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EVOLUTION AND DESIGN
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
NATURAL AND CONSCIOUS EVOLUTION
2
1.4.3.2
Objective 2
1.4.3.3
Objective 3
EVOLUTION AND HISTORY
2.1
REASONS TO STUDY EVOLUTION
16
16
17
17
A THEORETICAL AND APPLIED METAPHYSICS
2.1.1
As the universal process of unfolding reality
17
ANIL MITRA PHD, © HORIZONS ENTERPRISES 1987, 1999
2.1.2
To show levels of understanding:
17
2.1.2.1
[A] Knowledge As Static
17
2.1.2.2
[B] Knowledge as evolving
17
2.1.2.3
[C] Knowledge As An Element Of Evolution 17
2.1.2.4
[D] Evolution Of The Processes
Of Knowledge
17
2.1.3
To establish “the” dimensions of being
17
2.1.4
Provides learning for design
17
2.1.5
To study my own life
17
2.1.6
To understand relation of universal to human Being17
2.1.7
Relation to objectives of the present work
2.1.8
Provides insight into culture and human institutions 17
2.1.9
As a foundation for design
CONTENTS
PREFACE AND INTRODUCTION
8
Page Numbering
9
Section and Paragraph Numbering
9
1
INTRODUCTION, OBJECTIVES, STRUCTURE
10
EVOLUTION AND DESIGN - LEVELS AND RELATIONS
- ORIGINS OF OBJECTIVES
11
1.1
13
CHARACTERIZATION OF DESIGN
1.1.1
Four Levels of Design
1.1.1.1
Level I - Problem solving and objectiv
design
13
2.1.9.1
[1] Design is within evolution
17
2.1.9.2
[2] Design is analogous to evolution
17
2.1.9.3
[3] Design is part of evolution
17
Level II - Social and human process
13
1.1.1.3
Level III - Evolutionary design
13
1.1.1.4
Level IV - Design is evolution
13
OBJECTIVES FOR THIS WORK
1.2.1
FORMAL STATEMENT
1.2.1.1
Objective 1 - Design as fundamental in
society and universe
13
13
13
1.2.1.1.1
Idea A - Practical and objective design
13
1.2.1.1.2
Idea B - Social process as design
13
1.2.1.1.3
Idea C - Evolution in design
13
1.2.1.1.4
Idea D - General evolution
14
1.2.1.2
Objective 2 - Use of design
14
1.2.1.3
Objective 3 - Design as universal process
14
1.2.2
DISCUSSION AND FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS
1.2.2.1
Objective 1 - objective design
14
14
1.2.2.1.1
Idea A - Objective design is a
fundamental human and social process 14
1.2.2.1.2
Idea B: Objective design generalizes to
social process
14
1.2.2.1.3
Idea C - Evolution in Design
14
1.2.2.1.4
Idea D - General Evolution
14
1.2.2.2
Objective 2 - Use of Design
14
1.2.2.3
Objective 3 - Design As Universal Process
15
1.3
BASIC THESES AND POSTULATES
15
2.2
CHARACTERIZATION OF EVOLUTION
2.2.1
Origins, continuation and destination of all
entities in our physical and speculative universes
2.2.3
Evolution need not be distinguished from or equated
with creation, guidance, or destruction
17
2.2.4
Time and space evolve
18
2.2.5
Universal processes
18
2.2.6
Evolution does refer to specific set of mechanisms or
theories
18
2.2.7
Evolution is not a social or political program
18
2.2.8
Evolution is not a philosophical program
18
2.2.9
Evolution includes emergence of order by natural
processes
18
2.2.9.1
Is not essential
18
2.2.9.2
Mechanisms includes:
19
2.3
ABSTRACT EVOLUTION WITH EXAMPLES
Special
19
2.3.2
Linguistic / symbolic
19
2.3.3
Mathematical - a special case of the symbolic
19
2.3.4
Computer
19
Mechanistic
19
2.3.5
1.3.2
This resolution requires vision
15
1.3.3
DESIGN, AS PROBLEM SOLVING IS AN
ESSENTIAL ACTIVITY AT ALL LEVELS
15
1.3.4
objective design must include holistic values
15
1.3.5
Generalization of the basic design leads to more
inclusive and universal processes
15
PREFACE
The idea evolution = design [Level IV]
universalizes and hierarchizes design
15
2.5.1
OUTLINE
15
LOGIC OF THE ORDER
15
1.4.2
COMPLETENESS
15
1.4.3
WHERE ARE THE OBJECTIVES TREATED?
15
1.4.3.1
Objective 1
15
19
2.3.1
15
1.4.1
17
Processes of evolution are not different than ordinary
processes
17
There is a human motive to the universal
1.4
17
2.2.2
1.3.1
1.3.6
17
13
1.1.1.2
1.2
17
2.4
HISTORY14
19
2.4.1
Purpose of the section
19
2.4.2
Meaning of History16
19
2.5
ORGANIC ACCOUNTS OF CREATION, GUIDANCE AND
DESTRUCTION
19
19
DISCUSSION
19
Reasons for studying organic accounts of creation,
guidance and destruction
19
2.5.1.1
[1] As archetypes of origins
19
2.5.1.2
[2] As archetypes of psyche
19
2.5.1.3
[3] Continuity with the past
19
2.5.1.4
[4] Some functions are still valid
19
2.5.1.5
[5] Organic knowledge of human origins
2.5.1.6
[6] Symbolic-organic knowledge is valuable 19
19
2.5.1.7
[7] If science should decay
20
2.5.1.8
[8] Insight organic knowledge
20
2.5.2
Function
20
2.5.3
Sources17
20
2.5.4
Types19
20
2.5.4.1
[1] Creation
20
2.5.4.2
[2] Continuance
20
2.5.4.3
[3] Dissolution
20
2.6
SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNTS OF EVOLUTION
20
2.6.1
20
2.6.1.1
[1] Centering
2.6.1.2
[2] The Study Itself is Part of Human
Evolution
2.6.1.3
2.6.1.4
2.6.1.5
20
20
[4] Knowledge for Design
20
[5] Learning about the processes and
meanings of design
A Four-Kingdom Scheme based On
the Notion of Common Tree-Like
Descent
25
2.6.8.2.1.2
A Three Level, Five Kingdom
Scheme based On Descent,
Morphology and Ecology
25
2.6.8.2.2
[2] Provision of Evidence:
25
2.6.8.2.3
[3] Methodological Problems
25
Outline Treatment of the Problems
25
2.6.8.3.1
Darwin's Theory and it's Five Strands
25
2.6.8.3.2
Early Criticisms of Darwin's Theory
25
2.6.8.3.3
Darwin's Responses
26
2.6.8.3.4
An Outline of the Theory of Evolution
26
20
[3] As a Source of Knowledge and Its
Systematization
[1] Outline of the Course of Evolution Evolution and Descent of the Major
Biological Types
24
2.6.8.2.1.1
2.6.8.3
20
INTRODUCTION:
Reasons for studying systematic accounts
2.6.8.2.1
2.6.8.3.4.1
[1] Variation
26
2.6.8.3.4.2
[2] Selection
26
2.6.8.3.4.3
[3] The Synthetic Theory of
Evolution
26
2.6.8.3.4.4
[4] Major Stages of Evolution
26
20
2.6.8.3.4.4.1
[1] Origin of life
26
2.6.1.6
[6]. A continuation of the organic accounts
discussion of evolution
20
2.6.8.3.4.4.2
[2] Multi-cellular Organisms
26
2.6.1.7
[7] Centering Humankind in Nature
2.6.8.3.4.4.3
[3] Colonization of Land
26
2.6.1.8
[8] As a Framework for a Unified Concept of
Evolution
2.6.8.3.4.4.4
[4] Human Evolution
26
20
2.6.2
General comments on evolution and mechanisms
21
2.6.3
Universal evolution
21
2.6.4
Cosmological evolution. Known and speculative
universe21
21
2.6.5
Evolution of the phenomenal and physical objects of
the known universe
21
2.6.6
Geophysical evolution
21
2.6.7
Geochemical evolution
21
2.6.8
Biological Evolution
21
2.6.8.1
2.6.8.3.4.5
20
Objectives of Science
22
2.6.8.1.2
Discovery and Method in Science
22
2.6.8.1.3
Special Features of Biology
22
2.6.8.1.4
The Problem of Teleology
22
2.6.8.1.5
Special Features of Life
22
2.6.8.1.6
Reduction in Biology
23
27
2.6.8.3.4.5.1
[1] Population Genetics
27
2.6.8.3.4.5.2
[2] Molecular Biology
27
2.6.8.3.4.5.3
[3] Natural Selection Evidence
27
2.6.8.3.4.5.4
[4] Modes of Speciation
27
2.6.8.3.4.5.5
[5] Macroevolution - the
ubject of Paleontological Study 28
2.6.8.3.4.5.6
[6] Human Evolution
28
2.6.8.3.4.5.7
Eugenics
28
2.6.8.4
Relation of biology and biological
evolution to science and general evolution2322
2.6.8.1.1
[5] Post Synthesis Development
Outstanding Problems of Biological
Evolution
28
2.6.8.4.1
[1] The Problem of Mechanisms
28
2.6.8.4.2
[2] Questions of Interaction
28
2.6.8.4.3
[3] Genetic Variability in Populations
28
2.6.8.4.4
[4] Rates of Evolution
28
2.6.8.4.5
[5] Origin of Life
28
2.6.8.4.6
[6] Relationship and Phylogeny of Major
Types of Plants and Invertebrates
28
2.6.8.4.7
[7] Interaction among Fields and Levels of
Evolution
28
2.6.8.1.6.1
Constitutive Reductionism
23
2.6.8.1.6.2
Explanatory Reductionism
23
2.6.8.1.6.3
Theory Reductionism
23
2.6.8.4.8
[8] Specialist Questions
28
2.6.8.1.7
Conceptual Structure of Biology
23
2.6.8.4.9
[9] The Question of Gradual Change
28
2.6.8.1.8
Philosophy of Biology
23
2.6.8.1.9
Some Principles of a Basis for
Philosophy of Biology
23
Biology and Human Thought
24
2.6.8.1.10
2.6.8.1.11
2.6.8.1.12
2.6.8.2
Biology and Human Values
Philosophical Implications of Darwin's
Theories
Theoretical and Empirical Problems of
Biological Evolution
24
24
24
2.6.9
Evolution or emergence of levels of organization
and interactions
29
2.6.10
Human and psychosocial evolution: descent and
development
29
2.6.11
Evolution of human society
29
2.6.12
Evolution of individuation and independence
29
2.6.13
Possibilities and speculations: universal again
30
Open and fundamental problems of evolution
30
2.6.14
2.7
2.7.1
EQUILIBRIUM, DECAY AND GROWTH IN EVOLUTION 31
Why study these aspects of evolution?
31
2
2.7.2
2.8
Evidence for origin and growth, equilibrium, decline
and death
31
3.4.2.1
Comments From Whitehead's Process and
Reality
46
EVOLUTION AND CREATION: CONFLICTS, ANALOGIES,
SYNTHESES
31
3.4.2.2
An Advertisement for Philosophy by Bertrand
Russell in relation to the eternal questions 47
2.8.1
Conflicts and resolutions
31
2.8.2
The ultimate nature of things
31
2.8.3
Analogies and conceptual synthesis
31
3.4.3.1
Brief Criticism of Invalidation Theory
2.8.4
Value synthesis
31
3.4.3.2
Whitehead on Speculative Philosophy. The
following quotation is from Process and
Reality:
48
3.4.3.3
Speculative Method93 - An Outline
2.9
Social Change and Creative Personality
Philosophical Method89
PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION OF ORDER: A SCIENCE OF
ORDER
31
2.9.1
Generalized characteristics models of systems
undergoing evolutionary CYCLES
31
2.9.2
Requirements for models
32
2.9.3
Problems to be modeled
32
2.9.4
Relation with type of causation
32
2.10
EVOLUTIONARY DETERMINISM AND INDETERMINISM 32
2.10.1
General questions
32
2.10.2
Specific theories
32
2.10.3
Does evolution approach perfection?
