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CHAPTER 26 1. What is the difference between a “repertoire” and a “canon”? How does this distinction apply to Puccini? The “repertoire” consists of music that is regularly performed and enjoys an enduring popularity with audiences. The “canon” is the collection of musical works considered to be advanced, serious, and worthy of study (by historicists). Since the late nineteenth century, the two have diverged considerably, and nowhere is this more apparent than in the reception history of Puccini. Puccini’s operas are very popular repertoire items, but since his style is not progressive in the way traditionally valued in German-centric, historicist scholarship, he has not won a place in the canon. 2. Define “Orientalism,” and describe some cultural reasons for its popularity. What musical techniques are used to represent the exotic in Bizet’s Carmen and in other operas? In which countries did “Orientalism” prove to be most attractive? “Orientalism” refers to the Western representation of non-Western people in a way that emphasizes exotic difference, foregrounding the contrast between “us” (Europeans) and “them” (“Others”). As a cultural outgrowth of colonialism, orientalism allowed Europeans to symbolically control their colonial subjects through portrayals that were ethnocentric and condescending. It was thus a fitting ideological counterpart to imperialistic adventures around the globe. Further, orientalism was a consequence of repression: It allowed Europeans to subvert the social norms in a safe context (e.g., lurid representations of sex and violence were acceptable so long as the culprits were sufficiently Other). Musical orientalism was most popular in France and Russia. Orientalism is expressed musically through techniques that mark a character or situation as Other. For instance, in Carmen, the title character is given Spanish and Latin American dance forms (habanera and seguidilla, specifically) and hyper-chromatic melodies that suggest excess and uncontained sexuality. Russian operas such as Borodin’s Prince Igor are marked with orientalist melodic undulations, chromatic passing tones, prominent rhythms, and orchestration (particularly the English Horn, with its “snake-charmer’s pipe” connotations). 3. What is opéra lyrique, and how did it differ from grand opéra and opéra comique? Opéra lyrique is a French genre that employs reduced dramatic forces and focuses on characterization through melodies reminiscent of popular song. Its main practitioner is Charles Gounod. The genre differs from grand opéra in scale (it calls for fewer characters and less complex structures), style (more comedic elements and influence from domestic songs and ballroom dances), and topics (less emphasis on epic historical narratives). It also differs from opéra comique, a one-act style that mixes spoken dialogue with music (i.e., no accompanied recitative) and revolves around farcical topics. 4. What is operetta? In what countries did it flourish, and who were its main composers? How did operettas parody serious opera? Operettas are one-act “little operas” with frivolous, satirical storylines. Unlike the other major genres of European opera at the time, the operetta includes spoken dialogue. It flourished in France, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and England, and its representative composers include Jacques Offenbach, Johann Strauss, and Gilbert and Sullivan. Operettas parody serious opera by playfully mocking its conventions and tropes. For example, Offenbach’s Orphée aux enfers draws on the most classic of operatic premises (the Orpheus myth) only to poke fun and end with a garish cancan. Gilbert and Sullivan wrote enormously popular spoofs of major serious operas that include ridiculous contrapuntal writing and “patter song” (a parody of opera buffa). 5. What is verismo as a literary movement? How do verismo operas such as Pagliacci reflect the realistic aims of the movement? Verismo, or “truthism,” is an Italian literary movement that aimed for emotional directness, stylistic simplicity, and human-scale stories, often involving contemporary characters and situations (including the lower classes). Its principle leader, Giovanni Verga, strove to present a journalistic reading of his topics: “just the facts” without any bias or subjective, authorial guidance. (This strategy of artless simplicity is highly manipulative, of course.) The movement is reflected in verismo operas such as Pagliacci, which features the titillating story of a jealous, murderous husband. The brutal conclusion is meant to shock, but no ethical judgments or social critiques are forthcoming from the composer (remember, verismo is meant to give the audience “nothing but the facts”). The opera depicts lower class life (in an orientalizing manner), and its music is non-virtuosic. Realism is further exemplified by the lack of melodic repetitions in certain solo numbers, which gives the impression that the character is singing ad lib. 6. Discuss Puccini’s effective use of local color and reminiscence motifs in Madama Butterfly, especially in the aria “Un bel dì.” The first act of Madama Butterfly incorporates Japanese folk songs (set in the characteristic pentatonic scale) to add local color. Further, Puccini quotes the opening phrases of “The StarSpangled Banner,” since orientalism is built on contrast (i.e., the East is only exotic in relation to the West). Later on, the composer makes effective use of reminiscence motifs in the opera’s signature aria, “Un bel dì.” The opening phrase, in which the title character fantasizes about the eventual return of her American husband, returns at the end of the aria in a triumphant treatment. This metamorphosis is helped along by the orchestra, which steps in to fill out the melody. This tune appears throughout the rest of the opera to remind the audience both of Chô-San’s false hopes and of her impending doom.