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Memory Improvement To & Memory improvement techniques To psychological research and explain HOW each of these techniques is successful. design and carry out a study into memory improvement Verbal Mnemonic Techniques 1. Acronyms E.g Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain Good when remembering the order of something. 2. An Acrostic e.g. My Easy Method Just Speeds Up Naming Planets. 3. Rhymes e.g. 30 days Hath September… 4. Chunking (e.g. Millers research) Visual imagery mnemonics Some methods use visual images. • Method of Loci – items put in locations in a familiar place Good for visual learners! •Crovitz (1971) better performance than trying to remember by rote. •Yesavage and Rose (1994) the richer the image, the better the memory Visual imagery :Method of Loci (Place it!) • Use a mental image of a place you know well - such as your home - and take a mental walk through the rooms in a set order. Then, put the names from your list one by one into the rooms. • Learn to associate each item on list with one of the locations on your route • To recall the names later you repeat the mental walk. Visual Mnemonics: Peg-word system • Technique used to memorise lists of words • Learn basic organisational structure...... One is a bun Two is a shoe Three is a tree Four is a door Five is a hive Six are sticks Seven is heaven Eight is a gate Nine is a line Ten is a hen Visual Mnemonics: Peg-word system • Learn the list of words by forming a mental image of each word and then ‘hang’ it on one of the pegs Example: you make buns out of eggs (one is a bun= EGGS) 1. Eggs 2. Bread 3. Biscuit 4. Tomatoes 5. Potatoes 6. Cheese 7. Jam 8. Pasta 9. Juice 10. cornflakes Visual Mnemonics: Peg-word system Spider diagrams and mind maps. Making notes of information in the form of a drawing. Small sketches and doodles might be added as well as colours. This process, adds visual cues. Watch the film clip • What Memory Improvement technique is used by Andy and Prof Winstone? • http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9NROegs MqNc Teaching Towers Instructions • 1. Role of organisation • 2. Role of elaborative rehearsal • 3. Dual coding hypothesis 1. 2. 3. Role of organisation Key words Summary sentence Research evidence 4. In groups of three use your info to complete your tower One person now stays with your tower to teach other groups about your topic The others need to split up and visit the other towers to learn another topic each Regroup and teach each other the two new tower topics Check what you have learnt by completing the exam questions Organisation • Organising data we help to make links or associates Bower et al (lab experiment) • Gave ppts 112 words to lean. • Recall was 2-3 times better if the words were presented in an organised hierarchy rather than random. • Our memories naturally organise things making links Elaborative Rehearsal Craik and Tulving (Lab experiment) • E.g. using mneumonics help us to elaborate • Gave ppts words to lear and for each word asked ppts one of three questions • 1. is the word in capitals (shallow processing) • 2. does the word rhyme with….(phonemic processing) • 3 e.g. is the word a fruit (semantic) Group three were best Dual coding Pavio • Suggested that words and images are processed separately (based on the fact that some brain damaged inviduals can process one but not the other). • Concrete words will be remember when doubleencoded once as a word and once as an image. Plenary Exam questions To & Memory improvement techniques To psychological research and explain HOW each of these techniques is successful. design and carry out a study into memory improvement Research Methods Explain how to control extraneous variables Distinguish between directional & non directional hypotheses Construct operationalised hypotheses Name and evaluate three experimental designs To use skills of independent enquiry to design and carry out a study into memory. Key Terms • • • • • • • • • • Counterbalancing Experimental design Independent groups Matched pairs design Order effects Random allocation Repeated measures design Single blind Demand characteristics Investigator effects • • • • • • • Field experiment Natural experiment Natural experiment Independent variable Dependent variable Extraneous variable Confounding variable A03 - How Science Works Observe human behaviour Develop explanations (theory)/hypotheses Test hypotheses Collect results/data Analyse data/graphs/inferential statistics Draw conclusions What is an experiment? A research method in which: • There is an independent variable (IV) manipulated by the researcher . • The effects of the IV on another variable are observed or measured. This variable is called the dependent variable (DV). • The participants are allocated randomly to the conditions. Experimental method PPs revise using concept maps Test of learning Score Test of learning