Download black colour in architecture and built environment

BLACK COLOUR IN ARCHITECTURE AND BUILT ENVIRONMENT
JUSTINA TARAJKO-KOWALSKA
Cracow Univeristy of Technology, Faculty of Architecture
[email protected]
Abstract
Japanese philosophy says that the aesthetic value of achromatic colors - as black - is perceived only by those who can
contemplate the beauty and richness of other colors. Black is in fact seen as a negative presence of color, because there is
no true black without deprivation of the light. Black is the absence of hue and light through which often symbolizes the
negative values. Associated with depth and darkness, evil and death, isolates from external factors. But at the same time
e.g. in the European tradition, black has extraordinary power of attraction, becoming, especially in the second half of the
twentieth century, the color of power, elegance and luxury. In architecture solid black façade fnish isn’t a typical choice,
however there are some traditions of using black color in architecture and some regions where it’s used more often than
in others. e.g. China, Japan, England, Denmark, Te Netherlands. In contemporary built environment one can observe
increasing interest of black color use, which gives uniform, compact, heavy and sculpture-like appearance of the
buildings. Modern materials and façade technologies make achieving glossy and deep shades of black possible, difcult
to reach in plaster. Examples of black buildings – traditional and modern, big and small, landmarks and symbols as well
as just good designed will be presented, together with material solutions for them. Black buildings are fashionable and
trendy – like a “black pearl” or “black diamond” – precious and desirable…
Keywords
Black, Symbolism, Traditions
Introduction
Black is a specifc achromatic colour, which is perceived by man due to great absorption of light by a given
area, or illumination so low, that it does not stimulate visual perception. Tis is why it is often associated with
the concept of darkness – the lack of light. According to Berlin and Kay (Berlin, Kay, 1969), in the languages
with the least developed nomenclature there are only two defnitions: black (which also means dark – cold)
and white (bright – warm). In Polish, the adjective “czarny” means that with the darkest possible colour and
absorbing all light rays falling upon it, as well as illegal, dark, pessimistic. Te black colour has many
meanings, which are often ambivalent. Te negative associations such as evil-devil, vileness, death, mourning,
impurity, appear simultaneously not only with humility, modesty, and abandonment of life’s pleasures, but
also with elegance, dignity, luxury, power, and law.
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Black colour architectural traditions
Te black colour has been used by man in arts and architecture from the earliest times. Beside red, yellow, and
white, this colour was used in the paintings of the Palaeolithic, including the famous Lascaux cave. According
to Empedocles, these four colours also formed the basis for the palette of Greek painters (Rzepińska: 1989).
Te frst works applied charcoal, while successive black colourings with greater depth and expressiveness were
produced from burned animal bones (so-called bone black), and from the grinding of psilomelane crystals or
other oxide minerals of manganese MnO 2 (so-called manganese black) (Pastoreau: 2008).
Black was also the favourite colour in the interior decoration of ancient Greece, which is evidenced in the
preserved historic monuments and the treatises of Vitruvius, who dedicated chapter 10 of volume VII of his
work on architecture to methods of producing and applying black dyes, acquired mainly from the soot of oils,
kerosene, tar, etc. burned without the access of air (lampblack) (Witruwiusz: 2004). Te popularity of black in
interior decoration was also dominant among ancient Romans, whose sources for the production of black
dyes included grapevines. Tis pigment, which was acquired from the carbonisation of plant tissue, cork, or
seeds, was referred to in Medieval Europe as nigrum optimum – optimal black.
Te traditional relations with the black colour in architecture can also be found in the cultures of the Far
East.
In Japan, black is the colour of Yin in the Yin-Yang theory. Yin is dark, heavy, and passive, symbolising soil
and water, as well as the Earth. Dark colours are often seen in the Japanese architecture due to the wood
commonly used in traditional construction, as it was often charred by fre for better protection from insects.
Te roof tiles of traditional houses are also often dark grey or black. Te contemporary buildings are more
colourful, but in many cities, e.g. Kyoto, the general palette continues to be dominated by dark and dim
shades, as well as black, which visibly contrasts with the white of shoji – the traditional windows made from
white rice paper (Lenclos: 2004). Today’s buildings sometimes refer to this tradition, including the Black Slit
House (THREE.BALL.CASCADE architecture) in Okayama City, Villa SSK by Takeshi Hirobe
Architects, Chiba1, or House O by Jun Igarashi Architects in Hokkaido from 2011.
