational behaviors
• To consider career issues in connection with other HRM issues
3
The time element in careers
• Key question: how do careers develop over time?
• A substantial number of models conceptualize
careers as sequences of distinct stages;
• Super’s (1957) and Levinson’s (1978) models imply
the notion of career progression through time from
a nonstochastic point of view; that is, they posit that
each stage is partially built on the previous ones;
4
The life career rainbow (Super, 1957)
5
The time element in careers
• Baruch and Bozionelos (2010) proposed a sequential career model
featuring the following stages:
• Foundation, starting from the early years of life and extending through
childhood and adolescence; this stage is associated with the accumulation of
basic knowledge as well as the development of fundamental values, attitudes,
aspirations that serve as anchors that guide, constrain, stabilize and reinforce
subsequent career direction and progress;
• Career entry, which involves the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and
qualifications to enter a job or a profession;
• Advancement, which involves development of expertise in the job or
profession as well as generally upward movements in the organizational
hierarchy;
6
The time element in careers
• Reinforcement, which involves implementation of decisions that have been made in
the previous stages as refocusing on one’s job or returning to formal education for a
career change;
• Decline, characterized by consideration of and preparation for withdrawal from
working life;
• Retirement, which involves disengagement from the labor market.
• The number and sequence of stages should be considered as a general
indicator rather than as applying to every single individual;
• Stages and timing of transitions may vary because of: a) variance across
jobs in qualification (time) requirements; b) variance across individuals in
the way their lives evolve; c) a general and progressive increase over time
in educational qualifications that are required to enter the labor market.
7
The time element in careers
• Minicyles feature miniature
stages because career actors,
mainly cause of organizational
and societal changes, often
need to evaluate their
accomplishments and
prospects and make decisions
to reinvigorate or redirect
their careers.
8
The space element in careers
• Key question: where do careers take place?
• Some preliminary considerations:
• It is inappropriate to think of careers as always attached to particular jobs or
professions or that they are composed of a natural evolution of roles within
the same general occupational context (Baruch & Bozionelos, 2010);
• Experiences that pertain to work roles and environments are the central, but
not the only, aspect of careers; personal life, and its related roles and
experiences also matter (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006);
• The actual physical space where work takes place has been changing over the
years; the equation «job=same location» has been replaced by work carried
out at home, at multiple locations (e.g., teleworking), or physical bases that
periodically change (e.g., expatriates) (Thatcher & Zhu, 2006);
9
The traditional career
• It reflects the view that careers are bound to single organizations (which
manage them; i.e., corporate-bound careers) or particular professions that
individuals normally join at the entry stage of their careers;
• Traditional career models implicitly assume that careers generally fit that
pattern;
• It is traditionally associated with higher organizational commitment and a
relational psychological contract;
• This concept was shaped by the societal and work structures of the
industrial and part of the postindustrial era;
• It should be viewed as a metaphor that generally fits the mentality of
careers in a particular era rather than as the norm in that era;
10
Man = working outside, wearing a worksuit, bread-winner, resolute
Woman = working at home, wearing an apron, house-wife, submissive
Beck-Gernsheim (1982) stated: traditional employment arrangements
implied a «job for a man and a half»
11
What has it been happening in recent years?
• Social changes affecting contemporary careers (Greenhaus & Kossek,
2014):
• Business environment: as a result of the highly competitive global business
environment, employees experience heightened job loss, fewer opportunities for
vertical mobility with their current employer, and more extensive inter-organizational
mobility;
• Technology: advances in information technology require increased electronic
communication across national borders, increase the portability of work, and result
in an increasing number of employees electronically tethered to their organizations;
• Diversity of family structures: women, dual-earner partners, single parents, and
employees responsible for their aging parents represent significant portions of the
workforce and are likely to express a desire to balance their work with other parts of
their lives;
• Aging of the workforce: because many baby boomers remain in the workforce
beyond traditional retirement age, the careers of many employees extend over a
longer portion of their lives.
