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ANT 570 Principles of Physical Anthropology History of Physical Anthropology http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant570/ A Cultural Construction of the History of Physical Anthropology Since Physical Anthropology as currently known is less than 200 years old, depiction of its early roots depends on how we characterize the modern day science. Two basic themes underlie most current definitions of Physical Anthropology: Human Variability Human Origins Studies of Human Variation and Human Evolution 7 Periods of Development Ancient Roots Differences and Origins The Renaissance Empiricism and Science Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries Nat ur al i s m andMan’ sPl acei nNat ur e Homer (fl. 1200 - 850 B.C.) Periods of Development PrePre-Darwin Nineteenth Century Racial Origins PostPost-Darwin Nineteenth Century Evolution and Racial Origins 1900 - 1950 Description and Discovery 1950 - The New Physical Anthropology Iliad and Odyssey acknowledge variability Aethiopians: the most remote of men A race divided, whom with sloping rays The rising and descending sun surveys CubitCubit-men: African pygmies Cubit was the distance from finger tip to elbow, about 17 - 22” Said to be responsible for sending back the migrating cranes each summer To warmer seas the cranes embodied fly, With noise, and order through the midway sky; To pigmy nations wounds and death they bring 1 Homer Humans are depicted as the result of degeneration from an earlier, bigger, stronger race Herodotus, Democritus Herodotus References to a former age when giants populate the earth fierce Tydides stoops; and from the fields Heaved with vast force, a rocky fragment wields. Not two strong men the enormous weight could raise, Such men as live in these degenerate days The giant myths appear to be related to the appearance of Old world Megalithic sites Observed skulls of Egyptians and Persians fallen in battle –Egyptians, who shave their heads from birth, have strong skulls due to exposure –Persian skulls are brittle due to the constant wearing of felt hats Then Hippocrates (c. 460 - 377 B.C.) Early medical practitioner and teacher Corpus Hippocraticum, Hippocraticum, 70 treatises Viewed the body as an organism and claimed that it could not be understood without an understanding of the relationship between the environment, behavior, and the body Humoral system accounted for disease (fl. 5th Century B.C.) Historiae argues environmental cause of variability between groups of men Dark skin of Aethiopians due to their habitual exposure Listed three different groups of Aethiopians Democritus (fl. 5th Century B.C.) Origin of men from water and mud Hippocrates, 2 Airs, Waters, Places, Places, treatise on influence of the environment on health and temperament Provides comparisons of the peoples of Asia Minor with Europe and Egypt Recognized two fundamental somatotypes (body build or habitus types) –Phthisic: Phthisic: long, thin, and choleric (Easily angered; badbad-tempered; showing or expressing anger) –Apoplectic: short, squat, and phlegmatic (Having or suggesting a calm, sluggish temperament; unemotional) Health was a function of the balance between blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile in the body These ideas resurfaced in the 18th and 19th centuries Aristotle (384 - 322 B.C.) St. Augustine (354(354-430) F i r s tuseoft er m“ ant hr opol ogi st ”i nEthics to desc r i beamanwhowas“ notagoss i p,nota t al kerabouthi ms el f ” Historia Animalium describes similarities between man, apes, and monkeys, but does not attribute these to common ancestry Environmental causes of variation Wooly hair of Aethiopians due to arid climate Straight hair of Scythians due to moist air De Civitate Dei Contra Paganos emphasizes both monogenesis and the Scala Naturae All men born everywhere, no matter how strange they appear to us, are descended from Adam Man is midway between angels and beasts He reckoned that 6,000 years had elapsed since the creation of Adam 2 Leonardo da Vinci (1452(1452-1519) Renaissance 14th - 17th Centuries: Transition from medieval to modern philosophy From interpretations of natural phenomena based on the bible to science and empiricism Rise of commercial capitalism Voyages of exploration and discovery lead to the discovery of vast cultural and physical differences between human populations Perceptions of categorical differences rather than continuous differences between groups In Notebooks he questions the environmental hypothesis