Download Unification

Liberalism & Nationalism
The Unifications of Italy and
Germany
Congress of Vienna
1814 and 1815
• Met to redraw the map of Europe prior to the
Napoleonic Era
What is Conservatism?
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Obedience to political authority
Organized religion was essential to social order
Hated revolutionary chaos
Not accepting of liberal demands for civil liberties
and representative government
• Not accepting of Nationalism
• Community took precedence over individual
rights
• Tradition was the best guide for order
Famous Conservatives
• Sir Edmund Burke is considered the “father”
of conservatism. This is evident in his 1790
response to the French Revolution titled
Reflections on the Revolution in France.
“The state was a partnership but one not only
between those who are living, but between
those who are living, those who are dead, and
those who are to be born.”
Edmund Burke
Sir Edmund Burke (1790)
Reflections on the Revolution in France
The CONSERVATIVE
response to the French
Revolution (Burke- An
Englishman)
Famous Conservatives
• Joseph de Maistre was a counterrevolutionary
during the French Revolution. He was an
authoritarian conservative that argued for the
restoration of a hereditary monarchy
(considered divine right of kings); only an
absolute monarch could guarantee “order in
society.”
The Personalities- “The Big Four”
aka- The Concert of Europe
• The “Big Four” included Austria, Great Britain,
Prussia, and Russia
• Austria was represented by Klemens von
Metternich who was considered the leader of
the Congress of Vienna
– He was the epitome of conservative reactionism;
he resisted change and was unfavorable to liberals
and reformers
The Personalities- “The Big Four”
• Great Britain was represented by Lord
Castlereagh.
– Objective was to achieve a balance of power on
the continent by surrounding France with larger
and stronger states
• Prussia was represented by Karl von
Hardenberg
– Objective was to recover Prussian territory lost to
Napoleon in 1807 and gain additional territory in
Saxony (Northern Germany)
The Personalities- “The Big Four”
• Russia was represented by Czar Alexander I
– He fluctuated between liberal and reactionary
views; main objective was to create a “free” and
“independent” Poland with himself as king
• France was represented by Perigod Talleyrand
– He was France’s foreign minister and was not
initially included in early deliberation, but he
became a mediator when the interests of Prussia
and Russia clashed with Great Britain and Austria
thus bringing France in as a principle power
Principles of Settlement
• Legitimacy– Metternich’s idea of legitimacy meant returning
power to the ruling families deposed by
revolutionary warfare.
– Bourbon rulers restored in France, Spain, Naples
– Dynasties restored in Holland, Sardinia, Tuscany,
Modena
– Papal States returned to the Pope
• Compensation-Territorially rewarding those
states that sacrificed the most to stop
Napoleon
– Great Britain received naval bases in Malta,
Ceylon, and Cape of Good Hope
– Austria recovered Italian provinces of Lombardy
and awarded Venetia, Galicia, and the Illyrian
Provinces
– Russia was given most of Poland, Finland, and
Bessarabia
– Prussia was awarded Rhineland, three-fifths of
Saxony (Northern Germany), and a portion of
Poland
– Sweden was given Norway
• Create a Balance in Power- arranging Europe so
no country could upset international order and
cause general war (Napoleonic Wars)
– Created Kingdom of United Netherlands (included
Holland and Belgium) on northern border of France
– Creation of Germanic Confederation to replace
Napoleon’s Confederation of the Rhine with Prussia
gaining control of the Rhine River on eastern border
with France
– Switzerland received a guarantee of perpetual
neutrality
– Sardinia having its former territory of Piedmont
restored with the addition of Genoa
Enforcement Provisions
Created the Concert of Europe which mainly
consisted of Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and
Austria
1. Enforce the status quo
2. Great Britain defined “concerted action” as the
great powers meet to solve problems as it arose
so that no state would act unilaterally and
independently of the other great powers
3. Austria defined “concerted action” as the great
powers defending against any change or threat
to the status quo by liberal or national ideasthese were unhealthy for the body politic
Boundaries after the Congress of Vienna 1815
http://www.the-map-ashistory.com/demos/tome01/TheCongress-of-Vienna-1814-1815.php
Ideologies and the ISMs
Ideology is a body of doctrine, myth, etc., with
reference to some political and social plan, as
that of fascism, along with the devices for
putting it into operation.
Romanticism
• Romanticism was a reaction against the
Enlightenment (included classicism,
rationalism, and deism) of the 18th Century.