32
3
3.4.2.3
3.4.3
PHILOSOPHY
3.1
FOUNDATIONS OF THE OBJECTIVES AND BASIC
POSTULATES
3.1.3
APPLICATION OF PHILOSOPHY TO DESIGN
VALUES
33
3.1.4
TO UNDERSTAND THE PROCESSES OF HUMANKIND,
SOCIETY, AND NATURE AS A UNITY
34
3.1.5
AS AN OUTLINE or FRAMEWORK FOR STUDY OF
PHILOSOPHY, BASED IN EVOLUTION AND DESIGN 34
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
47
49
49
3.5.1
PHILOSOPHY OF THE SPECIAL DISCIPLINES AND
ACTIVITIES: OUTLINE
49
3.5.2
ETERNAL PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY
50
3.5.3
VALUE: AXIOLOGY, ETHICS AND AESTHETICS
50
3.5.3.1
33
33
47
49
SPECIAL PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY...AND ITS
APPLICATIONS
NATURE AND FOUNDATION OF ASPECTS OF DESIGN
AT DIFFERENT LEVELS
33
3.1.2
3.2
3.5
33
REASONS FOR INCLUSION OF PHILOSOPHY
3.1.1
Outline of the Section
47
Types of Ethics and Ethical Study
50
3.5.3.1.1
Meta-ethics
50
3.5.3.1.2
Metaphysical ethics
50
3.5.3.1.3
Deontological ethics
50
3.5.3.1.4
Teleological ethics
50
3.5.3.1.5
Evolutionary ethics
50
3.5.3.2
3.5.4
General Foundations of Value
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
50
50
3.5.4.1
Philosophical Anthropology
50
3.5.4.2
Philosophy of cultural institutions - Art,
Religion, Learning and Discovery,
Education
50
3.5.4.3
Philosophy of social organization and relation
of individual to the group
51
34
3.2.1
SOME ASPECTS BASED IN DESIGN
34
3.5.4.3.1
Political philosophy
51
3.2.2
PHILOSOPHY AS A METHOD VS. PHILOSOPHY AS
KNOWLEDGE
35
3.5.4.3.2
Economic philosophy
51
3.5.4.3.3
Philosophy of law
51
3.2.3
3.3
GENERAL CHARACTERIZATION
DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
3.3.1
35
3.5.5
PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE...As distinct from “academic”
philosophy
51
36
METAPHYSICS
37
3.5.5.1
The Well Lived Life
51
Outline of the Section
37
3.5.5.2
Existentialism
51
39
3.5.5.3
Religion and the Philosophy of Religion
51
3.5.5.4
Philosophy of action
51
3.5.5.5
Role of instinct, mind, spirit
51
3.5.5.6
Role of truth
51
Relationship to psychology
51
3.3.2
EPISTEMOLOGY - the THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
3.3.2.1
The Nature of Knowledge...and of Truth,
Logic and Reason
Outline of the Section
3.3.2.2
3.3.2.4
3.3.3
3.3.4
39
The Universe of Being, Action and Thought 44
Outline of the Section
3.3.2.3
39
44
Perception, Reason and Knowledge...and their
Modes
45
Issues in Epistemology
45
PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD. CRITICAL AND
SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY
45
PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY:86 AN OUTLINE
46
3.3.4.1
Speculative Philosophy
46
3.3.4.2
Critical Philosophy
46
3.4
FURTHER CHARACTERIZATION OF PHILOSOPHY: ITS
OBJECTIVES, VALUE AND METHOD
46
3.4.1
OBJECTIVES
Outline of the Section
3.4.2
VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
46
46
3.5.5.7
3.5.6
PHILOSOPHY OF EVOLUTION AND DESIGN
MATERIALISM, MECHANISM, CHOICE
51
Evolution as a Framework for
Knowledge...and Method
53
3.5.6.1.1
Value of such a framework
53
3.5.6.1.2
Nature and evolution of knowledge
54
3.5.6.1
3.5.6.1.2.1
Role of knowledge in culture
54
3.5.6.1.2.1.1
Level I: Mythic Cultures
54
3.5.6.1.2.1.2
Level II: Post-mythic Cultures
54
3.5.6.1.2.1.3
Actual Cultures
54
3.5.6.1.2.2
3.5.6.1.2.2.1
Further comments on evolution of
knowledge. Models of change
54
Origins of knowledge
54
46
3
3.5.6.1.2.2.2
Changes in the process or
mechanism of knowledge at the
socio-cultural
level
54
3.5.6.1.2.2.3
Changes in socio-cultural
knowledge
3.5.6.1.2.2.3.1
3.5.6.1.2.2.3.2
3.5.6.1.3
3.5.7.2.2.5
3.5.7.3
The Fundamental Problems of Humankind;
the Value of Philosophical Perspectives
62
3.5.7.3.1
54
Models of change at level I mythic thought
54
Models of change at level II post-mythic thought
54
Further comments on the selection or
evolutionary theory of knowledge and
science
54
3.6
[12] Foundation for a sequence of
philosophies
62
On Problems and Solutions
[1] The human situation must be
seen and felt in its full context
63
3.5.7.3.1.2
[2] On choice of values
63
3.5.7.3.1.3
[3] Humankind and environment in
balance in relation to a full spectrum
of needs
63
CONCLUSION
64
3.5.6.1.4
Relation of evolutionary framework to the
question and nature of a priori and
synthetic knowledge115, 116
56
3.6.1
3.6.2
TRANSITION to the Realm of Knowledge
3.5.6.1.5
Relation of evolution to other aspects of
knowledge
57
3.6.3
FUTURE work for the Realm of Philosophy
4
62
3.5.7.3.1.1
Emergence of a new naturalistic view of cognition,
emotion, philosophy, knowledge and design
64
KNOWLEDGE
64
64
65
3.5.6.1.5.1
[1] Accidental knowledge
57
4.1
ROLE OF KNOWLEDGE IN EVOLUTION AND DESIGN
66
3.5.6.1.5.2
[2] Social theory of knowledge119
58
4.2
ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE
67
3.5.6.1.5.3
[3] Relation between cognition and
emotion
58
3.5.6.1.5.4
[4] Science and religion
58
3.5.6.2
Evolution as a Framework for Social Process121
and institutions of society
58
3.5.6.3
Evolution as a Framework for
Consciousness
58
3.5.6.4
Evolution as a Framework for Design
58
3.5.6.4.1
Evolution in designs
3.5.6.4.2
Evolution in design methods and
capabilities
3.5.6.5
Evolution as a Framework for the
Universal122
3.5.6.5.1
3.5.6.6
3.5.7
On Universality
Consistency among the Frameworks and
Points of View
THE OPEN PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY128
58
59
3.5.7.2
Problems and Problem Areas for Philosophy
and Human Enterprise140 as a Whole
61
Problems relating to unity
3.5.7.2.1.1
[1] Foundation in physical
cosmology
3.5.7.2.1.2
[2] Synthesis of all modes of
knowledge
68
68
System Theory of Knowledge
68
4.2.1.1.2
Adaptive-Evolutionary Theory of
Knowledge
68
4.2.1.2
An Ideal Organization of the Object of
Knowledge
68
4.2.1.3
Conventional, Practical and Cultural Factors 69
4.2.1.4
General Principles of Classification177
Logical principles
69
4.2.1.4.2
Material principles
69
4.2.1.4.3
Dependence on domain
69
PROBLEMS OF LINGUISTIC AND POETIC
EXPRESSION AND OF ART
4.2.2.1
61
69
4.2.1.4.1
4.2.2
59
Problems and Problem Areas in Metaphysics,
Epistemology, Design, Motivation and Action60
Concepts of the Nature of Knowledge
4.2.1.1.1
58
59
PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION
4.2.1.1
58
3.5.7.1
3.5.7.2.1
4.2.1
69
Modes of Human Experience with Preliminary
Discussion of Art
69
4.2.2.1.1
[1] Levels of existence
69
4.2.2.1.2
[2] Levels of experience
69
4.2.2.1.3
[3] Levels of consciousness and levels of
cognition:
70
4.2.2.1.4
[4] Symbolic modes of representation:
70
4.2.2.1.5
[5] Modes of coding, expression,
communication:
70
61
4.2.2.2
The Elements of Art
70
61
4.2.2.2.1
Art is expression of experience
70
3.5.7.2.1.3
[3] Motivation, value, psychology and
religion
61
4.2.2.2.2
Art contains existential elements of
experience
70
3.5.7.2.1.4
[4] Design and action141
61
4.2.2.2.3
Art is a form of knowledge
70
3.5.7.2.1.5
[5] A study of unity and diversity
61
4.2.2.2.4
3.5.7.2.1.6
[6] Equivalence of metaphysical
and epistemological systems
Art integrates the modes of
human being
71
61
4.2.2.3
Art and Global Design
[7] Structure of knowledge142
61
4.2.2.4
Analysis of Language and Logic and Relation
to Art
71
3.5.7.2.1.7
3.5.7.2.2
Problems relating to evolutionary origin 62
3.5.7.2.2.1
[8] The philosophic, open outlook 62
3.5.7.2.2.2
[9] The universal in the particular
and the symbolic
3.5.7.2.2.3
[10] Evolutionary foundations of
philosophy
3.5.7.2.2.4
62
4.2.3
71
AN EXTENDED CLASSIFICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF
ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE WITH EXAMPLES71
4.2.3.1
Natural and Chronological Classifications
71
4.2.3.1.1
Plato [428-324BC]
71
62
4.2.3.1.2
Aristotle [384-322BC]
71
[11] Development of a philosophy of
evolution and design
62
4.2.3.1.3
Francis Bacon [1561-1626]
72
4
4.2.3.1.4
French Encyclopaedists: Diderot and
d'Alembert
72
4.2.3.1.5
Immanuel Kant [1724-1804]
72
4.2.3.1.6
Samuel Taylor Coleridge [1772-1834] and
the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana
72
4.2.3.1.7
Andrė Marie Ampere [1775-1836]
4.2.3.1.8
4.2.3.1.9
4.2.3.1.10
4.2.3.4.4.4
The Index
77
Auguste Comte [1798-1857]
72
4.2.3.4.4.5
The Systematic Outline
77
Wilhem Dilthey [1833-1911]
73
4.2.3.4.4.6
Twentieth-Century Efforts
73
Encyclopaedia Britannica - 15th
Edition as a model
77
Fifteenth Edition of Encyclopaedia
Britannica
73
4.2.3.4.5
Cross reference systems
77
4.2.3.4.6
Update
77
Propaedia - A Detailed Topical
Outline of Knowledge
73
4.2.3.4.7
Verification
77
Discussion of the 15th Edition of
the Encyclopedia Britannica with
Logical Modifications
73
4.2.3.4.8
Principles of generation
77
4.2.3.4.9
Evaluation and feedback: Presentation
77
4.2.3.1.10.1.2.1
4.2.3.1.10.1.3
4.2.4
Great Books of the Western
World; Syntopicon
4.2.4.2
4.2.3.1.12
Learning from the Historical Sequences of
Organizations and Their Philosophies:
Evolution of Knowledge and
Organization
74
4.2.3.3
Actual Classifications
Symbolically coded knowledge
79
79
79
75
[3] Sciences; technology
79
4.2.4.2.2
75
[3] Encyclopaedias
75
[4] Knowledge bases
75
Design of a Knowledge Base
75
4.2.3.4.1
Need
75
4.2.3.4.2
Functional Considerations, Problem
Definition, Decisions
76
4.2.3.4.2.1
[1] General function and economics 76
4.2.3.4.2.2
[2] General vs. Special Purpose
76
4.2.3.4.2.3
[3] Levels of treatments
76
[4] Length - Estimate
76
4.2.3.4.3.2
[5] Principals of organization
76
Natural vs. Practical
The Main Divisions of Knowledge - 2
4.2.4.2.2.1
Performance or Design Specifications Including Format; Synthesis: Decisions 76
4.2.3.4.3.1
4.2.3.4.4
[3] Special purpose: for science
and technology
79
4.2.4.2.1.2.3
4.2.3.3.3
4.2.3.4.3.2.2.2
[2] Natural systems: for art
4.2.4.2.1.1.3
75
75
4.2.3.4.3.2.2.1
4.2.4.2.1.1.2
79
[2] Libraries
4.2.3.4.3.2.2
[1] General purpose; descriptive
metaphysics
79
[2] Humanities; arts
4.2.3.3.2
4.2.3.4.3.2.1
79
4.2.4.2.1.1.1
4.2.4.2.1.2.2
75
4.2.3.4.3
79
[1] Philosophy; symbolic
systems
[1] Universities and academies
4.2.3.3.4
Symbolic systems
79
4.2.4.2.1.2.1
4.2.3.3.1
4.2.3.4
Main Divisions of Knowledge - 1
4.2.4.2.1.2
Some Practical Considerations: Retrieval,
Administrative, and Special Purposes such
as Projects and fields of learning
75
78
Main Divisions of Knowledge
4.2.4.2.1.1
Classifications Based on Practical, Design, and
Special Considerations
74
Knowledge for Design
Culture
4.2.4.2.1
74
78
Concepts from Evolution. Effect of Culture 78
4.2.4.1.1
74
Comments on Knowledge and Design
Knowledge of design
MAJOR DIVISIONS OF SYMBOLIC KNOWLEDGE
4.2.4.1
An arrangement in superdivisions
74
4.2.3.1.11
4.2.3.2.3
76
72
4.2.3.1.10.1.2
4.2.3.2.2
76
Knowledge level
Systematic [natural vs. logicalmaterial] vs. Alphabetic arrangement
of knowledge level
77
4.2.3.1.10.1.1
4.2.3.2.1
Information level
4.2.3.4.4.2.2
4.2.3.4.4.3
4.2.3.1.10.1
4.2.3.2
4.2.3.4.4.2.1
Symbolic Systems
79
79
4.2.4.2.2.1.1
[1] General purpose symbolic
systems-languages; language of
thought; descriptive
metaphysics
79
4.2.4.2.2.1.2
[2] Symbolic systems for arts and
natural languages; generally:
phylogenetic-mythic knowledge211
80
4.2.4.2.2.1.3
[3] Special purpose symbolic
systems for science and
technology; generally: synthetic a
priori211
80
4.2.4.2.2.2
Symbolically Coded Knowledge
80
4.2.4.2.2.2.1
[1] Philosophy; knowledge of
symbolic systems
80
76
4.2.4.2.2.2.2
[2] Humanities; arts
80
Single or multiple principles of
organization
76
4.2.4.2.2.2.3
[3] Science; technology
80
Hybrid-matrix organization is
one approach
76
Unitary:
Analysis and optimization
76
76
4.2.3.4.4.1
General or general and specialized
base?
