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INTRODUCTION TO THE ANCIENT WORLD
Fall Semester 2003
David J. White
Course No. 3200:220-080
Tuesday, 9 September 2003
STUDY GUIDE 1
For the first quiz I will include some of following, from the lectures and readings. It will be a short-answer quiz,
and I will give you choice of questions, as I always do. I will probably ask you to choose 20 out of a larger number
of questions that I will give you. If you answer more than the requested 20, I will count the 20 that are right. I will
probably let you do an additional one for extra credit. The quiz might also include some topics that aren’t on this
sheet but which will be covered in class between now and the date of the quiz.
RISE OF SUMER
Cultural Periods:
Paleolithic Period
Neolithic Period
Bronze Age
Iron Age
ca. 100,000 – 9000 B.C.
ca. 9000-3000 B.C.
ca. 3000-1100 B.C.
ca. 1100 B.C. –
(Old Stone Age)
(New Stone Age)
Neolithic Revolution: Agriculture (domestication of plants and animals, esp. plants)
Makes possible:
Surplus of goods (so not everyone has to farm)
Division of labor (specialization, trades, professions)
Cities (living in settled communities that are highly organized, specialized, stratified)
All this gives rise to what we generally call civilization.
Mesopotamia
Between two rivers: Tigris and Euphrates
Location of many of the earliest civilizations
Flooding of the rivers leaves very fertile soil
Can only be properly cultivated through irrigation, which requires high degree of social organization.
Sumerians
Lived in southern Mesopotamia, area called Sumer, ca. 3100-2000 B.C.
Lived in various independent city-states, such as Ur, Uruk, Kish, Lagash, Eridu, Nippur
Uruk mentioned in the Bible as Erech; Gilgamesh is a legendary king.
Ur is mentioned in the Bible as the birthplace of Abraham.
Their language does not seem to be related to any other known language.
Seem to have invented the cuneiform writing system
“Wedge-shaped” characters; written on damp clay tablet with a stylus
Developed from pictographic characters; simplified into wedge-shaped strokes
Over 600 signs (characters); some represented words or ideas, others represented sounds of syllables;
very different from the alphabets we are familiar with.
Very versatile writing system; borrowed by other people to write their languages, which were very
different from Sumerian.
Writing was practiced only by professional scribes.
Writing seems to have originated as an accounting/bookkeeping tool; later used to record literature, etc.
Built stepped, pyramid-like towers called ziqqurats (or, ziggurats) out of mud brick; used as temple; might have
been the inspiration for the story of the Tower of Babel in the Bible.
Sir Leonard Woolley began excavating the royal tombs at Ur in 1922 and uncovered spectacular artifacts, as well
as vastly increasing our knowledge of the Sumerians. The artifacts are divided among Iraq, the British
Museum, and the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia.
Sargon of Akkad (Agade) unifies Mesopotamia ca. 2240 B.C.
Considered the world’s first empire; the city-states of southern Mesopotamia are now under one ruler.
Sargon might be mentioned in the Bible as “Nimrod”, the conqueror.
Akkad is the northern part of southern Mesopotamia; Sumer and Akkad together constitute the region later known
as Babylonia, because it eventually comes under the control of the city of Babylon. It is essentially the
region south of the point where the Tigris and Euphrates come closest together.
Sargon, continued
The Akkadian language displaces Sumerian as the principal language of southern Mesopotamia. It is a Semitic
language, i.e. it belongs to the language family that includes modern Hebrew and Arabic, as well as
Aramaic, Punic and other ancient languages in the Near East. Akkadian comes to be written with the
cuneiform writing system and eventually comes to be the common diplomatic and trading language of
the Near East. Sumerian becomes a kind of literary and religious language (as Latin was for many
centuries in the West until recently), known only to priests and scholars, until it eventually dies out and is
forgotten.
Decline of Sumer, sack of Ur ca. 2000 B.C.
Rise of Babylon, late 3rd-early 2nd millennium B.C.
Expansion of Amorites in western Asia (causing much dislocation of peoples ) ca. 2100-1900 B.C.