• Roots of Romanticism began in Germany, but
spread throughout Europe
• Strongest between 1800-1850
William Wordsworth
French Revolution 1848
• Liberalism- first major theory to argue the
individual is a self-sufficient being whose
freedom and well-being are the sole reason
for the existence of society
Thomas Malthus
David Ricardo
• Conservatism- rose in reaction to liberalism
and became a popular alternative to the
violence and terror unleashed during the
French Revolution
Klemens von Metternich
Sir Edmund Burke
• Nationalism- raising the level of consciousness
of people having commonalities in language,
history, soil, traditions, culture, and a shared
human experience to seek political unity
• Socialism- reaction to the Industrial
Revolution and laissez-faire economics;
movement to address the social and economic
injustices of the rich against the poor
Revolutions of 1848
Causes for revolution1. Severe food shortages caused by poor
harvests (Irish Potato Famine)
2. Financial crisis due to downturn in the
commercial and industrial economy
3. Business failures
4. Frustration by the urban artisan and working
class due to lower wages; poor living
conditions in cities
5. Widespread unemployment
6. Middle class dominance with unregulated
economy pushed liberals to fight for civil
liberties and to reform government
7. Nationalism in the Germanies and Italies to
overthrow existing governments
Where Are These 1848
Revolutions?
1.
2.
3.
4.
France
Italy
Austria (Vienna, Bohemia, Hungary)
Prussia and the German Confederation
Revolutions of 1848
Why Did These Revolutions Fail?
1. They were spontaneous movements which
lost popular support as the people lost
enthusiasm.
2. They were urban movements, which were
nullified by conservative landowners and
peasants.
3. The middle class, who led the revolutions,
came to fear the radicalism of their working
class allies.
4. Divisions among national groups, and the
willingness of one nationality to deny rights
to other nationalities (destroyed movements
in Eastern Europe)
Were There Any Positives?
1. Universal male suffrage in France
2. Abolished serfdom in Austria and the
German states
3. Parliaments established in Prussia and
German States
4. Determination by Prussia and PiedmontSardinia to succeed in unification schemes
ITALIAN UNIFICATION
Revolutions of 1848
Italy
Italian Nationalist Leaders
• King Charles Albert
• Giuseppe Mazzini (the Carbonari & Young Italy)
• Giuseppe Garibaldi (follower of Mazzini)
Actions of 1848
• Several revolutions occurred throughout
1848-49; most were separate from each other
without any agreed plan
1. Sicily
2. Naples
3. Milan
4. Venice
5. Piedmont
6. Rome
Sicily & Naples
• Both were regions governed by Ferdinand II
• At the beginning most rioters were middle
class (landowners)
• As the violence increased peasant and
townspeople joined the protests and invaded
estates of landowners
• Middle class/landowners only sought reforms
for themselves, and abandoned the cause
Austrian Rule
• Austria had control of Milan, Venice,
Piedmont
• Piedmont led the charge in trying to defeat
the Austrians and push them out of Italy
• However the Austrian army was too strong
and defeated Piedmont. Austria maintained
control of Northern Italy
Rome
• Pope Pius IX controlled Rome at this time; he attempted to quell
the angry masses by appointing Pellegrino Rossi (he was
assassinated)
• Pope refused to join fighting against Austria because it was a
Catholic country
• Pope fled Rome; extremists took control
• A new republic was established with Mazzini as one of its leaders
• France seizes and opportunity to defend the Church and weaken
Austria
• The new Roman Republic is defeated with France taking control
of Rome
Outcomes of 1848 in Italy
1. Italy could not free itself from foreign control
2. Activities of the masses needed control;
peasants in the north and even south lost
faith in the nationalists and wanted Austrian
control
3. Republicans such as Mazzini and Garibaldi had
been discredited and would have to work to
gain future support
4. The Pope was a powerful political figure; the
question of Rome would have to handled very
carefully
The Italian Unification
(Risorgimento)
• The Italian peninsula had been split in many small
states for centuries.
• In the mid-19th century, the Kingdom of PiedmontSardinia was the strongest north Italian state.
• Although, there were some revolutionary and
nationalist attempts of the Carbonari & Young Italy
by the early 19th century to unite Italy, Italy stayed
divided between Austria, France, Papal states and
many small Italian states.
• Guiseppe Mazzini and Guiseppe Garibaldi were
two important names of the Italian Carbonari
movement, Mazzini working with his pen and
Garibaldi with his sword for the unification.
• The Piedmontese prime minister Count Camillo
Cavour allied with Napoléon III of France in 1859
and provoked Austria into war.
• In April 1859, Austria attacked Piedmont-Sardinia.
France joined with Piedmont-Sardinia in the fight.
• Franco-Piedmontese armies defeated the
Austrian army on June 4, 1859 at the Battle of
Magenta in Lombardy.
• The French army led by Emperor Napoléon III and
the Piedmontese army led by king Victor
Emmanuel II defeated the Austrian army led by
Emperor Francis Joseph at the Battle of Solferino
on June 21, 1859.