12
The boundaryless career
• It comprises two dimensions: boundaryless mindset and organizational
mobility preference (Briscoe, Hall & DeMuth, 2006);
• A person with a boundaryless career mindset “navigates the changing work
landscape by enacting a career characterized by different levels of physical
and psychological movement” (Sullivan & Arthur, 2006);
• Career actors will vary in the attitude that they hold toward initiating and
pursuing work-related relationships across organizational boundaries. This
does not necessarily imply physical nor employment mobility;
• Thus a person with a decidedly high “boundaryless” attitude toward
working relationships across organizational boundaries is comfortable,
even enthusiastic about creating and sustaining active relationships
through and beyond organizational boundaries.
13
The boundaryless career
• Briscoe et al. (2006) found that boundaryless mindset and org.
mobility preference were positively associated with proactive
personality, openness to experience and mastery learning goal;
• Briscoe and Finkelstein (2009) found that org. mobility preference
was negatively associated with all the three dimensions of org.
commitment, while boundaryless mindset did not (but it was
positively associated with frequency of development opportunities);
• Moreover they found a significant interaction…
14
Boundaryless mindset interacts with developmental
opportunities (Briscoe & Finkelstein, 2009)
Normative commitment increases among
individuals with higher boundaryless
mindset
who
receive
frequent
developmental opportunities, while
sharply
decreases
when
such
opportunities lack.
15
The boundaryless career
• Cakmak-Otluoglu (2012) found that boundaryless mindset was not
associated with org. commitment while was positively associated with
perceived supervisor support, moreover he found that org. mobility
preference was negatively associated with all three dimensions of org.
commitment and with perceived supervisor support;
• Lo Presti, Manuti and Briscoe (under preparation) found that
boundaryless mindset was not associated with org. commitment
while was positively associated with org. citizenship behaviors, while
org. mobility preference was negatively associated with all three
dimensions of org. commitment and with org. citizenship behaviors.
16
The protean career
• Individuals who hold protean career attitudes are intent upon using their
own values (versus organizational values for example) to guide their career
(“values-driven”) and take an independent role in managing their
vocational behavior (“self-directed”);
• An individual who did not hold protean attitudes would be more likely to
“borrow” external standards, as opposed to internally developed ones, and
be more likely to seek external direction and assistance in behavioral
career management as opposed to being more proactive and independent
(Briscoe, Hall & DeMuth, 2006);
• While most protean individuals might in fact exhibit more mobility and a
learning orientation, it is posited that mobility and learning may be
correlates of a protean career, but not necessary components of it;
17
The protean career
• Briscoe et al. (2006) found that self-directed career management and
value driven orientation were positively associated with proactive
personality, openness to experience, career authenticity and mastery
learning goal;
• Briscoe and Finkelstein (2009) found that value driven orientation
negatively correlated with normative commitment;
• Cakmak-Otluoglu (2012) found that self-directed career management
negatively correlated with continuance commitment while positively
correlated with affective commitment and perceived supervisor
support. He also found that value driven orientation negatively
correlated with normative commitment;
18
The protean career
• Lo Presti, Manuti and Briscoe (under preparation) found that selfdirected career management positively correlated with affective and
normative commitment and org. citizenship behaviors;
• They also found that value-driven orientation positively correlated
with normative and continuance commitment and org. citizenship
behaviors.
19
A cross-cultural insight on career conceptualizations
• With concern to the question of universality of career models, it
should be noted that a large proportion of the world population
(mostly in developing countries) might not have a cohesive set of
work experiences that fits our idea of career and may not even have a
concept of it (Baruch & Bozionelos, 2010);
• The lives, work and non-work, of many people are still quite similar to
the lives of human generations before the industrial revolution, the
stage in history that gave rise to those sequential systematic work
experiences we today conceive as career (Baruch, 2006);
20
A cross-cultural insight on career conceptualizations
• On one side, it should be acknowledged that, as the notion of
traditional careers captures well careers in the Soviet Union as well as
in China until the 1980s, the notions of protean and boundaryless
careers have become relevant to Cindia and other developing
countries which, after the 1980s have been largely, though not
entirely, operating according to capitalist principles;
• On the other side, Beck (1999) coined the term “Brazilianization of
the West” explaining the convergence, in terms of economic
development and labour market dynamics (i.e., precariousness
irruption) between the First World and the Third World.