in accounting for human variation The black races in Ethiopia are not the product of the sun; for if black gets black with a child in Scythia, Scythia, the offspring is black; but if black gets a white woman with child the offspring is grey Supports an early hereditarian argument based ont hepoweroft hemot her ’ sseed And this [above] shows that the seed of the mother has power in the embryo equally with that of the father Leonardo da Vinci (1452(1452-1519) Interested in human growth and development Studied changing proportions of both sexes at different stages from infancy to maturity He noted the similarity between living and fossil shellfish and argued that the fossils were of organic origin, not supernatural Andreas Vesalius (1514(1514-1564) First modern human anatomy text: De humani corporis fabrica libri septem This is the first widespread anatomical work based on the empirical method Vesalius produced the first detailed and naturalistic drawings based on human dissection Magnus Hundt (1449 - 1519) de hominis dignitate…, dignitate…, published in 1501 was one of the first books of the Renaissance to be published with anatomical woodcut illustrations First anatomical text to use the term anthropology in the context of human anatomy Antropolgium Andreas Vesalius (1514(1514-1564) Notes an environmentallyenvironmentally-mediated relationship between race and the shape of the skull It seems that certain nations have something peculiar in the shape of their head. The Genoese, and more particularly the Greeks and Turks, almost exhibit a round shape. To this also (which not a few of them think elegant and consider well adapted to turbans which they use various ways) the midwives sometimes contribute at the urgent request of the mother. The Germans, indeed, have a very flattened occiput and a broad head, because the boys always lie on their backs in their cradles. 3 Tys on’ sWor k Edward Tyson, 1650 - 1708 British Father of “ Pr i mat ol ogy ” Renowned Comparative Anatomist Systematic, detailed anatomical study Debunked myths about “ Wi l dMen”and “ Py gmi es ” 18th Century-Enlightenment Century--Enlightenment Monogenism: All humans had a single origin from Adam and Eve. The origin of the the different races is seen as being environmentally determined through a process of degeneration from Europeans Polygenism: Different races are descendants of different Adams, separate creations, separate species Rejects Buf f on’ scriterion scriterion of interfertility for species Many polygenists, polygenists, especially in America, maintained that the races did not successfully interbreed OrangOrang-Outang, Outang, sive Homo sylvestris: sylvestris: or the anatomy of a pygmy compared to that of a monkey, an ape, and a man. (1699) To which is added a philological essay concerning the pygmies, the cynocephali, the satyrs, and sphinges of the ancients. Work based on a dissection of the first recorded anthropoid ape imported into England 18th Century-Enlightenment Century--Enlightenment Differential Carolus Linnaeus, 1707 - 1778 Swedish Botanist of Taxonomy Viewed the task of classification as one of attempting to understand the pattern of the Scala Naturae Father Worth Races ranked on various criteria, usually assertions about behavior or personality, judged to assess intelligence or moral standards The rankings are used either to bolster the Scala Naturae or protoproto-evolutionary relationships Such rankings are highly subjective and loaded with potential for ethnocentric abuse, with the highest rank always being reserved for the race of the anthropologist doing the ranking Linnaeus Systema Naturae (1735 - 1766) Original and ten revised editions By 1758 edition, man is considered to be a separate species (sapiens (sapiens)) within the genus Homo, Homo, of the order Primates. Primates. Man is divided into four geographic varieties Variety is a group with many deviations from the species type in both heritable and nonnon-heritable characteristics 4 Varieties of Linnaeus Linnaeus ranked the four geographic varieties of man along the Scala Naturae with Europeans at the peak and Africans farthest from the angels Homo sapiens europaeus: europaeus: White, sanguine, active, acute, a discoverer, muscular Homo sapiens asiaticus: asiaticus: Sallow, melancholy, stiff Homo sapiens americanus: americanus: Red, choleric, erect Homo sapiens afer: afer: Black, phlegmatic, crafty, lazy, choleric, relaxed NonNon-geographic variants Homo sapiens ferus: ferus: Wild man, all fours, hairy Homo sapiens monstrous: monstrous: Giants, mutants