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INTRODUCTION TO HOMER AND THE TROJAN WAR The Odyssey deals with events that allegedly took place after the end of the Trojan War in 1225 BC. It belongs to the period of pre history and myth. Efforts by Historians and Archeologists to discover hard facts have not been successful. WHO WAS HOMER?` The Iliad and the Odyssey developed from poems and songs told as entertainment. Allegedly they were written by Homer a blind Greek poet around 750 BC. There are no details known of his life and he may well have not been a real person or he may have been two or more poets writing at the same time. WHAT WAS THE TROJAN WAR? The Iliad deals with some of the events of the Trojan War. Parts of the story are also to be found in the Odyssey and the Aeneid written by the Roman poet Virgil. The story is as follows: Troy is a city in modern Turkey ruled over by Priam. Priam’s son Paris seduced Helen the wife of Menelaus the King of Sparta and she went to Troy with him. The Greeks launched an expedition to rescue her led by Menelaus’s brother Agamemnon. After nine years the siege of Troy was inconclusive. Achilles the leading Greek warrior is refusing to fight after a row with Agamemnon. Achilles is invulnerable to weapons as his mother dipped him in the river Styx as a baby. However, she held him by the heel giving him a weak spot. His friend Patroclus dresses in his armor and is killed by Hector the eldest son of Priam. This rouses Achilles to action and he kills Hector and drags his corpse round Troy behind a chariot. Paris then shot Achilles in the heel with a poisoned arrow. Paris is killed soon after. Troy however remains safe despite the gloomy prophecies of Cassandra, Priam’s daughter. Helenus, a prophet, says that Troy will never fall until the Palladium, a little statue of the Goddess Athena, leaves Troy. Odysseus the Greek King of Ithaca sneaks into Troy and steals it. Odysseus then designs a great horse filled with soldiers. The Greeks pretend to leave and the Trojans, ignoring Cassandra’s warnings, pull the horse inside Troy. That night the soldiers get out of the horse and open the gates to the waiting Greek army. Troy is sacked and most of the inhabitants slaughtered. Aeneas (a Trojan noble) escapes and his descendents found Rome. 1 A SUMMARY OF THE ODYSSEY “Tell me Muse the story of that resourceful man who was driven to wander far and wide after he had sacked the holy citadel of Troy. He saw the cities of many people and he learnt their ways. He suffered great anguish on the high seas in his struggles to preserve his life and bring his comrades home”. Book 1 lines 1-5 The first four chapters concern Odysseus’s son Telemachus and a number of loose ends from the Trojan War. The chapters that we will be covering ( 5 6 9 10 and 12) deal with his journeys round the Mediterranean and the people that he meets there. We miss out 7 8 and 11. Chapters 13 to the end are about his homecoming to Ithaca. Odysseus is the only survivor of the crew and arrives shipwrecked and in rags. He finds a gang of suitors hoping to marry Penelope his wife. In an abuse of the Greek rules of hospitality they are partying at his expense every night and planning to kill Telemachus. Odysseus kills them all, is reunited with Penelope and they all live happily ever after. WHAT ARE THE IMPORTANT THEMES IN THE ODYSSEY? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The facts and characters of the story. Do you admire Odysseus. What are his good and bad points? Is Odysseus a good leader? Is Odysseus, the men or the Gods to blame for the disasters? The Greek rules of hospitality. Female characters in the book and how they help and hinder Odysseus. 7. The mixing of epic heroic events and ordinary details of people’s lives. 8. The order in which events happen – the story is not chronological. WHAT WEBSITES WILL HELP ME? http://www.mythweb.com/odyssey/index.html This is an excellent introduction to the Odyssey with a short and a more detailed version of the story. http://www.thinkquest.org/library/lib/site_sum_outside.html?tname=19300&url =19300/data/homer.htm This is a more detailed site on the Odyssey and the Iliad. There is a full version of the story and useful background. A Google search against Odysseus will turn up both of these. 2 THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE ODYSSEY 1. Odysseus leaves Troy. The fleet is scattered by a storm sent by Athena. 2. Odysseus attacks Ismarus the city of the Cicones. (Book 9 39 – 61). 