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Peace making 1918-1919. The Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations
WWI ended with the armistice on 11 November 1918. In the West much of the war had been
fought in France and Belgium which led to a devastation of the land. Military losses for Britain
and the empire totaled around 1 million, France it was around 1.4 million and for the USA just
over 100,000. The wounded totaled around 20 million with civilian losses over 6 million, if the
influenza epidemic of 1918-19 was included. There was a lot of ill feeling in 1918 against both
war and Germany.
Treaty of Versailles: This was the peace agreement (treaty) made with Germany
Paris Peace conference. Delegates of 32 states attended. None of the defeated powers
attended, nor did Russia which was in the middle of a civil war. The main decisions were made
by the ‘Big Three’, each had different aims.
AIMS OF THE BIG THREE
1. Georges Clemenceau, President of France
Wanted to Punish Germany. He had seen Germany invade France twice, 1870 & 1914. Was
under great pressure from the public. North-West industry and agriculture virtually ruined. He
wanted to make Germany pay. He wanted revenge. He wanted Germany to be weak and have
no army. Main aim was to gain security for France by preventing another attack on its frontiers.
He wanted to regain Alsace and Lorraine.
2. David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of Britain
David Lloyd George had led Britain to victory and won a very convincing election campaign, he
had used the slogans such as ‘Hang the Kaiser’ and ‘Make Germany Pay’. Lloyd George did not
share the view, he wanted to punish Germany but not too much. He wanted to keep Britain as
having the strongest Navy. He wanted to be able to get trade from Germany. He didn’t want
the Germans to be too angry about the treaty. He was afraid that if Germany was punished too
harshly, the German people may turn to communism. He also realised that Britain depended on
trade for its wealth, so the recovery of German economy was important for Britain. Lloyd
George was the compromise view.
3. Woodrow Wilson, President of America
Wanted to get everyone to agree to his 14 point plan for peace which he had published during
the war. He wanted countries to decide who would govern them. – Self – determination. He
wanted an organisation to keep peace, the League of Nations. He was an idealist. USA had only
been in the war since 1917 and so Wilson did not appreciate the strong feelings against
Germany that existed in France and Britain. Wilson faced problems at home as feelings in
America were becoming increasingly isolationist and so there was no certainty that the USA
would sign the treaty.
Fourteen points:
 End of secret treaties
 Freedom of the seas
 Removal of all custom duties
 Reductions in armies and weapons
 Future of colonies to be decided fairly.
 German troops to leave Russia
 Belgium restored to independence
 Alsace and Lorraine to go back to France
 People of Austria-Hungary to be given independence
 Serbia to be restored
 An independent Poland to be set up with a port.
 The formation of an association to guarantee peace (The League of Nations)
Terms of the Treaty and German reaction
When the peacemakers had finished their discussion at Paris, they went to the Palace of
Versailles. Here, the German delegates were forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles on 28th June
1919.
The first 26 clauses were the covenant of the League. Wilson had insisted on the inclusion of
the League as he thought this would be able to modify some of the extremes of the treaty later.
Term
Land
Detail
On two sides West and East
West: Alsace-Lorraine given back to France
Provinces of Eupen and Malmedy given to Belgium
following Plebiscites.
North Schleswig was transferred to Denmark after a
plebiscite.
Saar coalfields were to be looked after by the League of
Nations for 15 years. After 15 years there was to be a
plebiscite.
East: Independent Poland was restored
West Prussia and Upper Silesia to Poland which divided
Germany into two (Germany split into two by Polish
Corridor)
Port of Danzig was made a free city under the control of
the League of Nations.
Upper Silesia divided between Germany and Poland after a
Plebiscite
German Reaction
 Humiliation
 Millions of German people
living in other countries
 Made Germany poorer
In Europe alone Germany had lost
72,500Km2 of land and between 6
and 7 million people. This was over
10%. 1.5 million German speaking
people in Poland.
Lloyd George argued this would
lead to future people.
This was against the principle of
Self-determination.
The Polish corridor separated
Germany from East Prussia.
Land
Port of Memel was to be ruled by the League. It was taken
by Lithuania in 1923.
All gains from the defeat of Russia were given up, mostly to
Poland, but also to form the independent states of Estonia,
Latvia and Lithuania
German colonies to be looked after the victorious powers
as mandates by the League of Nations.
Union of Austria and Germany was forbidden
Arms
(military)
Army reduced to 100,000 men. Conscription not allowed.