76
4.2.3.4.4.2
Dual levels or multiple index systems
- table of contents system?
76
4.3
A BRIEF OUTLINE OF KNOWLEDGE
4.3.1
SYMBOLIC SYSTEMS
80
80
4.3.1.1
General
80
4.3.1.2
Language and Related Systems
80
4.3.1.3
Special Purpose Symbolic Systems
80
4.3.2
KNOWLEDGE - SYMBOLICALLY CODED
KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD
80
4.3.2.1
Philosophy
80
4.3.2.2
Humanities and Arts
80
5
4.3.2.3
The Sciences
80
4.3.2.4
Technology
80
4.3.2.5
Summary of 4.3.2
81
4.4
DETAILED OUTLINES OF KNOWLEDGE
5
Problems outlined in 5.3.5
Transformation of General Problems of
Design to Science
97
81
LEVEL III
81
NATURE AND METHOD
81
4.5.2
STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
81
PROBLEMS OF THE DISCIPLINES
81
4.6
THE ESSENTIALS OF KNOWLEDGE - A BRIEF
TREATMENT
81
4.7
AN ENCYCLOPEDIC COMPILATION
81
5.1
82
ROLE OF DESIGN IN SOCIETY
82
5.1.1.1
Objective Design
82
5.1.1.2
Social and Global Design. Design for
Diversity. Social Process as Design
83
Evolutionary Design
83
5.1.1.3
5.1.2
5.2
EVOLUTION AS DESIGN
PRACTICAL DESIGN
MANAGEMENT. Role of Management in Design
84
5.2.2
PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT
84
5.2.3
PRACTICAL DESIGN
84
5.2.4
ENHANCING CREATIVITY235
85
5.2.5
CONTROL
86
5.2.6
APPLICATIONS
86
5.2.7
OUTLINE OF A VOLUME ON PRACTICAL DESIGN
86
5.3
5.3.6.2
Planning Levels - Constraints and interactions
for which control is possible
97
5.3.7.1
Global Planning and Design
98
5.3.7.2
Social Planning and Design
98
5.3.7.3
Engineering and Technology. Professions
98
5.3.7.4
Research Systems
99
5.3.7.5
Educational and Learning Systems
99
5.3.7.6
Individuals and Groups
Some Application Areas: Detailed Considerations
PHILOSOPHY OF DESIGN
87
5.3.2
MANAGEMENT OF DESIGN. PLANNING
87
5.3.3
TOP  DOWN DESIGN: DESIGN AND PLANNING
LEVELS. PRIORITIES DESIGN
5.3.3.1
5.3.4
A Set of Global Design and Planning
Levels239
5.4.1.1
Outline of Methodologies
88
90
5.3.4.2
System and Subsystem Design
91
5.3.4.3
Industrial Operations
91
5.3.4.4
Business Organization, Planning and
Management245
91
5.3.4.5
Technology and Technological Systems
91
5.3.4.6
Social Systems and Institutions: Global,
Environmental and Human Concerns: Toward
Complete Specification of Planning
92
5.3.4.6.1
5.3.5
Levels of global-social planning
5.4.2.1
History of Engineering
101
5.4.2.2
Trends
102
5.4.2.3
Engineering Activities
102
5.4.2.4
Engineering Design
102
5.4.2.4.1
The process of design and its context
102
5.4.2.4.2
Creativity
102
5.4.2.4.3
Tools knowledge, and language for
design
104
5.4.2.4.4
Design elements
104
DESIGN FOR KNOWLEDGE AND INSTITUTIONS OF
LEARNING
104
What are the fundamental problems of
knowledge?
106
5.4.4.2
Design of a Knowledge Base
106
5.5
AN OUTLINE OF KNOWLEDGE FOR GENERAL DESIGN 106
5.6
TOWARDS GENERAL AND UNIVERSAL DESIGN
OPEN PROBLEMS OF DESIGN
106
5.6.2
PROBLEMS IN SPECIFIC LEVELS OF DESIGN
106
5.6.3
SIGNIFICANT MODERN AND EMERGING DESIGN
PROBLEMS
106
ACTION
THE NATURE OF ACTION
107
Philosophies and psychologies of action
107
6.1.2
Philosophies of life
107
Action as philosophy
107
6.2
6.1.3
ACTION AND CONTROL
107
107
94
6.3
SYNTHESIS OF BEING, ACTION, MOTIVATION294
5.3.5.2
Area B254 Analysis of Systems
94
6.4
OPEN PROBLEMS
5.3.5.3
Area C. Evaluation
94
5.3.5.4
Area D. Problem Solution
94
94
107
6.1.1
Area A. Modes of Analysis253
Area D.1 Search for and Generation of
Alternatives
106
5.6.1
5.3.5.1
5.3.5.4.1
104
5.4.4.1
6.1
Sciences of Design and Problem Solving: Formalizing
Creativity and Evaluation of Design and Priorities 93
101
5.4.4
6
93
101
PERSONAL DESIGN. APOLLO AND DIONYSIUS
88
Component Design The Basic Procedure244
Fundamental Problems
ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING DESIGN.
PROFESSIONS
5.4.3
88
5.3.4.1
99
100
GLOBAL, SOCIAL, ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND
PLANNING
100
5.4.2
FORMAL OBJECTIVE DESIGN: PLANNING AND DESIGN 86
5.3.1
97
Examples of Design and Planning Activities...Towards
a Complete and Structured Set
97
5.4.1
84
97
Planning Levels - Constraints
5.4
83
5.2.1
A Classification of Application Areas
96
5.3.6.1
5.3.7
81
82
ROLE OF DESIGN AND PLANNING
5.1.1
5.3.6
81
4.5.1
4.7.1
A general plan of approach:
DESIGN
Area E. Open problems in science of design 96
5.3.5.5.2
LEVEL II
4.5.3
95
81
4.4.2
OPEN PROBLEMS OF KNOWLEDGE
5.3.5.5
Area D.2 Problem Solving for Complex
Systems
5.3.5.5.1
4.4.1
4.5
5.3.5.4.2
7
LEARNING...AND TRANSFORMATION
7.1
EVALUATION OF DESIGN AND DESIGNS
107
108
108
7.1.1
Was the design or plan implemented?
108
7.1.2
Is design or planning effective?
108
6
7.1.3
Is the design efficient?