3. Zeus sends a storm. (Book 9 62 - 82 ) 4. Odysseus escapes the Lotus eaters (Book 9 82 – 104) 5. Odysseus blinds the Cyclops, Polyphemus (Book 9 105 – 567E) 6. Odysseus goes to Aoelia the home of Aeolus the keeper of the winds. He ties up the winds in a sack and sends him home. (Book 10 1 – 28) 7. His men undo the sack and they are blown back to Aeolus. (Book 10 28– 79) 8. Odysseus goes to Telepylus the island of the Laestrygonians. All his ships, bar one, are sunk. (Book 10 80 – 133) 9. Odysseus is captured by the witch Circe on her island of Aeaea. (Book 10 134 – 574E) 10. Odysseus visits The Underworld (Book 11). 11. Odysseus leaves Circe and gets good advice (Book 12 1 – 153) 12. Odysseus listens to the Sirens (Book 12 153 – 200) 13. Odysseus escapes Scylla and Charybdis. (Book 12 201 – 259) 14. Odysseus lands on Thrinacie the island of the Sun God where his men eat the sacred cattle. (Book 12 260 – 402) 15. There is a great storm and all his men are drowned. Odysseus is washed up on Ogygia the island of Calypso where he stays for 7 years (Book 12 403 – 454E). 16. The Gods send Hermes to persuade Calypso to release Odysseus which she does. (Book 5 1 – 269) 17. Poseidon sends a storm which nearly finishes Odysseus (again). (Book 5 269 – 493E) 18. Odysseus is washed up on Scherie, the island of the Phaeacians where he meets Nausicaa, the king’s daughter. (Book 6 1 – 331E). 3 19. Odysseus is royally entertained by Alcinous the King of the Phaeacians and attends an athletics contest. Books 7 and 8. 20. Odysseus tells the story of events 2 – 14 to King Alcinous (Books 9 10 11 and 12). 21. Odysseus returns to Ithaca, kills the suitors and is reunited with Penelope. (Books 13 – 24). -The underlined sections are not part of the course- RULES REGARDING BOOKS THAT WE DO NOT HAVE TO STUDY. 1. Books 1 – 4. Do not read these. (Apart from Book 1 Line 1-5) They will not help you and may confuse you 2. Books 7 8 and 11. You need to be aware of the main themes of these and where they fit into the story. Don’t read them at this stage. I will provide a brief summary and important themes in due course. Very brief references to them will give the impression of intelligence in the exam. 3. Books 13 – 24. You need to know one or two main themes. Don’t read them. I will provide details of what you need to know in due course. Again very brief references to them will give the impression of intelligence in the exam. 4 THE ROLE OF THE GODS In the Odyssey Gods play a leading role and many characters are the offspring of Gods and Goddesses. They meddle in the affairs of men and are often jealous and spiteful. Noted ones are. ZEUS The King of the Gods and the God of hospitality. Frequently seen ravishing hapless women. He is supposed to be neutral so that the affairs of men can be governed by Destiny. HERA Queen of the Gods. Jealous. Often punishes the unfortunate victims of Zeus’s bad behavior. POSEIDON. Zeus’s brother. The God of the sea and earthquakes. Odysseus’s enemy. ATHENA. Also called Pallas she is the goddess of wisdom and the friend and protector of Odysseus. HERMES The messenger of the Gods APHRODITE Goddess of love. Allegedly born from the foam off Paphos in Cyprus. ARES God of War HEPHAESTUS The crippled God of mining and blacksmiths. Married to Aphrodite. HADES. Zeus’s youngest brother. God of the underworld and the Dead. HYPERION. Also called Helios. The God of the Sun. 5 PEOPLE AND PLACES OF THE ODYSSEY People Aeolus - A mortal whom Zeus has appointed keeper of the winds. Alcinous - The king of the Phaeacians, husband of Arete and father of Nausicaa, he is a generous, kind, and good-humoured ruler and father. Antiphates – The chief of the Laestrygonians. An uncivilised cannibal. Arete - The queen of the Phaeacians, wife of Alcinous and mother of Nausicaa. Athene - Daughter of Zeus, goddess of wisdom and patroness of the arts and crafts, also known as Pallas. Odysseus is her favourite and protégé. Calypso - The sea nymph who keeps Odysseus captive for nine years and who, in hope of making him her husband, offers him immortality. Charybdis – A terrible whirlpool opposite Scylla in the straits of Messina. Circe - The enchantress who transforms the crew of Odysseus into swine and who, when she finds that she cannot conquer Odysseus, takes him as a lover and helps him with advice and supplies on his voyage home. Elpenor - A young seaman in the crew of Odysseus who dies in an accident on Circe island. Eurylochus – Odysseus’s kinsman and one of his officers; An unpleasant character, he deserts the men on Circe’s island but undermines Odysseus in front of his men and encourages the men to slaughter the cattle of Helios. Hermes - Son of Zeus, the ambassador of the gods, conductor of the dead souls to Hades, and patron of travellers, merchants, and thieves. Hyperion - The god of the sun. Also known as Helios. It is his cattle which is eaten by Odysseus' crew. Leucothoie - A sea nymph who helps Odysseus reach the island of the Phaeacians during the storm in Book V. Nausicaa - The daughter of Alcinous and Arete. She is a charming young maiden, in her adolescence. Odysseus - King of Ithaca and hero of the book. He is the first of the Greek epic heroes to be renowned for his brain as well as his muscle. 