21
Careers and psychological contract
Career success
Diversity and careers
Globalization and careers 22
Careers and psychological contract
• Career attitudes are associated with particular mentalities that
include expectations and obligations;
• The psychological contract refers to perceptions regarding reciprocal
obligations between the employee and the employer;
• The extent to which employees perceive the psychological contract as
honored or breached is related to key outcomes such as job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, actual performance, extrarole behaviors, etc. (Zhao, Wayne, Glibkowski & Bravo, 2007);
23
A short interlude on psychological contracts
Long-term and specified performance terms
Short-term and
specified
performance terms
Long-term and
not specified
performance terms
Short-term and not specified performance terms
24
Careers and psychological contract
• While the notion of traditional career is compatible with a relational
psychological contract, employment insecurity, unclear career paths,
and involuntary employer changes have largely stripped the
psychological contract from such relational elements (Brown, 2005);
• Many career actors have now low loyalty to their employers or are
reluctant to commit to corporate careers, factors that reinforce
contemporary forms of careers, such as the boundaryless one;
• This cycle may be difficult to break, especially considering the current
economic climate and the fact that the new psychological contracts
may have been embedded in the mentality of the workforce (Baruch
& Bozionelos, 2010);
25
Careers and psychological contract (Lo Presti et al.)
Does employee’s psychological contract interact with career attitudes in predicting organizational behaviors?
26
Careers and psychological contract
• The new psychological contract, especially the balanced one, places
emphasis on employability, which refers to work-centered
adaptability that enhances individuals’ ability to identify and seize
career opportunities by means of facilitating intra- and interorganizational job movement (Fugate et al., 2004; Van der Heijde &
Van der Heijden, 2006);
• De Vos et al. (2011) found that self-perceived employability mediated
the relationship between, on one side, employee participation in
competency development initiatives and perceived support for
competency development and, on the other, two indicators of career
success: career satisfaction and perceived marketability.
27
Career success
• Key question: what does make a successful career?
• This notion is inherent in the conceptualization of careers:
• Traditionally, success was considered in terms of attainment of status in the
organization or profession, pace of vertical advancement, occupational prestige and
financial attainment; this usually refers to the objective or extrinsic view
(Heslin,2005);
• In line with new career attitudes, other facets of success are individually identified by
career actors on the basis of their evaluations using their personal values, beliefs and
aspirations; in these judgments individuals use both self and other reference points
and consider past as well as prospective accomplishments; this represents the
subjective of intrinsic view (Gattiker & Larwood, 1986);
• Ng and colleagues (2005) found correlations between measures of
objective and subjective success in the range of .18 and .30 – it means they
are related yet distinct constructs;
28
Career success human capital view
• It suggests that organizational rewards, such as hierarchical and income
progression, are distributed according to relevant competencies (general
and job-specific human capital) which, de facto, contribute to
organizational performance;
• Ng and colleagues (2005) found that an array of human capital variables
was related to both number of promotions and financial attainment;
• However, it should be kept in mind that career success must not be treated
as tantamount to job performance, because objective success is
determined by the joint effect of multiple work-related outcomes, not all of
which are under the control of career actors;
• Potential explanations lie in the imperfections of organizational systems in evaluating
employee performance (Lathman & Mann, 2006) as well as the presence of factors
that are not directly relevant to job performance but nevertheless affect career
prospects;
29
Career success structural view
• It places emphasis on the influence of structural factors on career
progression (Sonnenfeld et al., 1988):
• organizational factors as structure, size, type of ownership, criteria for
allocation of organizational rewards, etc.
• Environmental factors or labour market forces as type of industry, economic
circumstances, etc.