Score Conditions PPs revise using note-taking IV DV Variables “Carrying more bags or sugar makes you run slower”. Extraneous and confounding variables Anything other than the IV that may influence the DV is an extraneous variable. We need to control these. If the dependent variable is influenced then the extraneous variable has become the confounding variable Aims & Hypothesis I can Distinguish between directional & non Directional hypotheses Construct an operationalised hypothesis Aims & Hypotheses Aims: An aim is a general statement of why the study is being carried out. Hypotheses: In psychology a hypothesis is: • A clear statement • A prediction • Testable • Formulated at the beginning of the research process • A hypothesis to test the idea might be: Ps will correctly recall more words in a memory test after learning a list of words by image-linking than Ps who learn the same words via simple rehearsal. Distinguish between directional & non Directional hypotheses Construct an operationalised hypothesis Hypotheses Experimental Hypothesis: Used when using the experimental method Alternative Hypothesis: Used when not using an experimental method e.g questionnaire Null Hypothesis: A null hypothesis predicts that any differences or similarities between the sets of results in an experiment are due to chance alone. • Spot the difference between the following 2 examples of experimental hypotheses: • 1. There will be a difference in the reaction times between p’s who have drunk alcohol and p’s who have drunk water. • 2. The reaction times of p’s who have drunk alcohol will be slower that the reaction times of those p’s who have drunk water. Distinguish between directional & non Directional hypotheses Distinguish between directional & non Directional hypotheses Distinguish between directional & non Directional hypotheses Directional & Non Directional Hypotheses Mini Plenary: Directional & Non Directional? Distinguish between directional & non Directional hypotheses Operationalising a hypothesis Hypotheses must be operationalised- this means writing it in a way that the IV & Dv are defined. To investigate the relationship between social class and intelligence To investigate the relationship between social class as defined by annual family income and intelligence as measured by performance on a standard IQ test TASK Construct and operationalised hypthesis for this “People remember more when they study in short bursts” Construct an operationalised hypothesis Extraneous Variables Explain how to control extraneous variables Control of Extraneous variables Psychologists try to control extraneous variables so that they don’t become confounding variables. Extraneous variables can impact on the internal validity of a study. If they are not controlled they can confound the results because the change in the DV may be due to the extraneous variables rather than IV Explain how to control extraneous variables Caffeine Number of words recalled Explain how to control extraneous variables Caffeine Number of words recalled Explain how to control extraneous variables Caffeine Number of words recalled Explain how to control extraneous variables Controls There are 3 types of variables to control. Participant variables Situational variables Experimenter variables Explain how to control extraneous variables Explain how to control extraneous variables Explain how to control extraneous variables Explain how to control extraneous variables Controls for Situational Variables 1. Standardise – keep everything the same for each participant Standardised Procedure Standardised Instructions Explain how to control extraneous variables Explain how to control extraneous variables Controls for Situational Variables 2. Counterbalance – to reduce effect of situational variables or order effects This “balances” out any order Split the group in half 1 > 2 Group 1 do condition effects. E.g. If you do better Group 2 do condition 2 > 1 on the 2nd test, 50% will do better in Condition 1 and 50% do better in condition 2 Demand Characteristics Refers to situation where participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behaviour accordingly Explain how to control extraneous variables Controls for Demand Characteristics Explain how to control extraneous variables Experimenter Variables The experimenter effect is a term used to describe subtle cues or signals from an experimenter that affect the performance of participants in studies. The cues may be unconscious nonverbal cues, such as muscular tension or gestures. They may be vocal cues, such as tone of voice. Explain how to control extraneous variables Controls for Experimenter Variables Explain how to control extraneous variables Mini Plenary • “Sort it out” Definition The EV they attempt to overcome Single blind Double blind Experimental realism Standardised procedures counterbalancing Explain how to control extraneous variables To describe three types of experimental