Homo sapiens troglodytes: troglodytes: ape rumors? George Louis Leclerc, Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, 1707 - 1788 French naturalist and author From 1739 he was keeper of the Jardin du Roi in Paris His monumental compendium on natural history, Histoire Naturelle (44 vols., 1749–1804) Buffon Buffon Saw classification as sterile work range of variation, subscribing to the Scala Naturae, Naturae, as the pattern of life Debunked macroevolution which he saw as i nher enti nLi nnaeus’hi er ar c hi calsy st em Varieties of the Human Species (1749) described physical and cultural variation of many different human groups Described While denying the existence of macroevolution, supporting fixity of species, he espoused microevolution The differences between populations of a species (including humans) were the result of their accommodation to local environmental conditions He explained dark skins of Africans as a result of exposure to the intensity of the sun in the tropical climates He felt that Africans showed little genius Argued that slavery was morally wrong Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, 1752 - 1840 German Anatomy Professor Father of Physical Anthropology Father of Craniology Founder of Anthropology in Germany Blumenbach While inheriting the mantle of human classifier from Linnaeus, he also diverged: Classified man as separate from non human primates (Order Bimanus vs. Quadrumana) Quadrumana) On second attempt (1781), he divided man into five races versus the four of Linnaeus Spl i tLi nnaeus’Asi ansi nt oMongol i ansf ormostofAsi a and Malayans for Southeast Asia Ref ut edt heex i st enceof“ wi l dmen”and “ t r ogl ody t es ”ofear l i ercl as si f i cat i ons 5 Blumenbach Position Bl umenbach’ s skull collection Blumenbach related skull shape to racial classification He did so by placing a skull between his feet and looking down at it This became known as the "Blumenbach position" He used this technique to classify his skulls into five categories One is still in relatively general use: "Caucasian." How Blumenbach coined t het er m “Caucasi an” Caucasian variety. I have taken the name of this variety from Mount Caucasus… becauset hi s neighbourhood … pr oducest hemost beautiful race of men, I mean the Georgian; and ... in that region, if anywhere, it seems we ought with the greatest probability to place the original forms of mankind Blumenbach In On the Natural Variety of Mankind (1775; 1781; 1795) Advocates Monogenism Points out that the varieties blend into one another in imperceptible ways Felt that differences in skull shape and skin color (among other traits) had been caused by the environment Debunk edLi nnaeus’ r anki ngsoft her aceswhi l e explaining racial origins as degeneration from the Caucasian type 19th Century PrePre-Darwinian (1859) arguments about the origin of races of man PostPost-Darwinian developments in the origin and evolution of the races of man Separate schools of anthropology develop in the England, U.S., Germany, and France Took special exception to arguments about mental limitations of Africans James Cowles Prichard, 1786 - 1848 Researches into the Physical History of Man (1836) British physician who made a study of anthropology by meeting sailors of many different races as they came to port in his hometown of Bristol. Strongest British spokesman for monogenism, coco-founder of the Ethnological Society of London Samuel George Morton, 1799 - 1851 Physician from Philadelphia convinced of inferiority of African populations Measured cranial capacity (volume of braincase) to assess differential worth Very careful technician, published extensive list of measurements of cranial capacities Polygenist, 6 Mor t on’ sRa c i alRa nki ng s Racial Category Caucasian Mongolian Malay American Ethiopian Mor t on’ s Averages (inches3) 87 83 81 82 78 Goul d’ s Averages (inches3) 87 87 85 86 83 Nosi gni f i cantdi f f er encesbyGoul d’ sr e-calculations Rudolph Virchow, Virchow, 1821 - 1902 German physician, Father of Pathology for scientific development of the field of anthropology in Germany in the latter part of the 19th Century He was a grudging evolutionist, having diagnosed the original Neanderthal fossils (1856) as being a modern human that had experienced pathological skeletal changes Responsible Pierre Paul Broca, 1824 - 1880 Founder of French Anthropology First Society of Anthropology (1859) First School of Anthropology (1876) Instigated the study of Craniometry Robert R. Marett (1866 - 1943) Primarily of interest because his