• Piedmont-Sardinia gained from the defeated
Austria the region of Lombardy.
• In March 1860, the citizens of Tuscany and
Romagna regions and cities of Parma, Modena,
Bologna voted for union with the Kingdom of
Sardinia-Piedmont.
• France accepted these annexations in return for
Nice and Savoy.
• In 1861, the irregular forces of the Italian
nationalist Garibaldi and the Piedmontese army
of Victor Emmanuel II invaded all Southern Italy
and annexed it to the Kingdom of SardiniaPiedmont.
• On February 18, 1861, Victor Emmanuel was
crowned as King of Italy in Turin.
Attention
Rome, the capital of the Papal States, and
Venetia, occupied by Austria, were not yet part of
the united Italy.
• The Kingdom of Italy joined with Prussia against
Austria in 1866. Although Austria defeated Italy,
Austria’s defeat in front of Prussia enforced
Austria to cede Venetia region to Italy.
• When Napoléon III’s France, protector of the
Papal States, was defeated by Prussian led
German alliance, Italy invaded Rome on
September 20, 1870, making it the capital.
• These two
unification.
annexations
completed
Italy’s
Guiseppe Mazzini
• Member of the Carbonari
• Established Young Italy
• Wrote about revolution and an
unified Italian Republic
• Goals:
– Eliminate Austria’s domination
– Overthrow Italian tyrants
– Unite Italy as a liberal and
democratic republic
Guiseppe Garibaldi
• Member of the Carbonari and
follower of Mazzini
• He and the Red Shirts were
responsible for liberating
southern Italy
• Wanted a democratic republic,
but more importantly a unified
Italy
• He had to compromise with
Cavour for a unified Italy, but it
would be under a constitutional
monarchy
Count Camillo Cavour
“Unifier of Italy”
• Believed in liberal ideas, traveled
to Great Britain and Franceadmired their constitutional
governments
• 1852-Appointed by Victor
Emmanuel II as Piedmont’s
Prime Minister
• Goal: unite Northern Italy as a
liberal constitutional monarchy
ruled by the House of Savoy
Cavour’s Domestic
Accomplishments
• Created a balanced budget
• Established banks
• Built railroads, factories, ports
*Piedmont becomes a prosperous and
progressive state under Cavour’s leadership
Cavour’s Foreign Policy
Accomplishments
• Gains Lombardy and eventually Venetia from
Austria
• Secretly supports Garibaldi’s march through
southern Italy
• Annexes the Papal States/Rome from the
French (Rome would still be controlled by the
Pope). This was done to keep Austria and
France from interfering
• Convinces Garibaldi to agree to a
constitutional monarchy of a united Italy.
• March 17, 1861 King Victor Emmanuel II
becomes king of a united Italy
• Final unification will occur after the FrancoPrussian War-Italy will gain Venetia (Venice)
and Rome (1870)
German Unification
1848-49 Revolutions in the
German Kingdoms/States
Middle Class
• Freedom of Press
• Jury Trials
• Representation in
government
• Establish a united
Germany as a republic
Lower Class
• Lacked food due to poor
harvests
• Much like the British
Luddites, German
craftsmen and skilled
laborers destroyed new
machines
• Various German states granted concessions;
however Prussia tries to suppress uprisings
• The suppression led to more violence; king
promises to introduce a new liberal
constitution
• Some were even calling for a united Germany
which would strengthen the region’s economy,
political structure, and international standing
Frankfurt Parliament (Assembly)
This was created to represent all Germans
1. More debates than actual reforms
2. Needed to decide if Austria should be
included in a united Germany
Grossdeutschland or Kleindeutschland
3. Should a united Germany be a republic or
monarchy
4. Would all German areas be included?
Frankfurt Parliament had only minority support
• Violence broke out from republic supporters
• Mini-parliaments emerged in the smaller
German states
• Junkers feared tax exemptions and land would
be taken
• 1849 Frankfurt Parliament created a
constitutional monarchy and offered it to
Prussia’s Friedrich Wilhelm IV. He refuses.
“…shaped out of dirt and dregs of
revolution, disloyalty, and treason.”
• This ends hope of unification under the
Frankfurt Parliament
Debate continues over what a
united Germany would look like…
Grossdeutschland
-“big Germany”
-Includes Austria in
a unified Germany
Kleindeutschland
-“little Germany”
- Austria would not
be included in a
united Germany
Realpolitik
German Unification
• The Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck reorganized the Prussian might in the 1860s. He was
a German nationalist believing in the Realpolitik.
• Prussia was the leader of the Zollverein formed
between 38 German states of the German
Confederation since 1838 and had some crucial
strengths in the Europe of the mid-19th century,
such as:
- Prussia possessed a very high level of primary
and technical education, an impressive university
and scientific establishment and very good
research institutes and chemical laboratories for
its times.