108
7.2
PERSONAL EVALUATION: DIMENSIONS OF BEING OR
GROWTH
108
7.3
ENGINEERING EVALUATION: OTHER PROFESSIONAL
SYSTEMS
108
7.4
EVALUATION OF GLOBAL SYSTEMS
108
7.5
LEARNING AND FEEDBACK
108
7.6
EVALUATION OF AWARENESS
108
8
DESTINATIONS: THE FUTURE OF EVOLUTION AND
DESIGN
109
NEW VERSION OF DESTINATIONS
111
8.1
INTRODUCTION
111
8.2
CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT
111
8.2.1
Objectives
8.2.2
General outline of considerations AND priorities for
planning
111
8.2.3
Detailed outline of considerations
8.2.3.1
Intrinsic dimensions
8.2.3.2
External dimensions: Publicity and Publication
Administration, Financial, Facilities, Auxiliary
and Other Support297
112
8.2.3.3
Leadership, Administration and Management
for an Effective Research Environment
112
8.2.4
111
8.2.3.3.1
Effective research environment on
individual, institutional and large scales112
8.2.3.3.2
Considerations
Supplementary Topics
112
112
8.3
MANAGEMENT
8.4
FURTHER SPECIALIZED INFORMATION ON FUNDING
INSTITUTIONS
112
112
8.4.1
A listing of some grant AND contract sources
112
8.4.2
Plan for research and related funding
112
8.5
IDEAS TOWARD A RESEARCH GROUP OR INSTITUTE 112
8.5.1
The idea of a research group
112
8.5.2
Background work towards forming a group
112
8.5.3
Outline of budget - AN example
112
8.5.4
Further sources of information
and special problems
112
8.5.5
Further possibilities for a group or institute
112
8.6
111
111
PERSUASION AND PRESENTATION
112
8.6.1
Introduction: old and new rhetoric
112
8.6.2
Practical rhetoric: the art of persuasion and
communication
112
8.6.3
Rhetorical design
112
8.6.4
Rhetoric and philosophy
112
7
PREFACE AND INTRODUCTION
April 2003
Evolution and Design began with the observation that an evolutionary
perspective – fact and theory – is vastly simplifying for understanding
the world and therefore also in planning and design. The text outlines
the sources and foundations and provides some details of that
understanding and some of its applications
I used to say that Evolution and Design is about the relations
between blind and conscious evolution
Some people regard natural evolution as something like the most
important fact about the world and there are others who think that it
is not a fact at all. I find it reasonable to hold that life emerged from
the physical world; that all known forms of life have a common origin
and that theories that originated with Darwin satisfactorily explain
much of the qualitative and some of the quantitative features of the
natural world. I think that the explanatory power of natural evolution
carries over, to some extent, to the social world which is not distinct
from the natural world. The possibilities that and the ways in which
evolution may occur at the physical level is not treated to a significant
degree in Evolution and Design
Naturally, evolutionary explanation and functional explanation must
complement one another
For those who hold that evolution is not a fact, it is still possible to
view
evolutionary
explanation
introducing
economy
into
understanding
Despite my enthusiasm for material explanation – evolutionary and
functional – I have not found it to be the end of even scientific
understanding. After I wrote Evolution and Design in 1987, I spent
many years looking for a more comprehensive but still universal and
unifying view. That has culminated, now, in 2003 search culminated
in Journey in Being
June 1998: From the Revised Original Introduction
Evolution and Design is, first, an open vision of my world. It is a view
- and a record of my experience, learning and entry into a dynamics of my being, my vision and my process in the universe of being,
vision and process. Being, knowledge and action are not seen as
separate and part of the origin of Evolution and Design is in my own
drives to knowledge, knowing and action
The first philosophy of Evolution and Design is evolutionary
It has a view - or metaphysics - that sees the world in an evolutionary
process
Its epistemology, the text itself, and the concept of text are informed
by the metaphysics
As knowledge and its instruments are part of the world, so are its
processes within the processes of evolution. That does not imply that
the nature of knowledge is fully determined by any a priori specified
evolutionary base
Imagination and discrimination - hypothesis, deduction and
criticism...experiment and testing...i.e., proper criteria - must be
applied in drawing conclusions from evolutionary - or any considerations. But the criteria are the means to the ends of validity,
truth, pragmatics, groundedness, relatedness, being in
The criteria of epistemology are applied to epistemology. This
generalizes: in grounding knowledge, we are required to ground
epistemology, metaphysics, knowledge and its disciplines - which
include evolution - and the nature of our being. Knowledge is of the
world - not alien or impressed. We are required to consider the
elements also in totality and in their relations
Evolution is not employed as a doctrine. Concepts and science of
evolution are critiqued. This starts with biology and is extended to the
realm of the universe and the mind. In metaphysics, or knowledge of
the universe or of being as a whole, evolution - that is origins - is
used to show relations among the elements of the universe, being
and knowing
Evolution and Design writes this philosophy and seeks to elaborate it
in all spheres
As an open account it is not limited to one paradigm. The first
emphasized paradigm was evolutionary. Other trends - existential,
idealistic... - appear. It is not limited to paradigmatic knowledge and
seeks grounding in being and action. These trends, begun in
Evolution and Design, continue in my thought and life and especially
in the natural consequences of my life and thought as expressed in
the tentatively titled Evolution, Design and the Absolute. The latter
work - in progress - takes Evolution and Design and the alternate and
perhaps inclusive principles to natural and logical conclusions
If it were possible for me to provide a full meaning, with implications,
origins and sources of my thought in a brief preface then the text that
follows this preface might be unnecessary. Brief elaboration of
sources and contents...follow
Evolution and Design
Entertains issues of value, choice and action...and therefore, while
not an axiological, ethical, social, political, legal, or educational
philosophy per se it cannot and does not seek to avoid implications
for meaning and action in these spheres...and therefore it is...A
philosophy of and an approach to understanding, action, change and
choice, values, planning, organization, and design...At all levels of
material, social-cultural, human, and universal processes and
institutions
Derives from and informs my life, attitudes and action, from my
experience, thought and learning, in the worlds of nature, society,
mind and learning, and the universal
Derives from and informs science...primarily biology, then physics,
cosmology, geology, and the sciences of mind
Derives from and informs philosophy and humanities
[The language of dialog may be preferred to that of derivation,
information, and instruction. But to force a view of relationship on the
disciplines is a prior sin...]
Sees and derives from the elements of being as intimately related,
the elements of process - knowing, design and action - as being
intimately interactive...and develops, deploys and generalizes these
relationships
This process is reflected in the outline of the contents: 1. Origins, 2.
Evolution, 3. Philosophy, 4. Knowledge, 5. Design, 6. Action, 7.
Learning, 8. The Future
The same process informs ontology and epistemology. Ontology finds
being as diverse, structured, related and in process between equilibria
and transition. Epistemology finds the unity of knowledge to be multimodal and possessed of degrees rather than polarizations in the
mode of truth
That the work is evolutionary implies that it is open. The openness
also derives from my attitudes. Complementary and alternate
paradigms are sought, integration is sought but contradiction - where
resolution is not known - is allowed, all modes, levels, categorizations
of being, process, knowing - implicit and formal - are sought for
impact, inclusion, instruction, juxtaposition in harmony or in
opposition and contradiction
Paradox may shake our foundations of knowledge but can only
illuminate being
For the future
For
the
future
I
seek...discovery,
learning:
alternative
paradigms...experience and study of and action within all disciplines,
cultures, modes of being and process and through all modes and
means of knowing, action...including exploration of dissolution of the
distinction - whether apparent or real - between the subject and the
object, or between knower and known, or between consciousnessawareness and their contents
Related work appears in the following articles and essays
Reflections on Metaphysics and the Problems of Consciousness,
Assist - on a design for uses of computer systems in my conceptual
work, its organization and application,
Dynamic Uses of Computers in Universal, Global and Personal Process
- and ongoing work on the uses of a computer in conceptual and
8
related work which investigates some aspects of the computer as a
dynamic link in these processes...and reflect on the issue of “What is
machine intelligence and consciousness?”...”If possible can such
intelligence be fabricated or will evolution be necessary?”...”Can
intelligence or consciousness be transferred from human to
machine?”
Pentium PC and word processed with Microsoft Word 97 - with the
minor changes noted above in “origins.” Conversion to HTML was
accomplished by custom macros and conversion to HTML by Microsoft
Word 97. It was then necessary to make a number of fine
adjustments manually
Evolution and Design contains extended analysis of the processes of
Normal page numbering for the word-processed version - the
numerals are on the lower margins of the pages. Arabic numerals
begin with the first page of Area 1, which is page 1. Pages before
page 1 are assigned lower case Roman numerals. This system of
numbering is unnecessary in the HTML version - the document you
are now reading - and is, therefore, currently omitted
knowledge, design and planning. Some projected applications:
A support group for work on the different aspects of the Evolution
and Design Project as an ongoing work. Establishment as an institute
with programs and funding
Publication
There are two sets of page numbers:
Knowledge, design, planning, and government consulting, application
and support
The page numbering of the original hand manuscript is retained.
These allow the use of the original page number references without
need for update. Update is a possible task for the future and would
be part of major revision. Since I plan a successor, Evolution, Design
and the Absolute, that revision may never be done by me. The
successor text would include the entire essential and what I see as
valid ideas of Evolution and Design - with appropriate revision.
Portions of text may also be incorporated- again with possible revision
...from the individual to national and world levels, from technical to
personal, social, global and universal dimensions
The original page numbers are placed at the right margin of the text
at the locations of the original page breaks. The form is as follows:
Work on the concept of knowledge resources. Work on an
encyclopedia along the lines of the evolutionary or open text.
Incorporation of modern computer information storage, processing,
and networking
Expansion of the institute to a self-supporting enterprise
Origins
3-25
Evolution and Design was written November 1986 to March 1987.
This was an intense period of study, reflection and writing. The work
has eight parts. I called the parts “Areas” since they were each
ambitious in scope and relatively independent. Each Area had its own
foci, emphases and problems or issues. My thought has traveled far
since the original writing. However, except proofing, some minor
changes to the section on an evolutionary analysis and extension of
Kant's treatment of the synthetic a priori, a new title for Area 7 and
addition of a introductory section to Area 8 there are as of this date
no changes in the text. This new preface incorporates the essence of
the original one and begins to supplement it with information, further
elaborated in §8.1, on the trends of my thought since 1987 and on
plans for further work and application
Before writing the work had been incubating for a long period. This
happened originally and without intent - except a call to fullness of
being that would later become a principle - or explicit plan in my
studies and reflections in a wide variety of fields. This is detailed in
Area 1. By 1984 many of the elements were present - engineering,
evolution, experience of the natural world at first hand through living
in it, philosophy, and feeling of a need for a universal perspective on
knowledge and human and social processes. Summer of 1985 to
summer 1986 was a period of study on a wide variety of topics on
evolution, planning and design in engineering, other professions,
government and human and social process
The inspiration for the structure and contents of the work came
during two weeks at an isolated lake cirqued by ridges and peaks two
thousand feet above, in the Trinity Alps Wilderness in Northwestern
California, September 1986. I have returned to this place of magic
many times and sought and received renewal and inspiration. I am in
awe of and yet at home in such places
Section and Paragraph Numbering
In the original hand manuscript the text was divided into Areas and
sub-areas or sections. The section numbering has been retained
except that some of the lower level section identifiers were
alphabetic. An example of an old section “number” is 3.5.6.B. The
alphabetic marking has been replaced by numeric marking thus the
new number for the same section would be 3.5.6.2
Some paragraphs and low-level sections were marked by single
numbers or letters. These have been replaced by section numbering
that is consistent with the higher level numbering. The single letters
have been replaced by numbers and then single numbers replaced by
the multiple numeral format so that the section number identifies all
the higher level sections to which the sub-section belongs. An
attempt has been made to update all cross-references but this may
not be complete and therefore the old numbering has been retained
along with the new. Thus if a paragraph or low level section within
3.5.6.1 was B, then the new number would normally be 3.5.6.1.2.
However, in order to also retain the old numbering, it would be
3.5.6.1.2 [B]. Reference to this would then be either 3.5.6.1.2 or
3.5.6.1.2 B or, within 3.5.6.1, just B
While the sequential section numbering was consistent, a number of
variants were used in the individually numbered paragraphs.
Therefore the previous paragraph is a guide rather than a complete
map
1-4
Upon return to my home - shared with good friends - in a shaded
green place just off Dow's Prairie Road in McKinleyville, California I
felt ready to write a brief synoptic essay. That was October 1986.
Then, in November, I began the work of research, extensive library
study, reflection, synthesis and writing. What was planned as short,
preparatory essay manifested itself as Evolution and Design
Anil
Arcata,
June 20, 1998
Mitra
California
Page Numbering
Page Numbering
The current version is essentially the original manuscript, wordprocessed by my friend Joan Elk on a Mac 512K, then imported to my
9
1
INTRODUCTION, OBJECTIVES, STRUCTURE
GENERAL ORIGINS AND OBJECTIVES… AND ORIGINS IN MY LIFE
AND COMMITMENTS
I have always enjoyed understanding at deep and broad levels, and I
have enjoyed the effort related to understanding. As a child, I had an
unusual curiosity. In high school, I preferred to study the material
directly from the sources over listening to instruction. My main
interests were chemistry, poetry, and avid reading, in addition to
sports and outdoor activities
In college, my propensities led to a sequence of nonsystematic, but
enjoyable and valuable excursions into engineering, mathematics,
physics, and evolutionary biology, into the foundations of these topics
and into logic and philosophy. My interest in philosophy was quite
general. In graduate school, I was able to significantly further my
technical skills in mathematics, physics, and the applied sciences of
engineering - including computer implementation of modeling
approaches. I continued to browse in the literature of biology, logic,
philosophy and foundations
environment there has a valuable influence on this development.
Unfortunately, the mode of operation and the expectation at
Humboldt was to import ideas from elsewhere. I found this stifling. In
June 1985, my connection with Humboldt was severed, and this
offered me an opportunity for careful and systematic development of
my ideas and interests
1-7
This did not begin immediately. Further assembly of the constituent
concepts was essential. I did not realize this explicitly and formally at
the time - but, although I felt a need for organization, I must have
felt that I had the full system of concepts and the organizing
principles for which I was looking. These principles would synthesize
the different parts
It turned out that, in addition to the very general concepts of
philosophy, value and knowledge, which, to that point, represented
the dimensions of my development, including planning and
anticipation, the additional concepts of design, action, and evaluation,
were necessary
1-5
I found two organizing principles. The first is social process or
problem solving which organizes and displays value, knowledge [and
philosophy], design both formal and reflective, action, evaluation, and
feed back as a unity
and computer methods in physical science. I came, through other
associations, to develop interests in individual development and
psychology, social sciences and sociology, and in the nature and
values of religious experience. At this time, I also began to concern
myself with the modes of perception and the ways in which
knowledge is formulated and incorporated in the organism.