No submarines, no military aircraft and no tanks.
Navy limited to 15000 men and only 6 battleships.
The Rhineland on the border with France was demilitarised (no army allowed). Allied troops were to
occupy the area for 15 years – they had left by 1930.
Money /
£6,600 million was to be paid by Germany.
Reparations Set in 1921, originally given 42 years to pay, amount
reduced in 1929 and stopped being paid in 1933 (Hitler
became leader)
Blame /
Germany accepted blame ‘for causing all the loss and
War guilt
damage’ of the war. Clause 231 of the treaty. Gave Allies a
legal reason for demanding payment of reparations.
This meant Germany could not
defend itself against even small
countries or keep order within
their own country.
Only Germany had disarmed, not
what was set out in fourteen
points.
Difficult as a lot of industry had
been lost during the war and
through the treaty.
Humiliation. The German people
felt they had been blamed for the
actions of the Kaiser. Bad start for
the new government.
The Germans called the Treaty a Diktat. They were not involved in the negotiations and were
forced to sign. They had been given 3 weeks to negotiate but only minor changes were made.
Many Germans, including Hitler, believed that as they had not been involved in the negotiations
they did not have to keep to the terms.
Strengths
Brought peace to Europe
Set up League of Nations to keep
peace
Weaknesses
Germany had lots of grievances
Contradicted the 14 point plan
Wilson put too much faith in the League of Nations
Lead to future problems when Germany recovered
America didn’t join the league or signed the treaty
A weak treaty as one of the big 3 didn’t sign it!
The League of Nations
Aims
 Avoid secret alliances
 Control arms to prevent arms race
 Collective security
Membership.
It was presumed that most of the victorious countries would join the League as its aims were to
prevent future wars. USA did not sign the treaty and therefore could not join the League as it
was part of the treaty. Germany had not been allowed to join until it could be seen as a
peaceful nation. Russia was not invited to join and so it was regarded as a ‘League of Victors’. A
bad start for the League.
At start main members were: France, Britain, Italy (left in 1937), Japan (left in 1933) Germany
joined 1926-39, Russia joined 1934. America never joined
Strongest Nations in League were Britain and France
Organisation of the League
Assembly Every member had a vote. Met once a year about new members and changing treaties.
All decisions had to be Unanimous (everyone vote in favour)
Council – 4 permanent members (GB, Fr,It &Japan) 4 non-permanent elected every three years.
Aim to solve disputes between states. If any country was considered to have started a war by an
act of aggression, then that war became the concern of all the countries in the League who would
take action against the aggressor.
Could act in 3 ways. Moral Condemnation (country asked to stop aggressive action).Economic
Sanctions stop trade, & Military Force send in an army made up of contributions from the Nations
in the League.
Permanent Court of Justice
15judges in The Hague in the Netherlands, dealt with disputes over international law but it had
no means of enforcing its decisions. It depended on the goodwill of the members.
Manchurian Crisis - In the 1930s there was a world-wide economic depression. Japan had an
increasing population and because of the depression caused by the Wall Street crash there was
increased poverty and unrest in Japan.
Japan had soldiers in Manchuria guarding the South Manchurian railway.
In 1932, the Japanese army invaded Manchuria because they claimed the Chinese had attacked
the Manchurian railway. Chinese at Mukden were quickly defeated. Japan set up their own
government there and called it Manchukuo.
China asked the League to help.
The League sent a group of officials led by Lord Lytton to study the problem (this took a year),
it was called the Lytton Commission. Japan was found to be the aggressor and ordered to
leave Manchuria. Japan reorganised Manchuria and claimed that Manchukuo was an
independent state. It was in fact a puppet government.
By late 1933 Japan occupied the whole of Manchuria, the league formally condemned Japan’s
actions. Japan refused to leave Manchuria. Instead, Japan left the League. Later it occupied
another Chinese province, Jehol.
Many countries had important trading links with Japan and Japan was seen as a useful ally
against the expansion of the USSR in the Far East. The League could not agree on sanctions
or even a ban on weapons sales. Britain and France did not want a war, so nothing was done.
Russia was the closest country to help but was not in the League.
The Japanese stayed in Manchuria. – League Failed
Why was the failure in Manchuria important?
It showed the importance of America. Without it economic sanctions would rarely work.
The leaders of Italy and Germany had seen the failure and saw that the League was not as
strong as it made out.
It showed the selfish interests of Britain and France. Neither would send a force into
Manchuria.
