Download Index 524 Addition rule, 240 alpha level, 379 Alternative hypothesis

Index
Addition rule, 240
alpha level, 379
Alternative hypothesis, 374
Anonymity (in surveys), 130
Approximate 95% confidence interval,
423
Association, possible reasons for, 172175
Average over long run, 288-289
Conditional probability, 237, 243, 248
Conditions for Chi-square test, 512
Conditions, for one sample t–test, 456
Conditions, for testing difference in
proportions, 469
Conditions, for two-sample t-test, 464
Confidence interval, 113, 337, 346, 349,
357
Confidence interval for one mean, 426,
429
Confidence interval for p, 95%, 350, 356
Confidence interval for p, general, 357,
359
Confidence interval, difference in
means, 433,
Confidence interval, difference in
proportions, 438
Confidence Interval, E(Y) in Regression,
494
Confidence interval, relative risk, 441442
Confidence intervals and decisions, 361362
Confidence intervals and decisions, 361362
Confidence intervals and significance
tests, 472-474
Confidence level, 349, 357, 358
Confidentiality (in surveys), 130
Confounding factors, 173-174
Confounding variable, 9, 78-82
Confounding variable and causation, 92
Confusion of the inverse, 258
Constant variance in regression, 484
Contingency table, 190, 503
Continuous variable, 21
Continuous random variable, 282, 299
Control groups, 85
Convenience sample, 126
Correlation, 141, 157-159
Cumulative distribution function (cdf),
286, 304, 307
Curvilinear relationship, 145, 171-172
Bar graph, 28, 30
Base rate, 4, 5
Baseline risk, 4, 5, 195, 201
Bayesian statistics, 379
Bell-shaped curve, 51
Bernoulli random variable, 295
Biased, 114
Binomial distribution, 296
Binomial experiment, 293-294
Binomial random variable, 293-294
Blinding, 86
Block design, 87
Blocks, 87
Boxplot, 49
Case-control study, 90
Categorical variable, 20,22
Causation versus correlation, 172-175
Cause and effect, 82, 92
Cell, 190, 503
Census, 112
Central limit theorem, 336
Chi-square distribution, 509-510, 518
Chi-square statistic, 205, 207
Chi-square test for two-way tables, 507,
512
Chi-square test statistic, 507-508
Cluster sample, 117
Cluster, 117
Coherent probabilities, 232
Coincidence, 261
Column percentages, 190-191, 503
Complement, 235, 240
Computer-assisted telephone
interviewing, 119
Conditional percentages, 190
Data, 2, 4
Degrees of freedom (df) for t, 427
524
Index
Deliberate bias, 128
Dependent events, 236
Dependent variable, 77, 142
Descriptive statistics, 71
Deterministic relationship, 152
Deviation in regression, 485
Difficulties in sampling, 121
Disasters in sampling, 124
Discrete random variable, 282, 283
Disjoint events, 235
Dotplot, 2, 37, 41
Double-blind, 86
Haphazard sample, 126
Hawthorne effect, 94-95
Histogram, 37, 40
Hypothesis testing, 337, 373, 453
Hypothesis test conclusions, 380
Hypothesis test, summary of steps, 455
Hypothesis testing steps, 381-384
Independent events, 236, 241
Independent samples, 420
Independent variable, 77
Inferential statistics, 71
Influential observations, 166
Interacting variable, 94
Intercept of a straight line, 153, 156
Intercept, 482
Interquartile range, 47
Ecological validity, 96
Effect modifier, 105
Empirical Rule, 54, 56
Equal variance assumption, 436
Error, 155
Estimate, 415
Evaluating Research Reports, 403
Event, 234
Excel for binomial probabilities, 297
Excel for chi-square tests, 208-209, 510
Excel for correlation, 165
Excel for describing quantitative data,
49, 53
Excel for regression, 165
Excel, p-value for t-test, 459
Excel, p-value for z-test, 388