Throughout this development, my favorite subjective experiences in
art have been in music, literature and poetry, theatre and cinema. I
have had occasional creative experiences in theatre, poetry and
writing. Related to these were my direct experiences with mystery
and beauty in nature and cosmos, and the manner in which the
organism, that is, my body attunes itself to the rough and primitive
natural environments into which I enter
Before turning to a description of these developments, I should point
out that unity does not imply identity. Each level of abstraction omits
some facts of experience. Nor does the truth of a system of
abstraction imply completeness. It is thus absurd to say that life is
completely physical - even if the physical level of description were
true and exact. It could turn out that biology is completely founded in
physics but that
As a member of the research and instructional faculty at a number of
universities, I continued to develop these interests, and to do original
studies in the development and application of mathematical
To this point, my development was formally nonsystematic in the
sense that I never had a perfectly complete and well-defined
program. The level of my achievement in the different disciplines was
uneven. However, my development has been characterized by the
following. [1] An informal and evolving rational and intuitive sense of
coherence and purpose. This is undoubtedly derived, in part, from
culture. [2] A continued interest in the use and meaning of my
studies and researches. [3] A diffuse sense of beauty and mystery in
the enterprise. [4] An emphasis, to a significant degree, on breadth,
logic, foundations and synthesis, and fundamental problems in the
nature and
1-6
limitations of mind [“mind”]. [5] Undoubtedly the items use, meaning,
aesthetics and logic are related. I originally felt this idea to be true,
but later developed it as a formal thesis. This means that function,
value, beauty and consistency are not competing values when each is
truly understood in relation to the whole picture. [6] A broad
understanding of the methods and foundations of science. The
emphasis has been on physics, but a well-developed outline in
evolutionary biology is also included. Such an outline should refer to
physical, cosmological, geological, and social evolution. [7] The
emphasis of my first serious understanding - beginning at college was in the area of natural science and mathematics. This
understanding was later broadened through my interest in
psychology, sociology, philosophy - east and west, and religion. [8]
Development of original ideas, systems of ideas, synthesis and
anticipation in the areas of interest
In 1984, I decided that a clear statement of the fundamental issues,
with which I was dealing, was essential to full development. I felt that
it would also be valuable to make a careful assessment of the
fundamental problems of humankind. Such feelings were not new,
except for the essential way in which I now felt them. At this point, I
was working at Humboldt State University and the prevailing
The second is evolution which organizes and displays [1] social
process as a method of adaptation involving elements of conscious
foresight, intelligence and choice, and of blind trial and error; and [2]
social process as coming out of and a unity with physical,
cosmological, geophysical, geo-chemical, biological and human
evolution
1-8
foundation might involve some new biology and some new physics.
Until the foundation is performed, we have neither need nor reason
to believe it to be true, or untrue. This is the essential reason for not
subscribing to materialism - determination of biology and sociology by
physical science, or to biological determinism - determinism of social
structure or behavior by biology. Choice and potential are among the
primary facts of experience. It would not be inconsistent for social
behavior to be completely based in material behavior but only
partially based in biology of organism. The fact of the partial basis
could be explained as the interaction of biology with a complex
environment, and the fact of choice could be explained by
incompleteness of “mind” or of biology or, perhaps, by an intrinsic
indeterminism at the material level
The development and synthesis of my ideas as an organic system will
now be described. In this system of my ideas, no indication of finality
is intended
[1] In June 1985, I decided to formulate an outline of the modern
engineering disciplines and to form an estimate of basic or essential
activities of engineering. This would provide a basis of my further
development in engineering and match my interest in the foundations
of the knowledge-oriented disciplines. Engineering is more directly
oriented toward action than are the humanities and sciences. I
decided that the essence of engineering is design - the transitional
process between knowledge and action. This was the first step, the
recognition that the central process and problem of engineering is
design
[2] I decided to study the
1-9
process of design. As I did this, I came to recognize that the
application of the design process is of much more general than I had
previously thought. This becomes clear when design is viewed as
10
problem solving. The fundamental process is equally applied to
personal situations, technical problems, social, global and
environmental problems - to design, planning, and policy analysis.
The idea of problem solving is not new. It goes back, undoubtedly, to
the origins of humans. However, there is an array of modern
techniques that can be used in design. First is our knowledge and
knowledge in general, of system behavior - the sciences, modeling
and experiment. Second is a collection of methods for determining
maximal performance according to criteria. Third, is the management
of the design process; this involves determination of the criteria,
streamlining the steps in design - optimality of the design process,
and enhancing the creative response through psychology. I found
that there have been deep studies of the problem solving process in
the literature of cognitive psychology and artificial intelligence. I
decided to collect information on the design process, on application. I
decided to think carefully about the nature of the design process
[3] I also began to reflect on the role of design in the total social
future. I recognized the existence of a fundamental social process
that begins with value formation and knowledge, which lead into
design and is completed by action and feed back. I recognized the
fundamental unity of these processes: design links thought and
action, design completes what knowledge begins, knowledge is
potential design, knowledge is a process of design applied to states of
knowledge. I continued to
1-10
collect information and to reflect - and as I did, so my concept of
design deepened and evolved. That is, in addition to new areas of
application as outlined above, my concept of design came to include
new spheres of human and non-human activity. The sequence of
concepts of design is discussed below
EVOLUTION AND DESIGN - LEVELS AND RELATIONS ORIGINS OF OBJECTIVES
The first meaning of design is the process of coming up with a plan to
solve a problem. It involves seeing and creating viable alternatives
and in making choices from among the alternatives. Related means of
design are the completed plan, the completed implementation, the
relationship - in the senses of function, value, aesthetics - of the parts
to each other and to the completed whole. My focus is on the process
of design. This is the creative process; it includes the formal and
informal techniques of problem solving and aesthetics and, in its full
sense, the ideas of dance and of destruction. Dance, in this sense,
includes action - especially action in the face of ignorance and
despair. To have full meaning for humans, design must balance the
ways of Apollo and Dionysius, and the ways of Vishnu and Shiva.
Design, the process, includes being. What we learn about the process
from various designs can be generalized and used in other designs.
One of the aims of this work is to display the common elements of
design - some of the models of design - and their application in a
variety of situations, including definition and resolution of the
fundamental problems. At the same time, one of the ideas of dance is
the intrinsic value of each situation - we will not always find formal
design appropriate. This is the first meaning of design
Design uses knowledge, is used to act toward solution, and thus
integrates human and social institutions in the composite and looping
or repetitive process: thought-value-knowledge  design  action 
reflection and learning. As I
1-11
made this realization, my formal interest in sociology, politics,
technology, art, religion and philosophy deepened. These disciplines
would provide a background to a careful definition of the problems of
humans, and to a provision and evaluation of solutions. The unity of
the processes of knowledge now becomes clear; in facing so complex
a situation as the problems of humans, knowledge and design must
condition each other - despite the value of their separation. The value
of their separation includes division of labor - efficiency, division of
power, creation of a fund of knowledge, and a method of design.
There is also a unity of these cognitive processes with action; they
are a type of internal action which anticipates the total process of
humans and environment; they take the place of additional external
action which would otherwise be required; this accomplishes the
objectives of humans with minimal expense of resources. This unity
has an existential value: against alienation. A second objective of this
work is to study and display this unity and its value, and the elements
of the unity. The total process knowledge  design  action is a
more inclusive design: total process of society as a mode of
negotiation and being in the environment. This is a second meaning
of design
New designs [and knowledge] include new elements and new
variations of successful ideas. The new aspect is often discovered
through non-conscious factors. A new design must be implemented
before we can be sure it will work. This is because knowledge and
design processes are not “perfect” - they improve the chance of
success but do not guarantee it. Some designs work, others fail. The
information from success or failure can be used to improve designs
through learning: knowledge  design  action  learning, or,
simply, design  learning. Thus both variation and selection in design
involve rational [conscious, choice of future] and blind [trial and
selection] factors. The pace of change is sometimes slow [small
modifications], and sometimes fast [new idea]. This is a third
meaning of design: evolutionary design. A third objective of this work
is to display evolution in design, and to show how an understanding
of this factor can lead to better design
1-12
The idea of evolution that I will use is emergence of stable order by
processes that are not improbable. This would rule out the chance
formation of a complex structure through proximity of its
constituents. It implies that we should demonstrate reasonable
mechanisms of formation. This is an idea of evolution also includes
more than the processes of a universe, an earth, and its life and
society
There are three parts to this idea. [1] Stability means existence for a
period greater than transience. [2] Emergence of ordered structures
from an environment. This includes the import of order from the
environment. If the environment is ordered or if it contains ordered
structures, the emerging order of evolution must be new. There is
nothing in the idea of evolution which implies slow change or
increasing order; rapid change and decrease in order are also
included; such as, catastrophe and devolution [e.g., DNA\RNA 
virus]. [3] The processes of evolution are not improbable. Stated
positively this means that we should be able to demonstrate
reasonable mechanisms for evolution, that the mechanisms of
evolution are the known mechanisms of nature [whose natural rates
are the rates of evolution]. This does not rule out indeterministic
mechanisms or random descriptions of mechanisms, provided the
probability is sufficient. Randomness is not a property of events or of
processes although we do refer to random events and random
processes. The word random refers to our knowledge of a situation
and not of the situation itself. A random occurrence is one we would
describe in terms of probabilities. In this discussion, I will not need to
refer to the concepts of indeterminism or randomness. However,
there must be some qualification on the extent to which it can be
shown that emergence of a complex order proceeded by known
mechanisms of nature. We do not know the facts of such evolution or
the mechanisms of nature [especially in their detailed unfolding]
sufficiently well. Hence, evolutionary theory must confine itself to a
generalized description of mechanisms applied to an abstract of
evolutionary history. For example, it would be useful to know that
evolution of complex biological structure by natural processes acting
over the history of earth is reasonable even if only in outline. It would
be valuable to know if the principles of quantum or classical and other
behavior of matter would be sufficient. In addition, since the
elementary processes of nature show, apparently, no intrinsic
orientation toward order, we would like to show that order is be
produced despite this indifference. Success or failure in this will affect
confidence in our understanding of the basic natural processes
1-13
The primary or driving mechanism of evolution is change or variation.
Some systems have accessible ordered states through which they
11
pass during evolution. Examples are [A] alignment of the planets, and
[B] spontaneous separation of air into its constituent gasses. These
examples of emergence of order do not constitute evolution. In either
case the order is very transitory; the second case though possible “in
principle” is too improbable to reasonably occur over the history of
Earth; therefore, variation alone is insufficient for evolution. A second
mechanism is preferential stability or selectivity. When the new
ordered states are stable [for a period of time, in the environment
which may contain other ordered structures], this increases the
likelihood that a system which passes through such a state will stay
there; or, in a large environment the population of ordered structures
of the given type will be relatively high. Variation and selection
explain a number of ordered structures in nature; on the cosmic
scale: galaxies, stars, solar systems; on an intermediate scale:
relaxation oscillations in nature, fluid convection patterns; on the
microscopic level: elementary particles, atoms, molecules
Variation and selection are sufficient for evolution. Other mechanisms
enhance the variation and selection. A third mechanism of evolution,
one that enhances variation and delays selection, is reproduction.
This is the mechanism by which an ordered structure can copy its
structure into the elements of the environment and so, even though
the physical entity which carries the order ceases to exist, the order
itself is perpetuated in time and space. In order to be a factor in
evolution, reproduction must copy variations. Reproduction enhances
the ability of nature to access complex stable ordered states by
enhancing the cumulative effect of variations. This does not rule out
large individual variations: the idea of evolution includes that large
changes can come about by combinations of large individual
variations and cumulation of small variations. Thus, structures that
reproduce are at an obvious advantage over those produced by raw
variation
1-14
One of the basic questions of biology is the origin of reproduction.