• Societal factors as educational systems, employment legislation, etc.
• At this point, it should be noted that it is erroneous to view career
actors as passive in front of structural and, secondarily, human capital
factors; instead, it is more appropriate to view them as improvising
actors who navigate within the space element of careers;
30
Career success social capital view
• This approach asserts that factors going beyond structure and human capital
should be taken into cognizance in order to develop an exhaustive description of
what determines career success (Seibert et al., 2001);
• Social capital signifies resources that an individual has at one’s disposal by means
of own relationship ties with other individuals within a particular social structure;
• An operationalization that facilitates the development of more fine-grained
advices for individual career management distinguish between:
• Mentoring, which refers to an intensive developmental relationship between two
persons of unequal status or power, the mentor and the protegé, in which the
former provides the latter with career-instrumental and socio-emotional support;
• Network ties, which encompass the totality of individuals’
interpersonal ties excluding mentoring ones;
31
Successful and/or sustainable careers?
• Current career trends – the rise in precarious work, growing job and
economic insecurity, longer work hours, etc. – require that careers’
scholars concentrate on career sustainability, that is protecting and
fostering (rather than depleting) human and career development with
a focus on balance and renewal (Newman, 2011);
• There is a growing disconnect between the mystique of what careers
are thought to encompass and the experiences of many individuals;
the myths that hard work, long hours and continuous employment
promote career well-being are not aligned with 21st century reality
(Moen & Roehling, 2005);
32
Successful and/or sustainable careers?
• Kossek et al. (2013) proposed that a sustainable career is
characterized by:
•
•
•
•
Sufficient security to meet economic needs;
Fit with one’s core career and life values;
Flexibility and capability to evolve to suit one’s changing needs and interests;
Renewability such that an individual has regular opportunities for
rejuvenation;
• Greenhaus and Kossek (2014) also added:
• Dynamic ongoing work-home interdependencies over the life course;
• Questioning the career as a foreground and the rest of life as
background over time;
• Career-life trajectories.
33
Diversity and careers
• Key questions: do diverse people expect different careers?
• Diversity refers to heterogeneity among members of the workforce
according to one or more salient characteristics (Bell, 2007);
• Diversity is pertinent to careers because it apparently relates to
variance in employment patterns and opportunities; individuals may
pursue different career goals or be offered different career options,
depending on the group they belong to:
• Surface-level diversity refers to differences in overtly identifiable features that
are usually rooted in biological differences: sex, race, age, etc.
• Deep-level diversity refers to heterogeneity in attitudes, beliefs, values, or
even skills, knowledge and experiences;
34
35
Diversity and careers
• From a career perspective, it is surface level diversity which
matters, insofar it is more likely to evoke immediate reactions
that pertain to bias and prejudice, which give rise to
discrimination (Dipboye & Halverson, 2004);
• Ng and et. (2005) found significant disadvantages for women in
both number of promotions and financial attainment;
• The term glass ceiling has been coined to describe the presence
of an invisible organizational barrier that prevents women and
other groups from advancing into powerful positions;
36
Diversity and careers
• A number of accounts, not mutually exclusive, have been offered for the
observed gender differences in objective career success:
• Different expectations and priorities, rooted partly in socialization (Valcour & Ladge,
2008);
• Human capital and career path differences (Dahlmann et al., 2008; Penner, 2008);
• Social capital and direct discrimination (Li et al., 2008);
• With regard to social capital differences, women’s deficit can be explained
by:
• Women’s lower capacity, as relative newcomers in organizational life, to create
career-instrumental social capital, as well as their alleged tendency to underestimate
its importance for career advancement (Van Emmerik, 2006);
• High degree of homophily in women’s social capital ties; it means that they do not
integrate into male networks, which carry most career-enhancing information and
influence because of the traditional male dominance of organizational power
structures (Roth, 2004);
37
Diversity and careers
• Women’s apparent disadvantage in objective career success is not reflected
in their subjective career evaluations (Ng et al., 2005);
• This paradox can be accounted for in terms of differential career
expectations for men and women (Powell & Eddleston, 2008) as well as in
terms of alternative domains from which women can draw a sense of
achievement and satisfaction;
• Mainiero and Sullivan’s (2005) kaleidoscope career model proposes that
relationships are pivotal in women’s careers in terms of:
• Authenticity, or being true to oneself in the midst of the constant interplay of
personal development with work and nonwork issues;
• Balance, defined as making decisions in a way that work and nonwork aspects of life
form a coherent whole;
• Challenge, or engagement in activities that demand responsibility and allow learning
and growth.