Abyssinian Crisis
Italy had joined in WWI in 1915 as an ally of Britain and France. Italy was unhappy with the
peace settlements as it did not receive as much land as the Allies had promised. The
government had become unpopular and Benito Mussolini had seized power.
Mussolini got ready to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia). He wanted war and glory. It was next to
the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland. It has attempted to invade in 1896 but had
been defeated at the Battle of Adowa.
The Manchurian Crisis had given Mussolini the impression that the league would not resist as
act of aggression by a major power.
In 1935 the Stresa Front was formed between Britain, France and Italy which opposed
Germany’s aims to change the Treaty of Versailles. France gave Italy the impression they
would not oppose him in Abyssinia.
December 1934 a clash occurred between Italian and Abyssinian soldiers at Wal-Wal.
Abyssinia asked the League to help. Mussolini built up his forces in Italian Somaliland.
British public were in favour of using the League to maintain peace and the foreign secretary,
Hoare, made a speech in support of collective security.
The League talked to Mussolini – but he used the time to send an army to Africa.
The League suggested a plan to give part of Abyssinia to Italy.
Mussolini ignored the League, and invaded Abyssinia in October 1935.
Sanctions needed to be introduced at once. The League banned weapons sales
immediately, but only placed limited sanctions as the countries of the League were selfish.
Britain still traded coal, France still traded Steel.
Britain and France did not want to lose Mussolini’s alliance against Hitler.
Britain and France could have stopped Italy by closing the Suez Canal to Italian ships – they
chose to keep it open to maintain friendship.
Clear examples of selfish interests of Britain and France failing the League.
The Abyssinian Emperor, Haile Selassie, went to the League to ask for help, but it did nothing
else – in fact Britain and France secretly agreed to give Abyssinia to Italy (known as the HoareLaval Pact). When news of this agreement was leaked it was so unpopular that it had to be
dropped. Hoare was forced to resign.
Italy conquered Abyssinia
The League had failed.
Effect of the Abyssinian Crisis
Italy walked out of the League in 1936 and two months later sanctions were withdrawn,
The crisis marked the end of the League as a peace keeping force. Other means needed to be
found to maintain peace.
Hitler had taken advantage and sent troops into the Rhineland.
It saw the end of the Stresa front.
1936 Rome-Berlin Axis was signed, which ended the hopes of France and Britain to keep Italy as
an ally against Germany. Japan joined this in 1937 and it became the Anti-Comitern Pact.
Europe was clearly dividing into two opposing sides
Weaknesses of the League
 Membership – USA never joined. Britain and France more concerned with their own
affairs
 Each member of the council had a veto which stopped many decisions going ahead.
 No standing Army and so no way of using Military Force
 Economic sanctions would only work with the agreement of the USA as it was the
world’s largest trading power.
 The Treaty of Versailles was to be upheld by the league but it was seen as unfair by
many nations
 Decisions from the league took too long. (e.g. Manchurian Crisis)
 Countries could leave the League if it opposed what they were doing.
 It allowed Adolf Hitler to fight against the Treaty successfully.
Reason for failure of the League
Membership of the League: the absence of the
USA, exclusions, defections of major powers.
Lack of full support given by France & Britain.
Example:
Japan and Italy left so there were only three Great
Powers left (France, Britain and Russia)
Hoare Laval Pact. Secret pact to give two thirds of
Abyssinia to Italy.
Lack of power to enforce decisions: weakness of
They didn’t have an army to send into Abyssinia or
moral persuasion, economic sanctions, lack of
Manchuria. Economic sanctions were limited
army
because of self-interest.
The unfairness of the Treaty of Versailles, which
Hitler took advantage and sent troops into the
the league had to uphold
Rhineland which was supposed to be demilitarised.
Countries were more interested in their own
They wanted to keep a steady income from exports
good rather than the international situation, so
so gave things to Italy such as coal from Britain and
acted out of self-interest
iron and steel from France.
The depression of the 1930s made countries even All countries were suffering from economic
more inward looking and competitive rather than depression so didn’t want to get involved in
working for the good of all
international crises such as the Manchurian war as
it would affect economy.
Decisions took too long
The Lytton commission took a year to decide if the
Manchurian crisis was wrong.
The Manchurian Crisis
Italy and Germany were watching and saw
weakness in the League.
The Abyssinian Crisis
It allowed Hitler to get his troops into the
Rhineland and it also ended the Stresa Front
(friendship between France, Britain and Italy)