The mechanisms that produced reproduction must include raw
variation and selection; these mechanisms are pre-biological and
represent one area of interface between physical and biological
science. With reproduction, individuals and populations are the
bearers of order: individuals and populations are “units” of evolution.
Without reproduction, the individual is the unit of evolution; this
excepts “cooperative phenomena” - perhaps such phenomena are the
origin of reproduction. In addition to biological systems, reproduction
occurs in growth of crystals, societies, and ideas
A fourth mechanism of evolution, which enhances variations, is
interaction between ordered structures of similar and different types.
Such interactions produce complex and composite structures to
produce new variations. Some examples are [1] symbiotic structures,
[2] composite structures: very weak interactions - populations; weak
interactions - societies; intermediate interactions - colonies; strong
interactions - organisms1; [3] sex, [4] mapping of space-time and
material structure of environment into organism - instinct, knowledge,
consciousness, mind. [5] The complex of interacting organisms in an
environment also moves toward a stable ordered state, thus giving
environment the character of an organism [though not a biological
one as usually understood]. This opens further possibilities for
variation and selection; we could consider the sun in the same light
or, since the sun is hardly affected by biological evolution, regard it as
one of the drivers of variation
The mechanisms of evolution are nature traversing through complex,
but natural, paths to nature's own complex, stable and ordered
states. To those who seek natural explanations and theories, these
mechanisms seem necessitated by the improbability of order in a
neutral or chaotic universe. This improbability is the same as saying
that most states in the universe are unordered. Perhaps, however,
ordered states are more common than imagined and the explanation
of evolution is to be found in a composite of [1] mechanisms that
access the complex, stable, ordered states and [2] the frequency of
such states
One of the objectives of this discussion of evolution has been to
provide a general framework for the understanding of design, its
different - but related - meanings, and its role in and relation to
evolution. It has been implied, and it will be
1-15
seen, that the concepts are so close and interwoven that a full
consideration of one must include the other. I will now summarize the
general framework
The nature of evolutionary theory is to understand the existence of
complex physical and biological structures as elements of nature,
nature as understood by humans; hence, theory is a programmatic
toward understanding. Evolution is the emergence of order by natural
processes. We usually understand these natural processes to have no
preference for the end product of order; however, there is a natural
tendency2 of a system that comes close to an equilibrium state to go
to that state. The evolutionary equivalent of this is the idea that
variations have no preference for order: selection provides the
preference; the process-equilibrium and variation-selection ideas are
rough approximations to each other, and the separation into nonpreferential variation and preferential selection is, perhaps, an
approximate3 but useful idea which preserves the notion of “blind”
nature. The fundamental mechanisms of evolution are then, variation
and selection. In the standard version, variation shows no preference
for order. Derived mechanisms are reproduction and interaction. The
explanation of evolution is to be found in its mechanisms and in the
distribution and density of stable ordered states. A fourth objective of
this work is to develop evolution as a framework for understanding
the different levels of design. Those levels identified so far are
specific problem solving, social process, and evolutionary design
Evolution is emergence of stable order; the essential mechanisms are
variation and selection; in the standard version, variations have no
preference for order and selection is due to causes outside the
organism. These statements are undoubtedly approximate: in
addition to that pointed out above, the organism is composite [gene,
DNA, cell, creature...] and “outside” is ambiguous; also, in a sense,
organism is part of environment. On the account of the standard
version, evolution is said to be “blind” to its destiny; this also being
approximation. However, even if evolution is initially blind, it evolves
rationality and design that modify subsequent evolution. Perhaps
rationality
1-16
and design are an alternative description of some aspects of
mechanism, or perhaps both rationality and mechanism are
approximations to the same actual process and perhaps rationality
and design are the evolved expression of [possible] small scale
tendencies of variations toward order. What is being said amounts to
this: If evolution and design are defined according to their standard
meanings then, although the language of the definition makes them
appear distinct, and if the above considerations are valid; the actual
processes are not, in fact, distinct. For, in the standard version, [1]
evolution is emergence of order by [blind] natural process, and [2]
design is at least partial use of rationality in variation and selection;
and rationality is consciousness, knowledge [perhaps symbolic
knowledge], prediction of alternate futures [variation] and choice
[selection] of viable, good. Better, or best ones. Now, evolution can
evolve design - our evolution has - and universal evolution therefore
involves design. Therefore, the idea of design at the universal level is
not paradoxical. Even if we do not need this concept to explain our
experience, these factors suggest the implicit and explicit presence of
design in evolution. However, if we accept that “the separation of
evolution into variations that have no preference for order and
selections that prefer order” is an approximation, then evolution is
design. At the same time real design is [rational] variation and
selection which is [the essence of] evolution. Hence “design is
evolution” - meaning that the two concepts are much closer than is
commonly thought. I will make a thesis that they are identical. Of
course, I do not present this as a definite conclusion because of
questions about the premises and the language used in forming the
conclusion
A fifth objective of this work is to consider carefully the meaning and
truth of design is evolution; this is included in the fourth objective
12
which can be restated: study the relationships of the different
meanings of evolution and design. This naturally includes a study of
evolution; and approximate meaning: evolution is emergence of order
by natural process; design is use of rationality in variation and
selection; and rationality includes knowledge and value choice.
[Different interpretations are appropriate, as approximations, at
different stages of evolution.]
1.1.1.2
Although design is evolution can be questioned, there are strong
similarities of their fundamental meanings, and this provides a fourth
meaning of design. A sixth objective of this work is to study this
meaning of design in its most general and basic sense - it includes all
the other senses, for design as problem solving grows out of human
intelligence, grows out of evolutionary biology
Or, Level III = Level II and learning or feedback and correction =
social change and evolution
1-17
as does design as social process. Also the basic mechanism evolution
is variation and selection is a basic paradigm of problem solving4 [trial
and error, better called trial and selection; induction and deduction;
hypothetico-deductive; creativity and criticism; synthesis and
analysis]. However, a fundamental meaning of design as evolution is
as follows...design immersed in evolution...evolution immersed in
design...history and evolution are intertwined...values have real
sources
One of the ideas inherent in this discussion has been the unity of the
human and universal processes. The seventh objective of this work is
to study, understand, and experience5 and to display this unity. This
is essentially the same as the sixth objective
I now realize what I have set out to do - synthesize all worldviews of
being and action. I also realize the enormity of this. I want it. It will
make me happy, but [a] I must approach it intelligently and [b] I
need help. This is the eighth and final objective of this work. This is
essentially the same as the sixth and seventh objectives. Eight
objectives of this work and four concepts of design have been stated.
Out of this synthesis, I hope something new comes. In addition to
insight, it seems to me that I do have points of view that have
originality and that are worth sharing
1-18
1.1
CHARACTERIZATION OF DESIGN
Level II - Social and human process
Social and human process = knowledge and thought  design 
action
1.1.1.3
Level III - Evolutionary design
Evolutionary design = Level I and learning or feedback and correction
= dynamic design
1-19
Learning and correction are needed because of [1] imperfection in
design and
Knowledge6 - the problem solving element, and [2] changing
environment and circumstances - the dynamic element
Designs [Dionysian and Apollonian] are the fundamental social
activity of
Levels I, II, and III
1.1.1.4
Level IV - Design is evolution
Design is evolution
Design as evolution [pp. 11 - 17]. Similar to choice as mechanism, or
design as evolution and... choice as mechanism and
Design and evolution as the essential action of the universe
Cosmological - physical - geophysical - chemical
Biological
Human - social - mind or mental - consciousness
Universal
Shows the origins of Levels I, II, III; provides lessons in value and
method for these levels and indicates the essential nature of these
levels of design
Provides meaning, for the unity is anti-alienating; shows unity
[interaction] of all process
Meaning in process [Dionysius] vs. meaning in ends [Apollo]
Design is evolution as emergence of order
Levels I, II, III as localization, specialization
Introduction to the Concept of Design
DESIGN - Resource intensive tasks can be made efficient by defining
the task to be design and implementation:
Variation and selection
Process of coming up with a plan, planning
1.2
Important activity: industrial design, social design, planning and
reconstruction, personal planning, policy analysis, strategic planning
The “General Statement” [pp. 4 - 17] is a narrative description of my
objectives for this work, how my ideas evolved through different
levels to include universal process, and how this grew out of my early
interests. Here: an organized, more formal statement
Rational choice making and decision analysis
Transition from thought to action
As a verb, design is the characterizations above, the process, and as
noun, is the completed plan or the structure of the implementation
As an element in process and change [in human activity] is variation
and selection, design works by direction variation and selection, by
rationalizing selection
Problem solving [objective design], search, information gathering
[objective-free or general design]
Aspects are management, procedural,
[creation, invention], analytical
1.1.1
technical,
psychological
Four Levels of Design
The list of descriptions above suggests generalized concepts of
design; example, the idea of a process “thought-knowledge  design
 action” suggests a new meaning. Design is thought  decision 
action. Such generalized meanings will provide insight for [and into]
design. Generalized definitions are needed
1.1.1.1
Level I - Problem solving and objective design
Problem solving and objective design [objectives reasonably clear or
can be clarified, that is, conscious design...This is the meaning above
1-20
OBJECTIVES FOR THIS WORK
1.2.1
1.2.1.1
FORMAL STATEMENT
Objective 1 - Design as fundamental in society and
universe
OBJECTIVE 1. Design as fundamental in society and universe, and for
the individual. Ideas of design, development of the ideas, uses;
relations, unities and transitions among the ideas and characterization
[Section 1.1], and use of these relations, etc., in elucidating the
different ideas; evolution, process, interaction as unifiers
1.2.1.1.1
Idea A - Practical and objective design
IDEA A: Practical and objective design; design as specific problem
identification and solution; design as search, information gathering
1.2.1.1.2
Idea B - Social process as design
IDEA B: Social process as design; design [noun and verb] and
foundation [noun and verb] of society and social - group process
1.2.1.1.3
Idea C - Evolution in design
IDEA C: Evolution in design. From Idea A, dynamic design [dynamic
due to incomplete adaptation and changing circumstance]. From Idea
B, social evolution
The process of design evolves. This is analogous to “evolution of
evolution.”
13
1.2.1.1.4
Idea D - General evolution
IDEA D:; unity of process; design as evolution, as variation and
selection; resolution of the dualisms: matter vs. consciousness,
materialism vs. choice
Evolution of the process of design is an example of “evolution of
evolution.”
1.2.1.2
Objective 2 - Use of design
OBJECTIVE 2. Use of design: process; strategy; use of the relations
among the levels: analogies, possibilities, values, alienation;
applications
Focus on fundamental problems...the fundamental problems of
humankind, of global process...material and existential problems.
Focus on design in definition and resolution of these issues
1-21
1.2.1.3
Objective 3 - Design as universal process
OBJECTIVE 3. Design as universal process. Criticism, synthesis,
continuing development and evolution of all personal and
worldviews7, intrinsic and organismic attitudes of being, action and
motivation. This includes ideal religion, “dance” - play, destruction devolution
Unfolding of consequences, considerations on the fundamental
problems of humankind
1.2.2
DISCUSSION AND FURTHER CONSIDERATIONS
The objectives are equipotent development of design is not different
from use; development is potential or generic use; development
incorporates being, in full, where, previously, in technology material
considerations dominated. Practical design is not apart from universal
process
Design has many meanings - design as cosmic creation, design as day
to day, bootstrap, hanging-on to existence. Design is responsible to
the whole. Knowledge is [conceived as] responsible to itself.
Therefore, knowledge can seem pure: hence its appeal as
sophistication. But even in the halls of academic sophistication in the
Western world, design has come of age - a return to the engineering
curriculum; the development of problem solving [and its equivalence
to concept formation] within cognitive science and artificial
intelligence studies; the clamor within the towers of ivory to solve
“practical” problems
1.2.2.1
Objective 1 - objective design
OBJECTIVE 1. There is a need, from the limited point of view of
objective design of different characterizations and generalizations.