In China, the black colour is associated with water, which is one of the so-called fve elements, which,
according to the Teory of Five Phases (or Five Elements), co-create the entire environment of human life,
and interact under various combinations. It is associated with cold and winter, the northern direction, and is
represented by the black tortoise. Terefore, the presence of black in architecture, particularly in traditional
houses, is not surprising (Lee: 2012).
Te black colour also plays a vital role in the tradition of Islam. Tis is the primary colour in the three-colour
system, and it is associated with active energy, Saturn, the prophet Adam, and the metal lead. Tis is the
colour of Al-Kaba, al-Kaaba (Arabic: cube, dice) – the temple and sanctuary in Mecca, the most important
Islamic holy place, the spiritual centre of the Muslim religion, which is the destination of pilgrimages for all
devoted Muslims who want to show respect for Muhammad. Te building is covered with the black screen
called kiswah, which is decorated with embroidered gold verses from the Koran. Te eastern corner of the
temple has an embedded black meteorite – the holy Black Stone (Hajar). Legend has it that it was brought
by Archangel Gabriel and given to Abraham. Initially white, it turned black by absorbing the sins and guilt
of the pilgrims paying homage to it.
In the rural architecture of traditional Europe and America, the black colour was most often associated with
material – wood or stone. It was present in the regions, which saw the application of tar and petroleum
products to protect the framework of wooden houses (including the village of Ropianka in Poland). Due to
the interaction of atmospheric factors or impregnation, the wood itself also frequently grew dark, resulting in
the black surface of walls or roofs. Te dark surface of the wall was often in clear contrast to the white bands
around the windows or the white gaps between the beams. Te beams of the so-called timber frame were also
painted black in contrast to the brighter flling (Tarajko-Kowalska: 2006). Examples of such use are found on
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the coast of the Baltic Sea, on both the Polish and Swedish sides. Black is used to this day in Bornholm to
paint the pedestals and wooden beams of building structures (Lenclos: 2004).
Stone objects – particularly those built from various types of slate, mainly metamorphic slate – also received
the black colour. Te northwest part of the Mexican municipality of Guadalajara is the home of the region
known as Pueblos Negros (Black Pueblos) or Arquitectura negra (Black Architecture). Its peculiar name is
owed to the common use of the local pizarra slate in the construction of houses, fencing, and other
architectural elements. Its dark-grey and sometimes even black colour provides the architecture of numerous
villages – particularly Majaelrayo – with a unique appearance 2.
Te application of black on building facades is common in most countries of the northern, protestant Europe.
It is predominant in such countries as England, Scotland, Iceland, Belgium, Denmark, or the Netherlands.
Such popularity of black in northern Europe results mainly from the implementation of the so-called
sumptuary laws, which cover the prohibition of using expensive dyes. Te 16 th century reformation
maintained this trend, condemning the “immorality” of warm and bright colours, and encouraging the use of
simple and raw ones, not only in apparel, but for residential buildings as well. Black buildings were not
common in the countries always dominated by Christianity, due to the rather negative associations
accompanying the colour and its direct relation to mourning. (Lenclos: 2004)
Te black colour of the facades was not always intentional – in many cases, the initial, often bright colour of
the facades became darker from pollution and exposure to atmospheric conditions, becoming similar to black
after many years.
Te black colour became an inseparable colour in numerous towns of the 19 th-century industrial revolution,
which were polluted by the products of the combustion of coal, and later of other fuels. Over time, many of
the buildings in European and American towns were covered with a layer of dark sediment, changing their
original colours to black. An example of this is London, with its dark streets and smog-covered sky described
in detail by Charles Dickens (1860). (Pastoreau: 2008) However, the black facades of the London houses also
resulted from the common use of black bricks. Tey were used to build several front layers of the external
walls due to their resistance to water, particularly in tenements from the Victorian era. Te most famous (not
only in England) black London buildings certainly include that at 10 Downing Street, called “Number 10,”
which served as the home and ofce of successive British Prime Ministers and Her Majesty's Government.
Te ultimate form of the black brick facade was achieved in the 18 th century. Te original black oak doors
from 1735 were replaced with armoured metal doors coated with a high quality, shiny black varnish after the
IRA terrorist attacks in 1991.