Babylon gains control of southern Mesopotamia in early 2 nd millennium B.C.
Expansion of Canaanite, Hittitle and Hurrian peoples ca. 1800 B.C.
Hammurapi (also spelled “Hammurabi”) is king ca. 1792-1750 B.C.
Hittite Sack of Babylon ca. 1600 B.C.
Mesopotamia ruled by the Kassites ca. 1600-1200 B.C.
During this period, Babylon rose to its first period of power and greatness.
Called the Old Babylonian period
First great age of Akkadian literature; earliest versions of Gilgamesh epic date to this period
Law code promulgated by Hammurapi; first known attempt to codify laws, prescribe standard penalities,
and mitigate the severity and capriciousness of the previous practice of justice through vengeance.
Name of Babylon seems to mean “Gate of the Gods” in Akkadian
Epic of Gilgamesh
Ancient Mesopotamian epic, we have Old Babylonian (early-mid 2nd millennium BC) and Neo-Assyrian
(early-mid 1st millennium BC) versions of it; it is probably much, much older.
Gilgamesh is King of city of Uruk; he is a hero, favored by the gods, very strong & capable, but still mortal.
He is terrorizing the city; inhabitants ask the gods to give Gilgamesh a companion to distract him.
The gods send Enkidu; he and Gilgamesh fight but eventually become friends.
They set out on quests and do great deeds
Defeat of the Bull of Heaven – Enkidu is killed
Gilgamesh searches for plant that gives eternal life – he fails to obtain everlasting life
Meeting with Utnapishtim, the survivor of the Flood
Basically the epic is pessimistic in outlook, as is all Mesopotamian literature.
A few Mesopotamian gods (to help you in reading Gilgamesh)
Anu is the great sky god, equivalent to Greek Ouranos (Uranus); his name means “sky” or heavens.
Ea (Enki) is a water god and trickster god
Marduk is a storm god and the chief god of Babylon; he is equivalent in many ways to
Greek/Roman Zeus/Jupiter
Ishtar is goddess of love, fortune, etc., very important to kings.
She is called Inanna in Sumerian
The terms “Ashtaroth” in the Bible might refer to Ishtar
Her name seems to be related to the Greek and Latin words for “star” (astrum)
INTRODUCTION TO THE ANCIENT WORLD
Fall Semester 2003
David J. White
Course No. 3200:220-080
Tuesday, 9 September 2003
STUDY GUIDE 1a
This is mostly for your enjoyment and edification. The only gods who might appear on the first Quiz are
any gods mentioned in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Of the rest, a few that are more important might appear as
choices on the Midterm, but not on the second Quiz. The second Quiz will cover Egypt and whatever early
Greek stuff we will have covered by then.
Some of this comes from a couple of the websites I cite at the end, some consists of my own comments.
Sumerian/Babylonian Mythology
The Sumerians thought that a great domed roof contained the sky, the stars, the moon, and the sun that
lighted the cities beneath it; they also believed that below the earth swirled the dim netherworld, a fearsome
abode of demons and the kingdom of the dead. Enlil and Enki are credited with creating the cattle, sheep,
plants, the yoke and the plow to provide sustenance for themselves and less important deities, but these
minor gods lacked the resolution to make use of this bounty so man was fashioned from clay and given
breath so he might tend the sheep and cultivate the fields for the gods. The gods of Sumer, much like
mortal men, suffered the vicissitudes of fate and many legends tell of their often ineffective exploits.
The gods are often referred to in myth books, history books, etc. by either their Sumerian names or their
Babylonian (Akkadian) names, and not always consistently. The Babylonians themselves don’t always
seem to have been consistent throughout their history about which of their gods they identified with which
of the older Sumerian gods. In addition, some works of ancient Mesopotamian literature use both names
interchangeably, and there are different local names that are sometimes used (i.e., a god might have one
name in one city and a different name in a different city). But the following table is a good general
correlation. (Yes, I know Nintu appears twice. I’m following my sources here. As with all evidence about
the ancient Near East, it should be used with caution.)