tutelage of Hooton in 1912 - 1913 Working on the palaeolithic cave site of La Cotte, Cotte, St. Brelard, Brelard, Jersey in the Channel Islands from 1910 - 1914 Recovered some hominid teeth and some archaeological remains Broca Attempted to quantify differential worth Ratio of radius to humerus: a high ratio is apeape-like, hence lower worth. Found Caucasians scored higher than Hottentots, Eskimos, and Australians and discarded the ratio in favor of measures with whites furthest from the apes Larger brain indicates more intelligent Men > Women; Eminent Men > Mediocre Men; Superior (Caucasian) > Inferior (Other races) Franz Boas, 1858 - 1942 German Physicist of Columbia Department of Anthropology Responsible for growth studies being incorporated into anthropology Founder 7 Boas Boas was a strong opponent of hereditarian arguments about the difference between races Undertook migrant studies that documented anatomical plasticity in traits that had long been viewed as quintessential components of race: skull measurements First anthropology PhD in the US was a growth study done by one of his students Hrdlicka Trained physical anthropologists in careful scientific tradition at the Smithsonian, but did not have a cadre of students because he was not situated at a university Launched the American Journal of Physical Anthropology in 1918 Founding member of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists in 1930 Sir Arthur Keith dissection of primates (those from Siam and others he arranged to receive from the London Zoo) and of human fetuses formed the basis of his doctoral dissertation on the evol ut i onofman’ ser ec tpost ur e Met Dubois in 1895 and examined the r emai nsof“ Java”mant hatwer ebr i ef l ymade available Ales Hrdlicka, 1869 - 1943 Tr ai nedatBr oc a’ s institute in Paris in 1896 Br oughtBr oc a’ s ideas to the U.S. Directed anthropology at the Smithsonian 1903 1943 Sir Arthur Keith, 1866 - 1955 Scottish physician Keith was awarded a copy of The Origin of Species for his distinctive work in anatomy during his first year of medical studies First medical post was with a a mining company in Siam Dissected monkeys in a malaria study, but became fascinated by the comparative anatomical aspects of his studies Sir Arthur Keith His He was convinced that it was a primitive human Became conservator at the Royal College of Surgeons in London, 1912 Ancient types of Men published in 1911, addressed the significance of the known hominid fossils to date Became strongly embroiled in Piltdown, its most influential spokesman not i nvol vedi nt he“ di scover i es”atPi l t down 8 Earnest Albert Hooton (1887 - 1954) Sir Arthur Keith Ke i t h’ sl abor at or yi nt heear l ypar toft hi s century was a hotbed of training and influence for anthropologists, especially in the areas of African Paleoanthropology and American Physical Anthropology: Raymond Dart Edward Albert Hooton Louis S.B. Leakey Trained in classics: BA at Lawrence College in 1907 PhD at Wisconsin in 1911 Studied anthropology as a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford Diploma in 1912 B.Litt B.Litt.. In 1913 Hooton E.A. Hooton While at Oxford, Hooton became involved in the Channel Island project of Marett Introduced to Keith by Marett and a lifelong friendship ensued Published The Ancient Inhabitants of the Canary Islands based on work with Keith in 1915 Hired at Harvard in 1913 to resuscitate the program in Physical Anthropology Among the first anthropologists trying to establish physical types of the races by measuring thousands of individuals Whereas previous workers had focused on minutiae of the skull, Hooten and colleagues added the body: constitution Hooten was especially interested in associations between constitution and criminality Advocated eugenic sterilization to prevent criminal behavior as late as 1937 At the same time he denied racial classification as a valid criterion for eugenic action Hooton “ Ther ei snoant hr opol ogi cal gr oundwhat soeverf or selecting any soso-called racial group, or any ethnic or national group, or any linguistic or religious group for preferment or for condemnation. Our real purpose should be to segregate and to eliminate the unfit, worthless, degenerate and antisocial portion of each racial and ethnic strain in our population . . By the sterilization of its insane, diseased, and criminalistic elements. The candidates for such biological extinction would not be selected on the basis of Aryan or Semitic descent, blond hair or black skin, but solely on the score of their individual