Black in contemporary built environment
Since the beginning of the 20 th century, the 1920s in particular, with the establishment of the aesthetics of
Modernism, Bauhaus, and De Stijl, black, along with white, became the expression of modernity. Black
almost always accompanied the white surfaces of the modernistic building walls as the colour of window
frames and door wings, as well as balcony balustrades and structural steel beams (e.g. Te Rietveld Schröder
House in Utrecht, built in 1924 by the Dutch architect Gerrit Rietveld).
Te most famous black buildings of this period include the Zwart Huis (literally Black House) in Knokke,
Belgium, which was designed by the architect Huib Hoste in 1924. Te building, which was inspired by the
aesthetics of De Stijl and covered with black plaster, was very revolutionary for its time. It was entered into
the register of historic monuments in 2000, and continues to serve as a great example of modernism in
Belgium to this day. (Rouw: 2009)
However, the beginning of the 20 th century meant also Art Deco and the start of the American skyscrapers.
During the years 1923-24, the architects Raymond Hood & André Fouilhou built a skyscraper at 40 West
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40th Street in New York. Te black brick covering the facade minimises the contrast between the walls and
the windows, providing the building with massiveness. However, the tradition of the black high risers did not
establish itself until the 1940s, when the architect Mies van der Rohe created the canon of buildings
constructed in a black, steel framework. Over a period of 30 years, he designed and built numerous buildings,
mainly in the USA: in Chicago (including the one at 330 N. Wabash) and New York (Seagram Building,
with Philip Jonson in 1958), but also in Canada (Toronto Dominion Center, Canada, 1969). Tese buildings
found numerous imitators and became the prototypes for modern skyscrapers (e.g. John Hancock Center,
SOM architecture, 1969). Also worth mentioning is Te CBS Building in New York City, located at 51
West 52nd Street, designed in 1965 by Eero Saarinen. Te building is known as Black Rock for the dark
granite façade cladding.
In the contemporary urban environment, the black colour is most frequent in the painting of the elements
located in front of the proper, brighter wall surface, such as balcony balustrades, downpipes, windowsills, as
well as window shutters and frames, door wings, and fnishing details. (Duttmann: 1981) Black varnish is
often used to prevent the corrosion of wooden and iron elements (tar-based varnish) and lead (made from
graphite), thus its application in the coatings of decorative grates and other forged elements.
Associated with elegance and luxury, black often appears in store windows and signs, particularly of those
carrying exclusive products, expensive jewellery and clothing, such as e.g. Swarovski, Hugo Boss, Giorgio
Armani, or Gucci. Black is also often used as the colour of roof coatings – sheet metal, roofng paper, metal
and bituminous tiles. Tis coating colour is currently common in regions, where the roofs were traditionally
covered with shingles or lath. (Tarajko-Kowalska: 2006).
Te signifcance of black in the colouring of interiors, architecture, and design increased in the 1980s, which
was associated with the high-tech style. Te 1990s was the period dominated by achromatic colours, which
was associated with the popularity of design minimalism. Black has become the colour of the current era,
creation, power, and money – dominating not only the worlds of designers, fashion designers, or architects,
but also those of lawyers and bankers. (Pastoreau: 2008) Te great popularity of black in architecture, not only
in public buildings, but also private homes, even in countries without the tradition of its use, is dated at the
turn of the 20th and 21st centuries.
Numerous objects built near the end of the 20 th century and in the frst decade of the 21 st century became
popular due to black, often receiving names or nicknames derived from this colour, referring to, among
others, rare precious stones, such as black pearls or diamonds.
One of the more interesting contemporary black buildings is the Danish National Library in Copenhagen,
which was designed by SHL Architects in 1999. Te nickname of the building, the Black Diamond (Den
Sorte Diamant), refers to its monolithic, irregular shape, as well as its granite coating of the facades. Te
Absolute Black granite was extracted in Zimbabwe, then cut and polished in Italy. 3
Te building of the National Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art (Kunstmuseum Liechtenstein) was
built in Vaduz (Liechtenstein) in the year 2000. It was designed by the Swiss architects Meinrad Morger,
Heinrich Degelo, and Christian Kerez. Te closed form of the “black box” is built from coloured concrete and
black basalt.4
Tere is a grand building located next to the highway from the Taipei airport, called the Black Pearl. It was
designed by Shin Takamatsu and built in 2002 for the Metropolitan Construction Company. Te black
arched external protective wall is made from Safex laminated glass panels, the special surface of which is
intended to protect the building from earthquakes and typhoons 5.