38
Globalization and careers cultural differences
• Career concepts that have been developed with economically
developed societies as reference points may have limited or no
applicability in certain areas or populations of the globe (ILO, 2009);
• There is some debate (Bozionelos, 2006) about the relevance of
certain factors that are associated with career benefits within
particular national contexts with respect to other contexts (e.g.
mentoring, skills, etc.);
• The movement of labor across national borders has increased the
prevalence of another form of diversity, cultural diversity (Chope,
2008), which imposes additional challenges for organizations in terms
of managing it with respect to their career systems;
39
Globalization and careers expatriation
• Corporate-sponsored expatriation applies to individuals who are
sponsored by a parent-country organization to go to a mission abroad
and implies the management of employees’ careers before their
expatriation, during their stay in the host country and upon their
return as repatriates (Baruch & Altman, 2002);
• Because repatriate turnover is apparently double the rate of the rest
of the workforce, organizations are requested to enhance career
prospects for their repatriates using systems such as (Bolino, 2007):
• Pre-departure career planning;
• Systematic career revision during the assignment;
• Allocation of a formal mentor based in the parent country;
40
Globalization and careers expatriation
• A complementary account posits that expatriation has mostly positive
effects on career success but not necessarily as this is viewed from
the traditional corporate-bound career perspective;
• That is, career actors may, upon return, opt to “cash” the human
capital gained by the expatriate experience by means of an interorganizational career move that is seen as providing greater career
gains (Lazarova et al., 2009);
• The implication is that organizations may not have full control over
retaining their repatriates, regardless of the quality of their
expatriation and repatriation management systems;
41
Globalization and careers expatriation
• Both for intra- or inter-organizational career success, a key aspect for
expatriates upon return appears to be proactivity, in particular
(Kraimer et al., 2009):
• Seeking other expatriate assignments with developmental value or in
subsidiaries with strategic importance;
• Actively maintaining and using ones’ social capital in the parent country,
which can provide information on developments back home and can prevent
the «out of sight, out of mind» syndrome;
• Seeking a repatriate position that allows use and recognition of the skills and
experience acquired while abroad;
• Actively engaging social capital for career-related information and support,
and scanning the job market for inter-organizational career moves.
42
Summing up, before going on…
• Contemporary organizations must look at careers both in terms of
human resource management and development;
• Career actors are now less likely to play out their careers in one or a
small number of organization, experience frequent upward mobility
within an organization, feel substantial job security;
• Recent trends depict career actors that are now more responsible,
proactive, interested in challenge, personal and professional
development, seek reduced-workload arrangements, make career
decisions that accommodate their family or personal circumstances,
adjust their timing of retirement to meet lifestyle needs;
43
OB theories
HRM functions
Personality analysis
Individual perception
Race and ethnicity
Career issues
Structure interviews and personality tests to
«match» the right person into right job
Match organizational career prospects with individual
career aspirations in terms of values, opportunities,
diversity, expatriation, etc.
training
Designing orientation and training workshops
for new employees, job redesign and
leadership to encourage informal learning and
change
Support employee career development with “for both
parties” appropriate training in terms of professional
and personal development, leadership, org.
performance, change management, etc.