physical, mental and mor al bankr upt cy . ” E.A. Hooton Graduated his first doctoral student in 1926 many students that went on to foster academic physical anthropology: Produced Shapiro, Washburn, Howells, Brues, Coon, Birdsell, Birdsell, Garn, Hunt, Lasker, etc. Ho ot on’ swor kwasacc ess i bl et ot hel ay public in books like Up from the Ape and Apes, Man and Morons 9 American Physical Anthropology in the Academy after World War II In addition to Harvard, Departments of Anthropology like Arizona, Berkeley, Chicago, Columbia, UCLA, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin were the locus of activity in physical anthropology All of these programs were headed by Hoot on’ sst udent sorst udent sofhi s students William W. Howells PhD The Peopling of Melanesia As Indicated by Cranial Evidence from the Bismarck Archipelago Established the strong presence of physical anthropology in the department at the University of Wisconsin Returned to Harvard faculty to replace Hooton on his death in 1954 Renowned as a generalist and specialist Writings accessible to the public like Hooton Mankind So Far (1944), The Heathens (1948), and Back of History (1954) Sherwood L. Washburn Trained heavily in anatomy with LeGros Clark, among others PhD under Hooton in 1940 A Preliminary Metrical Study of the Skeleton of Langurs and Macaques Taught at Columbia University Medical School Paul T. Baker Undergraduate at New Mexico, accepted at Harvard as one of Hoot on’ sl astst udent s Completed his PhD under Howel l saf t erHoot on’ sdeat h (1956) Research Professorship at Penn State in 1957 Became anchor of strong physical program at Penn State under Hooton in 1934 Sherry Washburn With Theodosius Dobzhansky, important evolutionary geneticist, Washburn organized the influential international symposium on the "Origin and Evolution of Man" held at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York, in the summer of 1950, which served to redefine the field of physical anthropology Taught at University of Chicago and later at U.C., Berkeley In addition to reshaping physical anthropology, he was instrumental in establishing primate studies as an integral part of academic anthropology Paul Baker As influential as Paul is his wife Thelma, who ac t edast hegoodc opt oPaul ’ sbadandal so helped to polish students much like Reiter had for Paul at New Mexico Paul went on to direct two of the most influential studies in the field of Human Biology, each lasting more than a decade and involving dozens of students High altitude adaptation: Man in the Andes (1976) Modernization, Migration and Health: The Changing Samoans (1986) Elected to the National Academy of Sciences Served as chair of Anthropology Section 1983 1986 10 My Academic Genealogy Sir Arthur Keith Physical Earnest A. Hooton Sherwood Washburn William W. Howells Stanley M. Garn Janet Sawyer Paul T. Baker Edward E. Hunt, Jr. M.A., Ph.D., Penn State B.A., U.C., Berkeley The“Ne w”Phys i c al Anthropology Robert R. Marett Anthropology up to 1950 was very descriptive: Careful measurements and anatomical details Resembled in most aspects a science of the early 19th century-pre--Darwin century--pre In the 1930s and 40s, a host of biologists, paleontologists and others contributed to the synthetic theory of evolution Jim Bindon The“Ne w”Phys i c al Anthropology At the instigation of Washburn and Dobzhansky, anthropologists got together with biologists in 1950 at the symposium on “ Or i gi nandEvol ut i onofMan”hel datCol d Spring Harbor, New York. Many articles and books emanated from this symposium, including the piece by Washburn assigned for class. Biological Anthropology Today The field of biological anthropology today is embraces a broad diversity of topics, perhaps best illustrated by the range of papers presented at the annual meetings of the American Association of Physical Anthropology Ma nyoft he“ new”phys i c alant hr opol ogy directions are finally being followed Sources Brace, C.L. and M.F.A. Montagu. 1965. Man’ sEvol ut i on. New York: Macmillan. Penniman, Penniman, T.K. 1965. A Hundred Years of Anthropology. Anthropology. 3rd Revised Edition. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Schiller, F. 1979. Paul Broca. Berkeley: U.C. Press. Sources Slotkin, Slotkin, J.S. 1965. Readings in Early Anthropology. Anthropology. Chicago: Aldine. Spencer, F. (editor). 1982. A History of American Physical Anthropology, 193019301980. 1980. New York: Academic Press. Spencer, F. 1986. Ecce Homo. Homo. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. 11