The unities and relations among the various levels provide insights.
Some examples, [1] the generalization design  social process
provides perspective and value for
1-22
objective design and extends the range of applications of the
objective design-problem solving process; shows a unity of the social
processes, shows the mesh and to a degree shows each phase of
social process as a model of the total process. [2] The relation
objective design  objective design implies a self-relation: what is
the optimum sequencing and creative enhancement of design; what
is the optimum level of resources to be allocated to design. This
suggests an infinite regress and, indeed, this question must be
handled dynamically as the character of the particular problem
unfolds. Such questions are questions of management of design, or
design of design
[3] Various aspects of knowledge impinge on design; this can be seen
as an aspect of the relation design, « social process, since production
of knowledge and knowledge are aspects of the process; the
branches of technical science and mathematics are useful in modeling
behavior of systems for design; aspects of management and cognitive
science - artificial intelligence are useful in modeling - enhancing
design itself. [4] The concept of evolutionary design provides a
perspective on the further generalization objective design  evolution
= universal process; although not always explicitly recognized,
evolution must always be a part of design for two reason: first,
imperfections in design and knowledge, and, second, formal
completion is not actual completion. Therefore, Idea C, below, should
be a part of Ideas A and B - and in actuality, it is
[5] The equivalence design =? evolution gives insight in view of the
meanings, evolution = emergence of order by natural processes and
incorporation of rationality in variation and selection. This gives
reciprocal insight into the problem-solving nature and search aspects
of design and evolution. In addition, values for design are provided:
e.g., variety and diversity. Others should be sought. These would
include the meaning and value of a search for and cooperation among
the levels of evolution and design. The relation shows the unity of the
design, social process [for example, by demonstrating a common
origin]
1-23
and provides new meaning for both design and evolution. Some of
these meanings have been discussed in the General Statement, and
in the essay “Life, Unity, Meaning”8. It is probable that we can never
construct a single finite rational scheme of design that would match
evolution [Gödel-type arguments]: I think not - at least in principle
[considering evolutionary automata]. This means, first, evolution is
“greater” than rational system [obviously]; second, organism is
greater than rational system; but not, in itself, that organism is
greater than rationality. Rationality = the faculty which produces
rational systems _ a collection of rational systems
1.2.2.1.1
Idea A - Objective design is a fundamental human and
social process
IDEA A: Objective design is a fundamental human and social process
1.2.2.1.2
Idea B: Objective design generalizes to social process
IDEA B: Objective design generalizes to social process; since the
world and universe is a web of connections, other parts of the social
process could equally generalize. However, in various senses design is
natural for this: it is a more flexible concept than knowledge or value.
In its original form, it incorporates knowledge or elements of
knowledge. It bridges knowledge-thought and action and this leads to
the ideas of analysis and experiment
1.2.2.1.3
Idea C - Evolution in Design
IDEA C: The idea evolution is intended to include non-rational and
blind elements in variation and selection; incremental, new and large
variations are included
1.2.2.1.4
Idea D - General Evolution
IDEA D: I am concerned to see the unity9, the universal pervasions of
the dimensions of being [inasmuch as these are not mere artifacts of
language], the resolution of the dualisms directly [direct vision], but
also to understand them rationally. There is a rational explanation of
the dual approaches to “knowledge”: there are stages of information
processing from perceptual to cognitive [central]; and levels of
awareness from organismic to conscious. Mystic vision has to do with
processes that are closer to automatic-autonomic-perceptual and
whole-organismic rather primarily than fragmentary-consciousrational; the emotional peak related to direct vision could be universal
or a result of the temporary holism of a fragmented self10. These
remarks are not in any way prejudicial to the character of direct or
mystic vision
1.2.2.2
Objective 2 - Use of Design
OBJECTIVE 2. Some applications include Objective design models,
techniques, and use of paradigms developed in one field for critical
use in others. In this sense, mathematics is a generalized design tool,
and optimization and control theory are specific instances. There are
many specific potential applications in product and process
development, social and personal planning, and professions of
engineering, economics, and medicine. Social process distinguished
from objective design by greater multiplicity and ambiguity of objects
and higher inclusivity of process. Application in unification of the
multiplicity of social effort; special applications in social and global
planning and policy, government and government agencies, health,
economics, education and national policies for progress in knowledge.
Evolutionary design is use of knowledge of evolutionary principles in
14
development of “designs”, resource allocation for design. Design as
evolution unification, synthesis, resolution of problems of alienation
and inequity, values for more specific levels of design, long-range
planning values and synthesis of possibilities and adventure, ideal
motivational systems [as James: religion]
1.2.2.3
Objective 3 - Design As Universal Process
OBJECTIVE 3. Includes all dimensions of design, dimensions of being,
modes and categories of knowledge and perception, methods of
advance; application to fundamental problems of humans - practical
and existential and motivational - balance in dimensions of being;
incompleteness of
1-25
top  down [T  D], generic  down [G  D], self  out [S  O],
path identification, rational systems, and open [objective free] design
and process - evolution - devolution - dance as resolution
I realize the enormity of this – it is an adventure...there are
adventures, holistic visions and unitary insights to be had to
synthesize rational design-scapes. One of the objectives of the
synthesis of Objective 3 is:
I felt it worthwhile to offer him [the individual] that his personal
design for life should include designs, as far as his power permits for
his wider system; and information, as far as his knowledge permits,
of that wider system. I also felt it valuable to offer for his
consideration the idea of search for the broadest and highest of all
possible views.11
There is adventure and action in this search. The idea applies to
society
1-26
1.3
1.3.1
BASIC THESES AND POSTULATES
There is a human motive to the universal
There is in humankind a motive to know and resolve its fundamental
practical and existential problems at all levels of organism, individual,
society and universe
1.3.2
This resolution requires vision
This resolution requires humankind to see, First, the actual unity of
reality and of itself with reality; and to know the essential dimensions
of [its] being and processes. This requires openness and flexibility
1.3.3
DESIGN, AS PROBLEM SOLVING IS AN ESSENTIAL
ACTIVITY AT ALL LEVELS
DESIGN, as problem solving is an essential activity in political process,
social planning and various phases of global and local society and
environment. This includes the professions, and individual life civilized, primitive, organic
1.3.4
objective design must include holistic values
Such objective design can be performed as a rational activity, but
must include holistic values. Good design includes arational
approaches - intuitive, organismic, and direct approaches to knowing
and creativity
1.3.5
Generalization of the basic design leads to more
inclusive and universal processes
Generalization of the basic design process by a clear recognition of its
essential elements and context leads to more inclusive and universal
processes that include universal evolution. The relationships among
the levels of being have significance for the levels of design. This
includes provision of truer values for the objective level. The process
of inclusion is ongoing and essential and has value for all levels.
Understood as design, all levels have application
1.3.6
The idea evolution = design [Level IV] universalizes
and hierarchizes design
1-27
The idea evolution = design [Level 4] universalizes and hierarchizes
design. The universalization could start from any point in the cycle:
awareness  value  knowledge  design  action  learning or
feedback  awareness. THUS, all processes and activity are
synthesized. A SYNTHESIS THAT STARTS FROM OBJECTIVE DESIGN
THUS provides a perspective on design and a design perspective
overall. Such a synthesis does not unduly exalt design. Alternative
syntheses, such as provided in this WORK and perspectives could
start from any point in the cycle since each element includes the
whole in micro-process form - with different emphases. These
“systems” provide approaches to value, knowledge, design, and
action and to resolution of the fundamental problems of humankind
1.4
OUTLINE
1.4.1 TOPICS
Area 1 and Area 8 are INTRODUCTION and CONCLUSION. Evolution
is the genesis of design and social process, and so Area 2,
EVOLUTION, is first in the body of the work...A model of social
process is: awareness and perception  reflection  value 
knowledge  design and planning  action, observation, control and
implementation  learning or feedback, evaluation and correction.
Contract the first three elements to philosophy to obtain the
remaining areas in order: Areas 3 PHILOSOPHY, 4. KNOWLEDGE, 5
DESIGN, 6. ACTION, and 7 EVALUATION
1.4.1
LOGIC OF THE ORDER
There is one point of explanation that deserves further discussion.
Philosophy includes universal, foundational and genetic aspects of
knowledge and is, in this sense, logically before the specific disciplines
of Area 4. However, it would be useful to consider the specific
disciplines before philosophy to provide a base on which to build - to
provide substance. This is provided in part by placing EVOLUTION
before PHILOSOPHY. It is also logically desirable to have
PHILOSOPHY before EVOLUTION; this need is partial resolved by
placing a second on Abstract Evolution at the head of Area 1. This is
an account of the linguistic elements of an outline of evolution and
possibilities for basis of evolution in [what is assumed to be]
mechanism. This is taken up again in a later sub-area on emergence
of order
1-29
1.4.2
COMPLETENESS
The contents, including discussion in this introduction, should provide
a complete implementation of the objectives of this work [§1.2] and
the General Statement - explicit and implicit, and a complete
foundation of the theses and postulates [§1.5]
Examination of the detailed outline areas shows that the objectives
have been incorporated. The work should do justice to the areas
outlined, the stated objectives, and the theses and postulates of this
work
A full treatment of the theses and postulates will include [1] their
foundation; this is done specifically in the General Statement and in
PHILOSOPHY OF EVOLUTION AND DESIGN [3.5.6]; and [2] their
vitality to the objectives and to life. A general treatment of these two
items is included throughout the work
1.4.3
WHERE ARE THE OBJECTIVES TREATED?