Sumerian name
An
Ki
Ninhursag
Enlil
Enki
Nanna
Inanna
Utu
Ninlil
Nintu
Babylonian (Akkadian) Name
Anu
Nintu
Aruru, Mammi
Ellil
Ea
Sin
Ishtar
Shamash
Mullitu, Mylitta
Tiamat
Nammu -- Goddess of the Primeval Sea, "the mother who gave birth to heaven and earth."
An -- God of the Heavens, leading Sumerian deity from Fourth Millennium B.C. until the city of Erech
began to lose its power (c. 2500 B.C.). Father and ruler of all gods. One of four Sumerian creating gods.
Ki -- Goddess of the Earth, wife of An and mother of all gods, she created humans from clay. One of four
Sumerian creating gods.
Enlil -- God of Air and Storms, son of An and Ki: Enlil is credited with separating the heavens from earth
and, therefore, described as the "father of the gods," "king of the universe," "king of all lands." For about a
thousand years after 2500 B.C., Enlil is supreme ruler of Sumerian pantheon of gods and guardian of the
city of Nippur; he is credited with raising up the "seed of the land" and with bringing "whatever is needful"
into existence. Enlil is said to have been responsible for the me, a set of universal laws governing all
existence. One of four Sumerian creating gods.
Enki -- Lord of Water and Wisdom. Enki emits streams from his shoulders; he is the god who gave rulers
their intelligence and who provided craftsmen with their skills. One of four Sumerian creating gods.
Utu -- Sun god who lights the world with rays issuing from his shoulders: Utu was also the god of justice
and carved out justice with the many-toothed saw he carried with him. He protects the poor and travelers.
Ninhursag -- Mother Earth, the source of all life: from Ninhursag came the birth of the planets; she is
usually seen wearing a leafy crown and holding a branch to indicate fertility.
Inanna -- Goddess of Love and War. Inanna stands beside her insignia, gateposts hung with streamers, and
is present whenever life is conceived through love or ended in battle. She descended to the Underworld to
try to regain her lover. Her Akkadian name, Ishtar, is possibly related etymologically to the name of the
god(s) Ashtaroth, mentioned in the Old Testament of the Bible, and to the Greek and Latin word for “star”,
astron (astrum in Latin; cf. the word “astronomy”).
Ereshkigal -- Goddess of Darkness, Gloom, and Death, sister of Inanna.
Apsu -- Tiamat's husband, the ruler of gods and underworld oceans. Father of Lahmu, Lahamu, Anshar and
Kishar. Ea killed him. (Our word abyss perhaps comes ultimately from his name.)
Damkina -- Earth mother goddess, wife of Ea and mother of Marduk.
Marduk -- Son of Ea and Damkina, the wisest of the gods and eventually their ruler. He is the chief god of
Babylon. In Babylonian myth he occupies a position similar to that of Zeus in Greek myth: the sky/weather
god who overcomes his rivals to become the supreme god. Because Babylon conquered its neighbors, and
because Marduk was chief god of Babylon, he came to be regarded as the supreme god of the
Mesopotamian pantheon during the period of Babylonian dominance.
Tiamat -- Great goddess, counterpart of Sumerian Nintu. Primeval chaos. Destroyed by her children to
create the world.
The above list of gods and goddesses is not at all exhaustive, but gives the more important ones.
The following websites have some useful information, though again they should be used with caution.
http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_myth_asia_sumerian_gods_index.htm
http://members.bellatlantic.net/~vze33gpz/assyrbabyl-faq.html#a1.7
http://home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/AncientCivilizations/Middle_East_Civilizations/Babylonians/babylonians.html
http://home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/AncientCivilizations/Middle_East_Civilizations/Sumerians/sumerians.html
http://home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/AncientCivilizations/Middle_East_Civilizations/Assyrians/assyrians.html
http://home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/AncientCivilizations/Middle_East_Civilizations/Hittites/hittites.html
http://home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/AncientCivilizations/Middle_East_Civilizations/Phoenicians/phoenicians.html
http://home.cfl.rr.com/crossland/AncientCivilizations/Middle_East_Civilizations/Persians/persians.html