6 Perimedes – One of the crew. Penelope - The wife of Odysseus. She is serious and industrious, a perfect wife and mother in many aspects. Polites – another of the crew who Odysseus respects Polyphemus - A one-eyed Cyclops who held Odysseus and his men captive in his cave until he was made drunk and blinded by Odysseus. Poseidon - Younger brother of Zeus, god of the sea and earthquakes, father of Polyphemus. Because Odysseus is a sailor and must travel home by ship, Poseidon is able to do him much harm. The god bears a grudge against him because of his rough treatment of Polyphemus. Scylla - A sea monster with six heads whom Odysseus and his crew must pass during their voyage. Sirens - Two beautiful maidens who dwell in a flowery meadow on an island somewhere between that of Circe and of Scylla. They tempt passing mariners to their deaths by their tantalizing songs. Tiresias – A blind prophet who gives advice in the Underworld. Zeus - The supreme god and king of Olympus. He is officially neutral in human affairs; his duty is to carry out the will of Destiny, but he is often sympathetic towards humans. Places and tribes Aeaea - The island home of the enchantress Circe. Aeolia - A floating island home of Aeolus, king of the winds. Capri - Island home of the Sirens. Cicones - A Thracian tribe whose capital was raided by Odysseus and his men after leaving Troy. Cyclops – A tribe of uncivilised giants. Hades - The land of the dead. Ithaca - The island kingdom of Odysseus. Off the west coast of mainland Greece. Ismaurus - The capital of the Cicones, located in Thrace, to the north- east of Greece. 7 Laestrygonians - A tribe of cannibal barbarians who seriously attack Odysseus and his men when the Greek ships land in their country. Lotus eaters – A tribe who consume the mind altering lotus fruit. Ogygia - Island home of the nymph Calypso. Thought to be modern day Malta. Olympus - A mountain in Greece, which is home to many of the gods and goddesses. Phaeacians - The inhabitants of the land of Scheria. Scheria - The island home of the Phaeacians, and the kingdom of Alcinous. Telepylus – The home of the Laestrygonians Troy - A kingdom that was destroyed by the Greeks in the Trojan War. It is located on the western coast of Turkey. Thrinacia - Island home to the cattle of the sun god, Helios. 8 HOSPITALITY IN THE ODYSSEY A very important theme in the Odyssey is hospitality (Xenia in Greek). When a person turns up at a stranger’s house there are clear ways to behave. Both sides have obligations. These basic rules have been observed throughout History and are still important today. 1. The rules of Xenia are governed by Zeus and those who break the rules are punished. 2. The Guest is expected to behave properly. He is polite to the Host and introduces himself. He explains his position and asks for help. He doesn’t help himself before he is asked. He behaves in a polite and honorable way throughout his stay. 3. The Host is obliged to provide shelter, food, drink and protection. He also gives advice. 4. The guest can leave whenever he likes. When he leaves the Host gives him a gift. THE ODYSSEY AND THE EPIC. The Odyssey is an epic. What this means is this: 1. 2. 3. 4. It is based around a heroic character who is larger than life. It has a strong element of the supernatural – fantastic beasts etc. The Gods play an active role in the adventure. It concerns a journey, where the hero meets different people and an eventual homecoming. 5. The heroic simile is used. This is an extended version of the usual simile. Examples are: a. When Poseidon sends a storm it is compared to a wind buffeting thistles. b. Odysseus being compared to a mountain lion what he meets Nausicaa. c. Nausicaa being compared to a fresh young palm tree. d. The men being compared to cattle when they are rescued from Circe. e. When Odysseus is hanging off the fig tree waiting for Charybdis to release the logs the delay is compared to that of a judge. 9 THE ODYSSEY AND DESTINY. Destiny is an important part of the book. The rules are laid down and enforced by Zeus. Odysseus’s destiny is to get home. However how long it takes, how hard it is, how many men make it back and what he will find when he gets there are up for grabs. Look at Polyphemus’s curse for a summary. Odysseus is quick to blame the Gods. In reality, are the problems the fault of himself and his men? “What a lamentable thing it is that men should blame the gods and regards us as the source of their troubles, when it is their own transgressions which bring them suffering that is not their destiny”. (Zeus lines 33 – 35 Book 1 the Odyssey). 