Te Black Panther is the nickname given to the headquarters of the Uniopt Pachleitner Group, which was
erected in 2011 in Graz, Austria, by the designers of GS Architects. Tanks to its sculpted form, sharp
shapes, and black colour, the building has become the artistic hallmark of the city.
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Black pigments and materials in architecture
Te material is an important element in the selection of the fnishing method for black facades. Te
important aspects include the properties of its surface, texture, transparency or opacity, matt or shine,
smoothness or roughness – all of the above afect the ultimate perception of the black form in the landscape.
New technologies have allowed the production of new materials, such as coloured concrete, sheet metal, glass,
prefabricated tiles, and ultimately paints and varnishes with a level of intensity impossible to achieve just a
few years ago. Tese materials and techniques have greatly assisted the increased popularity of the black
fnishing of building facades varying in typology, functions, and scale.
Wood
Wood in various forms and from various types of trees has been used in architecture to obtain black from the
earliest times. Te efect of black was obtained by submerging the beams or boards in oils, impregnation,
charring, or simply varnishing. Tere are several noteworthy objects among contemporary buildings with
wood applied on the facades.
An experimental building was built in 2010 in the HTW Berlin University of Applied Sciences. Both the
walls and the roof of the building were covered with scorched larch wood panels. Tis way of wood
processing, which originates from Japan, emphasises its structure and porosity, simultaneously providing it
with considerable resistance to external factors. 6
Te next building is the Knut Hamsun Museum in Norway, which was designed by Stephen Holl, who was
inspired by the black rock walls of the Swiss Alps covered with white snow. Te body of the building was
covered with tarred black wood, which commonly appears on the churches in the region.
Te Swedish architects Tam & Videgård Hansson Arkitekter applied the interesting technology of stained
black plywood panels, mounted in layers on a slowly grown pine framework in two buildings – the Museum
of Modern Art in Kalmar, Sweden (2000), and in the House-K residential building in Stocksund,
Djursholm.7
In 2008, the Dutch architects of Van Rooijen Architekten designed "Te Invitation" the De Meern Centre
in Utrecht, Netherlands, the body of which was entirely covered with black stained wood. 8
Natural Stones
Stone is another material giving numerous shades of black. Te various types of stone, such as slate or
granite, are traditional construction materials in the various regions, which hosted the deposits of a given
type of rock. One of the most interesting contemporary buildings built from black stone is the Giant's
Causeway Tourist Centre in Ireland, which was designed by Heneghan Peng Architects (2012). Te
appearance of the black stone pillars surrounding the building refers to the basalt columns formed by the
volcanic eruption approximately 50 million years ago.9
Te residential social building for miners located in the heart of the Spanish Cantabrian Mountains, which
was designed by ZON-E Architects in 2009, is like the locally produced coal – it absorbs almost all of the
rays of light falling on it, which provides it with an evenly monumental appearance. Te material used in this
case is the local black slate, which refers to the mining traditions of the town. 10
5
Brick
Black brick has been decorating the streets of numerous European cities for centuries. As already mentioned,
it was made resistant to water in the 19 th century, which made it desired in cities susceptible to fooding, such
as London. It is currently used only for aesthetic purposes, sometimes as facade fnishing. An example of this
is the building of the London substation for the 2012 Olympic Park, which was designed in 2010 by NORD
Architects. Te monolithic, simple form of the building and the perfect black brick facade ensured its victory
in the category of non-residential buildings of the 2012 Wienerberger’s Brick Awards. 11
Plasters, paints and varnish
It seems that there is no easier way to obtain black than painting. However, as much as the varnishes
protecting iron or lead elements are durable and resistant to atmospheric factors, black paint and plaster
should not be used in all cases. Dark plaster is not recommended in moderate climate zones (such as Poland)
on an area greater than 10% of the facade due to increased absorption of solar rays, which can cause
unfavourable thermal tension in the insulation layers, resulting in the cracking of the surface. Te application
of three-layer or single-layer walls is a certain method to avoid this problem. Nevertheless, black-plastered
buildings are rare, perhaps also due to the matt and non-expressive nature of the resulting black colour. Te
building in Stuttgart-Möhringen, which became the object of the artistic experiment of Erik Storm and
Simon Jung entitled the “House in Black” in May of 2008, is an interesting example. During the period
preceding its demolition in 2009, the former home of a modern art gallery was covered top to bottom with