- Prussia had a unique military short-service
system for its armed forces which involved 3 years
obligatory service in the active regular army, then
another 4 years service in the reserve army
before each able-bodied man passed into the
“Landwehr (territorial army)”. No substitutes were
permitted (which was not the case for the other
European nations!).
Attention
This system gave Prussia a far larger front-line
army relative to its population.
- The Prussian general staff carefully studied its
past mistakes and readjusted the Prussian army’s
training, organization, mobilization (through the
railway system) and weapons accordingly.
- The Prussian general staff taught its generals to
move and fight independently at war using their
initiatives but being always ready to converge
upon the scene of the decisive battle.
http://www.age-of-the-sage.org/quotations/bismarck_blood_iron.html
Thanks to these advantages and
Bismarck’s skills in statesmanship,
Prussia accomplished the Unification
of Germany through three military
successes.
1. against Denmark
2. against Austria
3. against France.
Prussia vs. Denmark
• Prussia, allying with Austria, defeated
Denmark in the Second Schleswig War in 1864
and gained the Schleswig-Holstein region first
as a joint Austro-Prussian possession and then
excluded Austria from these provinces.
Austro-Prussian War
(German Civil War or Seven Weeks War)
• Prussia soundly defeats Austria at the battle of
Koniggratz (July 1866)
• Peace of Prague (August 1866)
– Austria would not be part of any new German
state. The Kleindeutsch plan prevailed over the
Grossdeutsch plan
– Venetia would be ceded to Italy
– Austria would pay an indemnity to Prussia
Attention
The Austro-Prussian War of 1866 resulted in the
dissolution of the German Confederation, the
exclusion of Austria from German affairs, the
creation of North German Confederation led by
Prussia and the annexation of Hanover, HesseKassel, Nassau and Frankfurt by Prussia, however,
Austria was not invaded nor humiliated by Prussia.
Bismarck wanted to keep it as a useful future ally.
Area in red is the North German
Confederation
Franco-Prussian War 1870-1871
• The annexation of almost all Northern Germany
by Prussia affected the European balance of
power and irritated the French Empire led by
Napoléon III (nephew of Napoléon I and Emperor
of the French, 1852-1870).
• Bismarck was determined to achieve the
unification of Germany against the will of France,
if necessary with “blood and iron”.
• In 1870, when the Spanish crown was offered to a
Hohenzollern (royal family of Prussia) prince, the crisis
arose and France declared war to Prussia on July 19, 1870.
– Ems Telegram also contributed to the ire of the French
and Napoleon III.
• At the Battle of Sedan, on September 2, 1870, the French
army was defeated by German armies and Napoléon III
was taken prisoner.
A drawing of Bismarck conversing with Napoleon III after the latter’s capture at the Battle of
Sedan September 2, 1870.
• On September 4, 1870, the Second French Empire
(1852-1870) of Napoléon III ended and the third
Republic was founded in France.
• After the following defeats of the French forces,
the King of Prussia Wilhelm I was crowned as
German Emperor (Kaiser) in the Galerie des
Glaces/Spiegelsaal/Hall of Mirrors in Versailles, on
January 18, 1871.
Attention
Bismarck thus largely created in 1871, the
Prussian led German Empire, at the exclusion of
Austria.
The foundation of the German Empire
(Second Reich, 1871-1918)
• Emperor Wilhelm I and
Prince von Bismarck in
Versailles
hailing
the
creation of the German
Empire (Reichsgründung),
January 18, 1871.
The German Empire 1871-1918
Treaty of Frankfurt (May 10,1871)
• The defeated France signed the Peace Treaty of
Frankfurt on May 10,1871, agreeing upon ceding
Alsace-Lorraine (Elsass-Lothringen) to the newlycreated German Empire.
• France accepted also to pay a war indemnity of 5
billion francs to Germany and German troops
remained in parts of France until the last
installment was paid off in September 1873.
Attention
•
The loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany,
embittered Franco-German relations and created
a French revanchisme (revenge) for decades to
come, contributing to the European rivalries
which would erupt in World War I.
•
As a result of the French defeat, the Papal
States, no longer under French protection, were
seized (September 20, 1870) by the young Italian
kingdom, completing the unification of that
country.
That’s a Wrap
http://history1800s.about.com/od/leaders/a/bismarckbio.htm
Liberal vs. Conservative
Cavour
• Liberal
• Sincere nationalist
• United Italy as a liberal
constitutional-monarchy
Bismarck
• Conservative
• Prussian patriot
• Loyal to the Hohenzollern
family (Wilhelm I)
• Primary goal was to
enhance Prussian power by
establishing dominance
over a new German state