Expected counts, 205, 206, 507
Expected value, 288-289
Experiment, 75, 82
Experimental units, 77
Experimenter effect, 94-95
Explanatory variable, 24, 27, 77
Extending results inappropriately, 93
Extrapolation, 155
Law of small numbers, 265
Least squares line, 155, 156
Level of significance, 379-380, 399
Linear relationship, 144
Literary Digest poll, 126
Location, 32
Lower quartile, 3, 4, 46, 47
Lurking variable, 78, 82
Margin of error, 6,7, 112, 113, 347-348
Margin of error, conservative, 353
Margin of error for 95% CI, 351
Matched-pair design, 87
Mean of a binomial variable, 298
Mean of a discrete random variable, 288
Mean, 43, 44
Mean of a population, 292, 293
Measurement variable, 21
Median, 3, 4, 43, 44
Minitab for binomial probabilities, 297
Misleading statistics about risk, 198
Multiplication rule, 241
Multiplier in confidence interval, 357,
358
Multiplier for confidence interval, 423
Multi-stage sampling, 119
Mutually exclusive events, 235, 240
False negative, 396, 398
False positive, 396, 398
Five-number summary, 3, 31, 46, 50
Fundamental rule for using inference, 71
Gambler’s fallacy, 265
General format of confidence interval,
423
525
Index
Negative association, 144
Nonlinear relationship, 146
Nonparametric methods, 453
Nonresponse bias, 7, 114, 122-123
Non-significant chi-square test, 211
Normal approximation to the binomial,
311-312
Normal curve approximation rule for
sample means, 333
Normal curve approximation rule for
sample proportions, 327
Normal distribution (or curve), 51, 302
Normal random variable, 302
Null hypothesis for two-way tables, 504
Null hypothesis, 374
Numerical variable, 21
Power and sample size, 401-402
Power, 400
Practical significance, 209-210
Prediction, 149
Prediction Interval, 495
Probability, 225, 234
Probability calculation hints, 248-249
Probability density function, 299-300
Probability distribution function (pdf),
285
Probability interpretation summary, 233
Probability rule 1: complements, 240
Probability rule 2: addition, 240
Probability rule 3: multiplication, 241
Probability rule 4: conditional
probability, 243
Probability rules, summary, 247
Probability sampling plans, 115
Proportion of variation explained by x,
162
Prospective study, 90
P-value, 207, 378, 379
p-value, test for proportion, 386-387
Observational study, 8, 9, 75, 90
Observed counts, 205
Odds ratio, 197
Odds, 196
One-sample t-test, 455-457, 460
One-sided hypothesis, 375
Ordinal variable, 22
Outcome variable, 27, 77
Outlier, 32, 35-37, 45
Outliers in regression, 148, 165
Quantitative variable, 21,22
Quartiles, 46,47
Questions for variable types, 23-24
Quickie poll, 122
Quota sampling, 136
Paired data, 430, 431, 460
Paired t-test, 460-461
Parameter, 322, 415
Percent increase in risk, 196
Percentile, 48, 309, 311
Percentile ranking, 309
Personal probability, 232
Pie chart, 28
Placebo effect, 86
Placebo, 9, 10, 85
Pooled standard deviation, 436
Pooled standard error, 436
Pooled two-sample t-test, 466
Population, 5, 6, 73, 346
Population data, 20
Population proportion, 347
Population size and margin of error, 361
Positive association, 144
Random assignment, 9, 10
Random circumstance, 224
Random digit dialing, 118
Random numbers, 73
Random sample, 5, 6
Random variable, 281
Randomization, 84
Randomized experiment, 9, 10, 75, 82
Range, 47
Rate, 5
Raw data, 19
Regression analysis, 149
Regression equation, 141, 149, 153
Regression line, 150
Regression Line, for sample, 482
526
Index
Regression Model, for population, 483,
486
Regression model, summary, 485