Organizational socialization and newcomers’ career
development
Rewards
management
Pay systems, bonuses and benefit packages to
maximize individual performance
Link career advancement to appropriate intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards
Link with psychological contract issues
Interview appraisal, pay policy, training policy,
disciplinary policy
Collect data that can support the organization in
managing employees’ career development and
provide employees with adequate feedback about
their actual performance and prospect opportunities
Handling individual and group grievances,
communication of policies, negotiating with
unions
Offer equal career opportunities, late-career workers,
outplacement, work-home needs and negotiation,
etc.
selection
Adult learning
Organizational design
Technological change
Leadership styles
Motivation
Alienation
HRM practices
Motivation
Communication
Psychological contract
Group dynamics
Appraisal
Conflict
Workplace resistance
Groupthink
Employment
relations
Adapted from Sawchuk et al. (2010)
44
References
• Baruch, Y. (2006). Career development in organizations and beyond: balancing traditional and contemporary viewpoints. Human
Resource Management Review, 16, 125-138.
• Baruch, Y., & Altman, Y. (2002). Expatriation and repatriation in MNCs: a taxonomy. Human Resource Management, 41, 239-259.
• Baruch, Y., & Bozionelos, N. (2010). Career issues. In S. Zedeck (ed.), APA handbook of industrial and organizational psychology,
Volume 2: Selecting & developing members for the organization (67-113). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
• Beck, U. (1999). Schone neue arbeitswelt. Vision: weltburgergesellschaft. Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag GmbH.
• Beck Gernsheim, E. (1982). Mannerwelt beruf, frauenwelt familie. Frankfurt am Main: Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag
• Bell, M. P. (2007). Diversity in organizations. Mason: South-Western.
• Bolino, M. C. (2007). Expatriates assignments and intraorganizational career success: implications for individuals and organizations.
Journal of International Business Studies, 38, 819-835.
• Bozionelos, N. (2006). Mentoring and expressive network resources: their relationship with career success and emotional
exhaustion among Hellenes employees involved in emotion work. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 17, 362378.
• Briscoe, J. P., & Finkelstein, L. M. (2009). The “new career” and organizational commitment: Do boundaryless and protean career
attitudes make a difference? Career Development International, 14, 242–260.
• Briscoe, J. P., Hall, D. T., & DeMuth, R. L. F. (2006). Protean and boundaryless careers: an empirical exploration. Journal of
Vocational Behavior, 69, 30-47.
• Brown, W. S. (2005). The new employment contract and the “at risk” worker. Journal of Business Ethics, 58, 195-201.
45
References
• Cakmak-Ototluoglu, K. O. (2012). Protean and boundaryless career attitudes and organizational commitment: the effects of
perceived supervisor support. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80, 638-646.
• Chope, R. C. (2008). Practice and research in career counseling and development – 2007. Career Development Quarterly, 57, 98173.
• Dahlmann, N., Elsner, M., Jeschke, S., Natho, N., & Schroder, C. (2008, June). Gender gap in technological disciplines. Societal
causes and consequences. Paper presented at the IEEE International symposium on technology and society, Fredericton, Canada.
• De Vos, A, De Hauw S., & Van der Heijden, I. J. M. (2011). Competency development and career success: the mediating role of
employability. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79, 438–47
• Dipboye, R. L., & Halverson, S. K. (2004). Subtle (and not so subtle) discrimination in organizations. In R. W. Griffin & A. M. O’LearyKelly (eds.), The dark side of organizational behavior (pp.131-158). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Fugate, M., Kinicki, A. J., & Ashforth, B. E. (2004). Employability: a psycho-social construct, its dimensions, and applications. Journal
of Vocational Behavior, 65, 14-38.
• Gattiker, U. E., & Larwood, L. (1988). Subjective career success: a study of managers and support personnel. Journal of Business
and Psychology, 1, 78-94.
• Greenhaus, J., H., & Kossek, E. E. (2014). The contemporary career: a work-home perspective. Annual Review of Organizational
Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 361-388.
• Greenhaus, J. H., & Powell, G. (2006). When work and family are allies: theory of work-family enrichment. Academy of
Management Review, 31, 77-92.