10 IMPORTANT POINTS IN CHAPTER NINE. Odysseus is coming home from Troy with twelve ships. He arrives at Ismarus the city of the Cicones. After the sacking of the city the men are feasting and they ignore Odysseus’s orders to get on the ships. Other Cicones arrive and seventy men are killed. They then land at the Lotus Eaters island. Some of the men are intoxicated by the drug. Odysseus drags them on board. They then land at the island of the Cyclops. Odysseus goes into Polyphemus cave. They are trapped when Polyphemus returns. He eats two of the men and expresses contempt for the laws of hospitality and the Gods. Odysseus gets him drunk and gouges out his eye. They escape from the cave by hiding under the sheep. As Odysseus is escaping he foolishly boasts to Polyphemus and tells him his name. Polyphemus prays to his father Poseidon to punish Odysseus. 1. The relationship between Odysseus and his crew. He cares for them and shares out the loot equally. They give him an extra share as they respect him. He drags them on board after the Lotus-fruit has been eaten. He is a good leader and is generally obeyed. However they defy him at Ismarus. He volunteers for dangerous jobs. 2. Hospitality. Odysseus’s minor breach of the rules – why does he do this - and Polyphemus’s terrible behavior. The abuse of the gift. The use of hospitality traditions to get the better of Polyphemus. Contrast this with King Alcinous. 3. Odysseus’s character. He does silly things – going into the cave, boasting to Polyphemus and the consequences of this. He is boastful and blames the Gods. He is curious. However, he is brave, resourceful and polite. 4. The stupid behavior of the crew with the Cicones and the Lotus eaters. Their sensible advice about Polyphemus which is ignored. 5. Polyphemus’s and the Cyclops. What conclusions does Odysseus draw from their primitive lifestyle? What good points do they show? 6. Descriptive passages. The cheese making, the cave entrance and the blinding. 7. Odysseus’s trickery. How does he get out of the cave? The pun on me tis. 8. The role of the Gods. 11 IMPORTANT POINTS IN CHAPTER 10. The ships arrive at the island of King Aeolus who keeps the winds. He entertains Odysseus and gives him the winds safely in a bag leaving a gentle west wind to take him back to Ithaca. After nine days Odysseus falls asleep within sight of land. The men open the bag thinking that it contains treasure. The winds blow them to the land of the Laestrygonians. The fleet is attacked and the crews eaten. Odysseus escapes with one ship. They end up on Circe’s island. Odysseus sends Eurylochus to her house with half the crew. Eurylochus runs away but the men are turned into pigs. Odysseus goes to rescue them and gets advice from Hermes the messenger of the Gods. He forces Circe to behave properly and to turn the men back into people. They are well entertained there but Circe tells them that they need to visit the land of the dead before they go home. 1. The hospitality debate. King Aeolus is an excellent host and gives presents and advice. He turns against Odysseus later. The Laestrygonians are the worst possible hosts. Circe is initially bad but eventually is excellent giving food and advice. Note that Odysseus forces her to be better and refuses to accept food until his men are treated properly. 2. Odysseus’s leadership. Encouraging the men and taking decisions. Killing the stag. “I have absolutely no choice” when he returns to save his men. He never blames the men and is honest with them. Practical when he orders them to drag the ship onto the beach. Is he guilty of secretiveness and lack of supervision with Aeolus? He is perhaps selfish when he lingers too long on Circe’s island although he agrees to leave when the men ask him. 3. Human emotions. Guilt when the Laestrygonians kill his men. Guilt felt by the men for opening the bag. Traumatized when they arrive on Circe’s island. Rage with Eurylochus. 4. The incompetent crew. Opening the bag on unfair suspicions. Cracking up later. Is Odysseus loosing patience with their moaning and weeping? Link with them to pigs and cows. They do quieten Odysseus when he wants to kill Eurylochus although as things turned out it might have been better to have let Odysseus kill him. The death of Elpenor. 5. Eurylochus. Cannot lead as he is a coward and leaves the men in the lurch. Cannot follow as he undermines Odysseus. 