Relative frequency, 227
Relative risk, 195, 197, 201
Repeated measures design, 87
Residual, 156, 486
Residual Plots, 496-499
Residual sum of squares, 163
Response bias, 115, 128
Response variable, 24, 27, 77
Retrospective study, 90
Risk, 5, 194, 197
Row percentages, 190, 503
Rule for Sample Means, 331
Rule for Sample Proportions, 325
Slope of a straight line, 151, 153, 156
Slope, 482
Specificity, 259
Spread, 32, 46
Squared correlation (r2 ), 162
Standard deviation (sample), 52, 53
Standard deviation (population), 53, 293
Standard deviation of p̂ , 329
Standard deviation of a binomial
variable, 298
Standard deviation of discrete random
variable, 290
Standard deviation of residuals, 487
Standard deviation of the mean, 333
Standard error for a difference, 420
Standard error of p̂ , 329, 255
Standard Error of sample proportion,
329, 355
Standard error of the mean, 333
Standard error, difference in means, 420
Standard error, difference in proportions,
420
Standard error, general definition, 418
Standard error, one mean, 418
Standard error, one proportion, 418
Standard normal distribution, 304
Standard normal random variable, 304
Standardized score, 55, 303
Standardized statistic, 454
Statistic, 322, 324, 331, 415
Statistical hypothesis testing, 373
Statistical inference, 336
Statistical relationship, 152
Statistical significance vs. real
importance, 394
Statistical significance, 205, 209
Statistical significance, 337
Statistical significance, 453
Statistically significant relationship, 205
Statistically Significant, 10 and practical
importance, 12
Statistically significant, 379-380, 394
Statistics, 1
Stem-and-leaf plot, 37, 41
Strata, 115
Stratified random sample, 115-116
Sample, 73, 347
Sample data, 20
Sample proportion, 324, 347
Sample size and margin of error, 360
Sample Size and Statistical Significance,
393-394
Sample size, 347
Sample space, 234
Sample survey, 6,7, 111
Sampling distribution, 322
Sampling frame, 121
Sampling with replacement, 245-246
Sampling without replacement, 245-246
Scatter plot, 141, 142
Selection bias, 114, 121
Self-selected sample, 7, 8, 125
Sensitivity, 259
Shape, 32
Significance of regression relationship,
489
Significance testing, 337
Significance testing, 453
Simple event, 234
Simple random sample, 73, 115
Simple Regression, 482
Simpson's Paradox, 203
Simulation, 255
Single-blind, 86
Skewed (shape), 38
527
Index
Subjective probability, 232
Subjects, 77
Sum of squared errors (SSE), 163
Sum of squares total (SSTO), 163
Symmetric (shape), 38
Systematic sampling, 117
Unit, 77, 346
Universe, 346
Unpooled two-sample t-test, 466
Upper quartile, 3-4, 46, 47
Variable, 9, 20
Variance (population), 53
Variance (sample), 53
Variance for binomial, 298
Variance of random variable, 290
Variation Explained by x, R2 , 488
Volunteer response, 123, 127
Volunteer sample, 7, 8, 125
Volunteers, 83
t* multiplier, 426, 428
t-distribution, 427
Test statistic, 378
Treatment, 9, 10, 75
Tree diagram, 253-254
t-test for difference in two means, 463,
465-466
t-test for difference in two means,
summary, 466
t-test for one mean, 455-457, 460
t-test for one mean, summary, 460
two-sample t-test, 463-466
Two-sided hypothesis, 376
Two-way table, 190, 503
Type 1 error, 397
Type 2 error, 397
Welch’s Approximation for df, 433-434
x-variable, 142
y-variable, 142
z test for a proportion, 381
z test statistic for proportion, 384, 385
z-score, 55, 303
z-test for difference in two proportions,
469-470
Unbiased, 114
Uniform random variable, 300-301
Unintentional bias, 129
528