Methods and give strengths and weaknesses of them. Types of Experiment • Laboratory experiments • Field Experiments • Natural Experiments LAB V FIELD Come up with some strenghts and weaknesses of Lab & Field experiments Strengths and weaknesses of Lab Experiments Well controlled. Permits us to study cause and effect. Confounding variables minimised. Can be replicated (copied/repeated) Ethical Issues Deception Informed consent (is it truly voluntary?) Psychological harm Artificial or contrived. Participants know they are being studied, which is likely to affect their behaviour. (demand characteristics) Investigator may influence results. The setting is not like real life – low in mundane realism. it doesn’t represent real-life experiences e.g. trigrams to test memory Low ecological validity Strengths and weaknesses of Field Experiments Permits us to study cause and effect. Less artificial so have higher ecological validity, (Easier to generalise from results.) Avoids some participant effects (when they are unaware of study) Less control of extraneous variables. More time consuming, so more expensive. Ethical Issues Informed consent Difficulty debriefing Privacy Natural Experiments • The IV has not been deliberately manipulated by the experimenter, so the situation is described as ‘natural’. • This method used when there are IV’s that cannot be manipulated directly for ethical or practical reasons. • Not true experiments – quasi experiments, because IV not changed deliberately to see effect on DV. Strengths and weaknesses of Natural Experiments Allows research where IV cannot be manipulated for ethical or practical reasons e.g. deprivation studies Enables psychologists to study ‘real’ problems e.g the effects of disaster on health – (increased mundane realism and ecological validity) Less chance of demand characteristics or experimenter bias interfering. Cannot demonstrate causal relationships because IV not directly manipulated. Many confounding variables (e.g allocation of participation to groups), threat to internal validity. Can only be used where conditions vary naturally. Participants may be aware of being studied. Ethical Issues Informed consent Confidentiality Experimental Designs I can Name and evaluate three experimental designs Name and evaluate 3 types of experimental designs. Most simple experiments involve 2 conditions – these are 2 versions of the independent variable. e.g. Using words or pictures to learn a list of items. Condition 1 Condition 2 Words Pictures Name and evaluate three experimental designs There are 3 different ways to carry out the experiment with participants. These are known as Experimental Designs. Independent measures design Repeated measures design Matched pairs design Name and evaluate three experimental designs Participants only take part in one condition of the experiment (2 separate groups) Words Pictures Name and evaluate three experimental designs Participants take part in both conditions of the experiment (1 group) Words Pictures Name and evaluate three experimental designs Participants are matched in each condition for characteristics that may have an effect on their performance. e.g. A memory test 2 Name and 1 evaluate three experimental designs 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 Experimental designs Aim: To see if music affects the ability to write the alphabet backwards. What type of experiment will you use? What will the IV be? What will the DV be? What problems are there with each of the experimental designs? How could we overcome the problems? Name and evaluate three experimental designs The colour pink is so awesome... I’m cleverer than her! Name and evaluate three experimental designs They think I’ll remember pictures better than words I got bored the second time … Cat Dog House Counterbalancing In a repeated measures design there may be order effects. This is when they get bored or fatigued from doing a repetitive task. Or they get better in condition 2 because they have had practice. Counterbalancing- split the group in half, half do condition 1 first then condition 2. then the other half do 2 then 1. Name and evaluate three experimental designs Counterbalance – to reduce effect of situational variables or order effects This “balances” out any order Split the group in half 1 > 2 Group 1 do condition effects. E.g. If you do better Group 2 do condition 2 > 1 on the 2nd test, 50% will do better in Condition 1 and 50% do better in condition 2 Name and evaluate three experimental designs Name and evaluate 3 types of experimental designs. Key Terms • • • • • • • • • • Counterbalancing Experimental design Independent groups Matched pairs design Order effects Random allocation Repeated measures design Single blind Demand characteristics Investigator effects • • • • • • • Field experiment Natural experiment Natural experiment Independent variable Dependent variable Extraneous variable Confounding variable