6. The Gods are clearly displeased. However, Odysseus gets good advice from Hermes which he follows. 7. Odysseus the womanizer. 12 8. Cultural differences. Greeks were more tolerant of the incestuous children of Aeolus. Nowadays we would be horrified. IMPORTANT POINTS IN CHAPTER 12 Odysseus leaves Circe after he has been advised how to deal with the Sirens Scylla and Charybdis. He has also been warned about Thrinacie the home of the cattle belonging to the Sun God. He has already been warned by Tiresias the blind prophet in the Underworld. Odysseus escapes the Sirens, Charybdis and Scylla, although six of his men are killed. His men (encouraged by Eurylochus) force him to land in Thrinacie although he makes them swear an oath not to touch the cattle. The food runs out and while he is away the men kill and eat the cattle. Zeus sinks the ship killing the men. Odysseus is swept back to Charybdis. He escapes and is washed up on Ogygia the home of Calypso. 1. Odysseus arguing with Circe when she tells him not to fight Scylla. Does this show arrogance, a concern for the men or resourcefulness. Is Circe proved right? 2. Odysseus lies to the men telling them that Circe told him to hear the Sirens. He endangers their lives just to satisfy his curiosity 3. Odysseus with the Sirens. This shows him as curious and as a womanizer. 4. Odysseus feelings when he has to lie to his men about Scylla leading to six of them being killed. Why does he have to do this? 5. Odysseus weakness when he gives in to them and stays on the island. He cannot impose his will (unlike with the Lotus eaters). Is this weakness and leadership by committee. Or is Odysseus showing respect for the men or a fear that they might defy him and he could lose the command position. He may be tempted by the prospect of a comfortable night ashore 6. The behavior of the men. Encouraged by Eurylochus the men break their promise and bring the disaster on them. Odysseus cannot control them when he is not there. 7. The vengeance of the Gods. Is this justified? Zeus gives in to Hyperion's threats. 13 8. Odysseus has had enough of the men. See his lack of sympathy and grief when they are killed. “There would be no homecoming for them the Gods had seen to that”. IMPORTANT POINTS IN CHAPTER 5 Odysseus is trapped on the Island of Ogygia by the goddess Calypso. He is homesick. The Gods meet at Olympus and Athene argues that Odysseus has suffered enough and deserves to go home. Zeus agrees and sends Hermes to tell Calypso to let him go. Hermes travels to tell Calypso. She is initially hostile, saying that the Gods always try and break up a relationship between a goddess and a mortal man. She eventually agrees. Calypso promises Odysseus immortality if he stays. He refuses and builds a raft. The raft is wrecked by Poseidon. However he is given advice by the sea goddess Ino. Athene calms the storm once Poseidon has gone. Odysseus eventually manages to get ashore on Scherie the land of the Phracians. He has to pray to the River God to land. 1. The role of the Gods. The authority of Zeus and the kindness of Athene and Ino. The revenge of Poseidon. Note that Athene is only prepared to help Odysseus once Poseidon has left him alone. She will not stand up to Poseidon directly. 2. The character of Odysseus. Free from the leadership role he is reveled as a very human character. He is homesick and lonely. Also he refuses immortality showing his love for his wife and home. He is mistrustful of Calypso and Ino - why does he feel like that? He shows a tough nature when he says that “I have a heart that is inured to suffering and I shall steel it to endure that too”. 3. Odysseus accepts the advice of Ino when he throws away the veil. Is he finally learning obedience? 4. Hospitality. The hospitality shown by Calypso and by the River God. Odysseus pleads to the River God for the help due to a guest. 5. Descriptive passages – the boat building and the storm. 14 IMPORTANT POINTS IN CHAPTER 6 The island of Scherie is ruled by King Alcinous. His daughter Nausicaa is woken by Athene and goes down to the river with her friends to swim and wash clothes. They meet Odysseus who is naked and in a terrible state. He greets Nausicaa politely and asks for hospitality. She directs him to the palace of her father and promises that he will be well received. 1. The character of Nausicaa. She is a obedient girl with traditional values. She is kind and helpful. She doesn’t want to risk her reputation by being seen with Odysseus. However she is resourceful and is not scared of Odysseus. 2. Hospitality. Odysseus is very polite when he greets her and she responds correctly. Contrast this with other meetings. 15 16