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Chemistry
I.
II.
Atoms, Bonds, Molecules
A. Introduction
1. Matter
2. Atoms-subatomic particles
3. Nucleus surrounded by electrons
B. Elements
1. Characteristic atomic structure; predictable chemical behavior
2. 92 naturally occurring elements
C. Elements of Life and Primary Characteristics
1. Atomic number
2. Mass number
3. Isotopes
4. Radioactive isotopes
5. Atomic weight
D. Electron Orbitals and Shells
1. Orbital
2. Energy shells
3. Electrons in pairs starting nearest nucleus
4. First shell has one orbital; second shell has 4 orbitals; third shell
has 9 orbitals; fourth shell has 16 orbitals
5. Chemical properties are control by electrons in outermost shell
Bonds and Molecules
A. Introduction
1. Molecule
2. Compounds
3. Molecular weight
4. Chemical bonds result from sharing, donating or gaining
electrons
5. Valence determines reactivity and types of bonds possible
6. Inert gases are stable
B. Covalent Bonds and Polarity
1. Covalent bonds share electrons; example is water
2. Single covalent; double covalent
3. Most common biological elements: C,H,O,N,S,P
4. Polar
C. Ionic Bonds
1. Electrons are transferred completely, not shared; example is
NaCl
2. Oxidation
3. Reduction
4. Sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduces
5. Sodium is a reducing agent (can reduce another molecule by
donating electrons)
6. Chlorine is an oxidizing agent ( can oxidize another molecule by
receiving electrons)
7. LEO says GER; Lose electrons Oxidized, Gain electrons
Reduced
8. Ionization
a. Occurs when ionic bond is broken and atoms dissociate
into ions
b. Cation; anion
c. Electrolytes
d. Transfer of electrons is used to store and release energy
9. Hydrogen bonding
a. Weak bond between H covalently bonded to an O or N
b. Represented by dotted line
c. Examples: water molecules; structure of proteins
10. Chemical shorthand
a. Molecular formula
b. Structural formula
c. Equations; reactants, products; synthesis, decomposition,
exchange
D. Solutions
1. Solution= solutes + solvent
2. “like dissolves like”
3. Hydrophobic, hydrophilic, amphipathic
4. Concentration
5. Molarity
E. Acidity, Alkalinity and the pH Scale
1. water dissociates into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions
2. Acid in water releases hydrogen ions
3. Base in water releases hydroxyl ions
4. pH scale 0-14 with 7 being neutral; 0-7 is acid, 7-14 is base
5. Neutralization reactions
F. Chemistry of Carbon and Organic Compounds
1. Introduction
a. Organic -C bonded to H
b. Inorganic
c. C is fundamental element of life; forms single, double and
triple bonds; has 4 valence electrons
2. Fundamental Groups of Organic Compounds
a. Hydroxyl
b. Carboxyl
c. Amino
d. Ester
e. Sulfhydryl
f. Carbonyl
g. Phosphate
III.
Macromolecules
A. Polymerization-monomers make polymers
B. Carbohydrates: Sugars and Polysaccharides
1. Introduction
a. Monosaccharide – 3 to 7 C (monomer)
b. Disaccharide; Polysaccharide
c. Prefix has some characteristic and –ose
2. Nature of Carbohydrate Bonds
a. Linked by glycosidic bonds
b. Dehydration synthesis
3. Functions of Polysaccharides
a. Structural support and protection; nutrient and energy
stores
b. Cell walls of cellulose
c. Dextran
d. Agar
e. Chitin
f. Peptidoglycan
g. Lipopolysaccharide
h. Glycocalyx
i. Starch, glycogen
j. Hydrolysis
C. Lipids: Fats, Phospholipids and Waxes
1. lipids- not soluble in polar solvents (water), but will dissolve in
nonpolar solvents
2. examples: triglycerides, phospholipids, sterols, waxes
3. triglycerides
a. energy storage
b. glycerol + three fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated)
c. fats and oils
d. 9 Kcal/g
4. phospholipids – membranes
a. glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate group
b. hydrophilic region
c. hydrophobic region
5. Miscellaneous lipids
a. steroids
1) structure
2) examples
b. prostaglandins
c. wax
1) locations
2) wax D of M. tuberculosis
D. Proteins
1. Introduction
a. C,H,O,N
b. 20 amino acids (monomers); stereoisomers D and L forms
c. amino acid- alpha C, amino group, acid group, R group
d. functions
e. peptide bond
f. peptide; polypeptide; protein
2. Protein Structure and Diversity
a. Primary
b. Secondary
c. Tertiary
d. Quaternary
e. Unique shape
f. Enzymes
g. Antibodies
h. Receptors
i. Native state vs. denatured
E. Nucleic acids
1. Introduction
a. C,H,O,N,P
b. DNA
c. RNA
d. 1944-Avery, MacLeod, McCarty
e. 1953- Watson, Crick
f. nucleotide (monomer)-N base, pentose sugar, phosphate
g. N bases
1) purines – adenine, guanine
2) pyrimidines- thymine, cytosine, uracil
h..complementary base pairing
2. Double helix of DNA
a. two polynucleotide chains with deoxyribose sugar
b. A:T, C:G
c. Spiral staircase
3. DNA replication uses original strands as patterns
4. RNA: Organizers of Protein Synthesis
a. single strand, ribose sugar, uracil
b. A:U, C:G
IV.
c. mRNA
d. tRNA
e. rRNA
5. ATP: Energy Molecule of Cells
a. relative of RNA
b. adenine, ribose, three phosphates
c. high energy compound
d. releases and stores energy
e. NAD
Cells: Where Chemicals come to Life
A. Fundamental Characteristics of Cells
1. single or multi-celled
2. similarities
3. eukaryotic cells
a. types of organisms
b. organelles
4. prokaryotic cells
a. types of organisms
b. characteristics
B. Processes that Define Life
1. Biological activities or properties of life
a. growth
b. reproduction
c. metabolism
d. movement
e. transport
f. support
2. Reproduction
a. genome
b. chromosomes
c. sexual and asexual
d. mitosis and binary fission
3. Metabolism
a. protein synthesis
b. eukaryotes- ribosomes; mitochondria; chloroplasts
c. prokaryotes – ribosomes; cell membrane; pigments
4. Irritability or Motility
a. irritabilityb. motilityc. eukaryotes- flagella, cilia, pseudopods
d. prokaryotes- flagella, fibrils
5. Protection and storage
a. eukaryotes-cell walls; vacuoles
b. prokaryotes-cell walls; crystals
6. Transport: Movement of Nutrients and Wastes
a. cell membrane
b. eukaryotes- Golgi apparatus