• Heslin, P. A. (2005). Conceptualizing and evaluating career success. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 113-126.
46
References
• ILO (2009). Laborsta: Database of labour statistics. http://laborsta.ilo.org
• Kossek, E. E., Lirio, P., & Valcour, M. (2013, July). The sustainable workforce: organizational strategies for promoting work-life
wellbeing. Paper presented at the International Conference on Work-Family. Barcelona.
• Kraimer, M. L., Shaffer, M. A., & Bolino, M. (2009). The influence of expatriate and repatriate experiences on career advancement
and repatriate retention. Human Resource Management, 48, 27-47.
• Latham, G. P., & Mann, S. (2006). Advances in the science of performance appraisal: implications for practice. International Review
of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 21, 295-337.
• Lazarova, M., & Taylor, S. (2009). Boundaryless careers, social capital, and knowledge management: implications for organizational
performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30, 119-139.
• Levinson, D. (1978). Seasons of a man’s life. New York: Knof.
• Li, Y., Savage, M., & Warde, A. (2008). Social mobility and social capital in contemporary Britain. British Journal of Sociology, 59,
391-411.
• Lo Presti, A., Manuti, A., & Briscoe, J. P. (under preparation). Homo faber cursus ipsius and viceversa: Could protean and
boundaryless workers be reliable and responsible organizational members?
• Mainiero, L. A., & Sullivan, S. E. (2005). Kaleidoscope careers: an alternative explanation for the opt-out evolution. Academy of
Management Executive, 19, 106-123.
• Moen, P., & Roehling, P. (2005). The career mystique: cracks in the American dream. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
• Newman, K. L. (2011). Sustainable careers: lifecycle engagement in work. Organizational Dynamics, 40, 136-143.
47
References
• Ng, T. W. H., Eby, L. T., Sorensen, K. L., & Feldman, D. C. (2005). Predictors of objective and subjective career success: a metaanalysis. Personnel Psychology, 58, 367-408.
• Penner, A. M. (2008). Race and gender differences in wages: the role of occupational sorting at the point of hire. The Sociological
Quarterly, 49, 597-614.
• Powell, G. N., & Eddleston, K. A. (2008). The paradox of the contended female business owner. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73,
24-36.
• Roth, L. M. (2004). The social psychology of tokenism: status and homophily processes on Wall Street. Sociological Perspectives,
47, 189-214.
• Sawchuk, P., Forshaw, C., Callinan, M., & Corbett, M. (2010). Work & Organizational Behaviour. Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Seibert, S. E., Kraimer, M. L., & Liden, R. C. (2001). A social capital theory of career success. Academy of Management Review, 44,
219-237.
• Sonnenfeld, J. A., Peiperl, M. A., & Kotter, J. P. (1988). Strategic determinants of managerial labor markets: a career system view.
Human Resource Management, 27, 369-388.
• Sullivan, S. E., & Arthur, M. B. (2006). The evolution of the boundaryless career concept: examining physical and psychological
mobility. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 69, 19-29.
• Super, D. E. (1957). The psychology of careers. New York: Harper & Row.
• Thatcher, S. M. B., & Zhu, X. M. (2006). Changing identities in a changing workplace: identification, identity enactment, selfverification, and telecommuting. Academy of Management Review, 31, 1076-1088.
48
References
• Valcour, M., & Ladge, J. J. (2008). Family and career path characteristics as predictors of women’s objective and subjective
career success: integrating traditional and protean career explanations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 73, 300-309.
• Van der Heijde, C. M., & Van der Heijden, B. I. J. M. (2006) a competence-based and multidimensional operationalization
and measurement of employability. Human Resource Management, 45, 449-476.
• Van Emmerik, I. J. H. (2006). Gender differences in the creation of different types of social capital: a multi-level study.
Social Networks, 28, 24-37.
• Zhao, H., Wayne, S. J., Glibkowski, B. C., & Bravo, J. (2007). The impact of psychological contract breach on work-related
outcomes: a meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 60, 647-680.
49