matt black paint by the artists. For several months, the building transformed into a monumental sculpture
and aroused great interest, becoming the subject of numerous photographs. 12
Te “Rose am Lend” building, located at Lendplatz in Graz, Austria, is an interesting example of applying
black plaster for the entire facade surface. Renovated by the INNOCAD architects (Martin Lesjak, Peter
Schwaiger, and Bernd Steinhuber) it attracts attention due to its black colour, which is livened by the
additions of silicon carbide particles and grand rose-themed decorations, which refer to its name. (Isopp,
2009)
Concrete structures painted black are also common solutions, for example in the 2009 building of the
Marchesini France headquarters in Paris, which was designed by LAN Architecture 13, or in the ShinYatsushiro Monument lace pavilion in the Japanese prefecture of Kumamoto, designed by Kumiko Inui in
2004.14
Metal plate
Today, sheet metal is eagerly used by designers, not just due to its durability and resistance, but also its very
aesthetic appearance. An example is the new Sports Arena in Bytom (Poland), designed by Maćków
Pracownia Projektowa, the form of which resembles a lump of coal. Te black rectangular cuboid of the
building is covered with anthracite-coloured sheet metal and cut with deeply rooted glass, which is a clear
reference to the region’s mining traditions.15
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Trespa® Meteon® panels
Te Benchmark Trespa Facade System was created in cooperation with Trespa International BV. Te
ecological Trespa Metreon panels, which are present in numerous paintworks and textures, are frequently
chosen as a durable and aesthetic, facade fnishing. Two buildings from 2009 are interesting examples of the
use of TRESPA® METEON® black panels on the entire facade surface: the European Centre of Ceramics
in Limoges, France, designed by Atelier Jean Dubus, and the Tom Reilly Building of the John Moore
University, in Liverpool, Great Britain, designed by Lord Austin-Smith.
Glass
Due to its transparency and translucency, glass is always desired in facade fnishing. However, modern glass is
often much diferent from just that in regular windows. Glass panels can be provided with almost any colour,
while retaining their transparency. Te Black Box Ofce, in Wildes Meadow, Australia (Southern Highlands,
New South Wales), is an old machine hall reconstructed by the Tina Tziallas Architecture Studio in 2012.
Te simple body of the building was equipped with a facade made entirely of black glass, the large surfaces of
which can be elevated, merging the interior with the exterior. 16
Other unique black materials
Contemporary technology allows for the application of more innovative and avant-garde materials on
facades. Some of them, such as membranes or insulations, are not associated with standard facade fnishing.
However, architects are more eager to reach for unusual materials – often black, which additionally
emphasises the ultimate visual efect.
Tis is the case of the minimalistic house designed by the architects of Foaa-Norte in Calafquén, Chile,
where a matt black asphalt membrane was used on the entire facade surface. 17 Te Jeferson Sheard &
Careyjones Architects also decided to apply a unique method when designing the Soundhouse for the
University of Shefeld in 2008. Te building is completely enveloped in black rubber. Te use of rubberised
tanking as an exposed external membrane, was a very innovative design solution, but it was also a huge
technical challenge to the designers.18
In the house Black Beauty in Linz (2005r.), xArchitekten used new kind of fberglass-reinforced concrete
slab to implementing dark monolithic outer skin.19
In the house located in Budapest, Hungary (2012), T2.a Architects used UV-resistant façade membrane,
which is water-proof from the outside but vapour-open from the inside. 20
But the most unique solution for the façade fnishing is the one for Artwood Showroom in San Miniato,
Italy (2012). LDA.iMdA Architects converted the former warehouse into a design showroom for timber
furniture brand Artwood. Te exterior of the building is covered with a black curtain with only one blackframed entrance, as there are no windows.21
Conclusions
Black is the colour of both tradition and modernity. It looks very trendy and elegant, and gives a very decent
and royal look to the building. Completely black cladding of the building highlights its sculptural quality.
Black is simultaneously bold and neutral, creating a statement without clashing against its background.
7
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Biography
Justyna Tarajko-Kowalska, architect, academic teacher, since 2001 is working at the Faculty of Architecture,
Cracow University of Technology. She is the author of over 30 articles on the issue of color in architecture;
she took part to numerous conferences and scientifc sessions on colour - including the AIC International
Congresses. Since 2005, she is member of the Environmental Color Design Study Group. She is the author
and co-author of several studies supporting the selection of elevation colors, developed for producers of
facade paints and plasters.
__________________
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