Treatment is throughout the work. The indications below are a partial
guide. In the current outline form, it is not the objective to present
such solutions to the implied problems as are possible, but to provide
a framework, an atlas, to such solutions
1.4.3.1
Objective 1
Objective 1. Identifying levels of design General Statement, Areas
1.1, 2, 5
Relations among the levels All areas
1-30
Using the relations 1.2.2
Item l 5.3.3, 5.4.1, 4, 7
Item 2 5.1.0.2, 5.2.1, 5.3.1, 5.3.4.3, 4, 5; 5.3.5.4.9; 5.3.6 - 7; 5.4.1 2
Item 3 4, 5.3.5, 5.4.1,2,4; 5.5
Item 4 2, 5, 7
Item 5 2, 3, 5
15
1.4.3.2
Objective 2
Objective 2. Applications of design 1.2.1 Objective 1
Idea A 5
Idea B 4.3.3, 5
Idea C 4, 5, 7
Idea D 2, 3, 6, 7
Fundamental problems Application to definition
Item 2.1, 2.5 - 6, 2.8, 3.1,3; 3.5.2,5 - 7; 4.1 - 2; 5.2 - 5; 6.1, 7
1.4.3.3
Objective 3
Objective 3. Synthesis 2.5 - 6, 3, 4.1 - 2, 5.3 - 4, 6.1,3
Fundamental problems- toward solution
See “Fundamental problems Objective 2” above
Item 5.3.1, 4, 7, 5.4.1,3,5; 6.1,3; 7
2-1
16
2
EVOLUTION AND HISTORY
2.1
of William James' “Religion is the total motivational system of men” in
contrast to church, creed, dogma, or opium of the masses
REASONS TO STUDY EVOLUTION
In this section, I review my reasons to study and to further the
understanding of evolution, personal and social. These reasons are
additional to those considered in the Introduction, the General
Statement, and the remaining sub-areas under Evolution
2.1.1
As the universal process of unfolding reality
As the universal process of unfolding reality12...evolution provides or
can or could provide knowledge and understanding of the total
picture; one of three or four ways to see unity and structure
Others are direct knowledge and vision, through identity, through
homology and analogy or similarity, as part of a larger and total
process, through the containing of the larger and total process in
micro-process, and a putting back together of the initially separated
categories of rational and other process. This discussion shows and
gives insight into the bounded or limited nature of rationality and the
resolution of this question. The true nature of rationality and
knowledge = provision of adaptation [variation, selection and
replication, interaction of individual and cultural ideas and solutions]
and not certitude [though evaluation of certitude has its appropriate
place], as well as resolution through synthesis; and the setting of
rationality and knowledge in more comprehensive processes and
structures - the existential foundation of rationality and knowing and
knowledge
2.1.2
To show levels of understanding:
2-2
2.1.2.1
[A] Knowledge As Static
2.1.2.2
2.1.2.3
[B] Knowledge as evolving
[C] Knowledge As An Element Of Evolution
Knowledge as an element in a more general evolution - a connection
between knowledge and knowledge and evolution
2.1.2.4
[D] Evolution Of The Processes Of Knowledge
Evolution of the processes of knowledge and of the integration of
modes of knowledge and perception; examples, the model: random
association and natural selection against non-adapted cultures and
groups  systematic association and process applied to sub-process
and elimination or abeyance [because an idea may be fruitful later] of
non-adaptive ideas and knowledge; or the model: random association
 systematic association  experimental association in the present
 historical and evolutionary associations...an approach to the
foundations of the hypothetico-deductive method or method of
speculative philosophy [Whitehead]
2.1.3
To establish “the” dimensions of being
To establish “the” dimensions of being, the categories of language innate, natural and artificial, the categories of thought - mental and
organismic, and the relations among these. I believe there to be
some evolutionary convergence and, therefore, provision of at least
partial basis. Evolution integrated knowledge - science, history, life,
and process
2.1.4
Provides learning for design
To what extent is there evolution in design, design in evolution; to
study the evolution of design; to what extent can evolution tell us
about the nature of design, the nature of creativity, the “true” nature
of humans and value for design; mutual natures and interactions of
design and evolution; need to know nature of evolution to use it and
study, analyze, criticize its theory to advance it and improve
adaptivity of knowledge of it
2.1.5
To study my own life
2.1.6
To understand relation of universal to human Being
To understand relation of Universal to Human Being, the unity of
humankind with nature and universe; to provide meaning; René
Dubos' “transitions matter  life  consciousness are articles of faith
and not scientific knowledge” is reasonable but discounts mystical
awareness of universal pervasion of matter, life, mind and
consciousness, design and choice. The religious motive in the sense
2.1.7
Relation to objectives of the present work
Relation to objectives of the present work and theses,
characterization of design as stated in the General Statement, and
sub-areas Characterization, Objectives, and Theses; specific motives
provided in the sub-areas of evolution; specific relations to all the
other six Areas
2.1.8
Provides insight into culture and human institutions
Study of evolution provides insight into culture and human
institutions. This includes tradition, values and morals, knowledge and
art, language and so on, but this is not a substitute for cultural
determinism
2.1.9
As a foundation for design
As a foundation for design
2.1.9.1
2.1.9.2
[1] Design is within evolution
[2] Design is analogous to evolution
Design is analogous to evolution - its mechanism is variation and
selection. Successful knowledge and design is reproduced. Foresight
can be seen as reading the future from the past or, more accurately,
an ability to predict repeating patterns from having adapted to them.
Even knowledge can be interpreted this way: the repeating pattern is
an ability to negotiate an unknown environment whether in space or
in time. This leads us to ask, because it begs the question, what -
therefore - are the limitations on such human knowledge?
Alternatively, foresight is the repetition of dominant behavior
2.1.9.3
[3] Design is part of evolution
Higher design is evolutionary...and is part of general evolution
2-4
2.2
2.2.1
CHARACTERIZATION OF EVOLUTION
Origins, continuation and destination of all entities
in our physical and speculative universes
Origins, continuation and destination of all entities in our physical and
speculative universes... The idea of an entity is something which on
some scale of human awareness has existence13 or being. The idea of
evolution is that on a longer scale these entities come into existence,
maintain existence and have an indefinite-infinite or finite existence.
Evolution includes origination, being and dissolution. Included in the
idea of being is process. The processes of society have evolved according to the idea of evolution
2.2.2
Processes of evolution are not different than
ordinary processes
When distinguished from creation, guidance, and destruction ideas,
evolution implies that the processes of origination, maintenance, and
destination are, in ultimate nature, not different from the ordinaryeveryday processes. Such ordinary-everyday processes may include
[1] common sense, [2] the elementary processes of physics, and [3]
the basic processes of biology. Any final notion of evolution in this
sense, and clear and full distinction from creation, etc., must wait for
completion of understanding of the ordinary processes. An example of
a difficulty is that the ordinary processes as we understand them may
themselves be actually evolving. As far as evolution is to be regarded
as an open chapter in a dialogue among people committed to truth, it
must be regarded as incomplete
2-5
2.2.3
Evolution need not be distinguished from or equated
with creation, guidance, or destruction
In general, for various reasons, evolution need not be distinguished
from or equated with creation, guidance and destruction. There are a
number of reasons For this: [1] knowledge of ordinary processes is
incomplete, [2] ordinary processes, because of incomplete knowledge
either of their nature or their implications, may have extraordinary
implications; e.g., mechanism, usually regarded as indifferent to order
may be not so, [3] as a generalization a language of evolution and a
language of creation are equivalent; it may be argued that a language
17
of [indifferent] evolution is more economical but it could also be
argued that this language is not complete, [4] even if biophysical
mechanisms are indifferent to order and biophysical evolution was
initially indifferent to direction then, if these mechanisms are
complete, they have evolved design. Perhaps the elements of
mechanism and design pervade all being. This applies equally to
consciousness, choice, mind, etc. [whichever of these concepts are
essential]; perhaps they are always there as unity or plurality sometimes latent to our observation
Some of us associate ideas of creation, guidance, and destruction
with dogmatism. As far as this is true, it is not essential but a function
of present and recent history
2-6
2.2.4
Time and space evolve
Time and space are involved in evolution; that is, they evolve. One of
the unifying ideas in science, religion and philosophy is that the
ordinary processes, when properly understood, on earth and the
neighboring parts of the universe, and at this time and over known
history extend over all space and time. This idea was used in
discussing evolution [2.2.2]. It is equally valid that what we learn
from the far reaches should pervade here and now. The ultimate
truth is a process of approximation and acceptance based on a
balance of information from all places and times in physical and inner
universes. We learn from relativity that our notions of space and time
are modified; they lose their complete distinction in an accurate
mapping of events of reality. Space-time evolves, too, and may have
had an origin and may have a destination. The original singularity
does not imply an original instant. It may be more mathematical, an
artifact of description, than physical - so it does not even imply loss of
information. Originations and destinations of the universe we know
remain uncertain and ambiguous at the boundaries of its being and
our knowledge. Space-time itself need not be a final entity of reality
or description but it is currently appropriate [November 1986] to
include evolution of space-time or quantum-field as elements of
physical and universal evolution
2.2.5
Universal processes
The processes of evolution can be recognized on a number of levels.
The “mechanisms” of the levels include greater and lesser degrees of
universality
2-7
Detailed understanding of the mechanisms may be approximate. This
may hide some universality. Mechanisms that seem to be distinct may
be related - equivalent or reducible. Reductionism holds that the
mechanisms of one level are reducible to those of “lower” levels.
Partial reduction may be the case. Philosophically there need be no
ultimate need for assignment of hierarchy and we may regard all
mechanisms as universally pervasive until the contrary is
demonstrated as necessary. In practice, we recognize the necessity of
practical convenience. A set of possible levels:
Universal
Space-time-field and evolution of physics
Universe [“physical”]
Galaxy clusters, super galaxies, galaxies and interstellar matter
Star and planetary systems
Planetary evolution; geology
Geo-chemical evolution
2-8
2.2.6
Evolution does refer to specific set of mechanisms or
theories
Evolution - understanding, fact, and theory - is not a specific set of
mechanisms or theories...although understanding, mechanisms, and
theories are important. It is not some specific hierarchy, although
hierarchy may be employed. For example, if we say evolution =
variation AND selection and that variation is indifferent to order or
adaptation and that selection is without destiny, we mean to attempt
an explanation of, say, biology on these grounds; and that this
principle has had some degree of success. However, an affirmative
extension to the completeness of this mechanism re universal
evolution, or even biology, is not intended. Yet, evolution and theory
provide mutual insight
2.2.7
Evolution is not a social or political program
Evolution [understanding, fact, and theory] is not a social or political
program such as social Darwinism. Evolution is intended as a study of
natural order and not as a justification of a social or socioenvironmental order as natural or right. Undoubtedly we can learn
from evolution. We can learn something about possibilities and
limitations, about freedom and the use of freedom. However, this
information is probably going to be incomplete and should, I believe,
be used as input into our designs [and this includes morality and
ethics], but not as a substitute for design. Evolution is not a theory of
universal, biological, historical, social or human determinism. In the
nineteenth century evolution [in the sense of Darwinism] was used as
an unfounded justification for a wide variety of beliefs to the extent
that “Darwinism came to mean all things to all men.” However, there
is a social evolution; and this provides insight into social institutions
and processes
2-9 and 2-10
2.2.8
Evolution is not a philosophical program
Evolution [understanding, fact, and theory] is not a philosophical
program such as emergent evolutions of C. Lloyd Morgan, creative
evolution of Henri Bergson, or the evolutionary ideas of Herbert
Spencer or George Santayana. The negating characteristics of
emergent evolutionism are interesting: evolution is supposed to be
not [1] mechanistic, [2] vitalist, [3] preformationist - actualization of
pre-existing tendencies, [4] reductionist - reducible to the shuffling of
a few elemental elements. Nor do I affirm the affirmative ideas of
emergent evolutionism: [1] emergence, [2] levels, [3] novelty...which
are, in effect, the affirmation of the process of evolution as an
essential category. All of these ideas may be used in either affirmative
or negative form, but I do not restrict evolution to any set of them
until some completeness and its necessity be demonstrated or laid
bare. Evolution and philosophy may enhance each other
2.2.9
Evolution includes emergence of order by natural
processes
Evolution includes emergence of order by natural or ordinary
processes...processes that seem reasonable and non-exceptional. It is
the emergence, continuation, and dissolution of the categories of
nature and the dimensions, types and processes of being which on
first sight seem static. It is implied that a full attempt at
understanding of “ordinary” is required, and that the ordinary
processes may be in evolution. This evolution includes an
understanding of the long-time story of reality, of a record of the
events of the human and universal past together. This evolution
attempts to use that understanding of this record of reality
Biology
Human and social evolution
Universal evolution
Cartesian-reductionist
compositionist-holistic-synergistic
and
unitarian-reconstructed-hierarchy-mystic approaches are valid and
complement one another. Approaches to composition include
organization, and process-evolution
2-11
2.2.9.1
Is not essential
Blind mechanism or indifferent variation is not essential, nor is
direction or directed mechanism. Mechanism, however, is the more
efficient explanation - it is the weaker hypothesis!
It has been said that purpose is an illusion since matter, which
underlies everything, is mechanistic in its processes. The argument is
made in more and in less subtle ways
18
Grant the hypothesis of mechanistic materialism. It then follows that
mechanism has given rise to design since animals including humans
do design. In 2.6.8, there is much mention of the distinctions among
the concepts of teleological, teleonomic and teleomatic processes. It
remains that mechanistic matter has given rise to design. However
while matter does not design [except when it manifests as certain
animals, humans...] it must have something in it that permits it in
certain combinations to design. Matter does design
Contemplation  meditation  action...followed by iteration and subiteration
Rethink this
2.5
Regardless, there is no refutation of cosmic teleology. Rather,
Darwinism is shown the more efficient hypothesis relative to life.
Combined with the success of the physical sciences, the argument is
most persuasive and successful in explanatory, predictive, and
pragmatic senses but not in an ultimate sense
2.2.9.2
Mechanisms includes:
Mechanism - physical and chemical
Description of change - variation and selection
Guidance - design as in social change and evolution
Creation
For further discussion of nature and mechanisms of evolution, see §1,
especially pp. 10-17
2-12
2.3
ABSTRACT EVOLUTION WITH EXAMPLES
Models and descriptions of evolution provide examples of evolution,
though not “natural” ones...but rather symbolic ones
Examples
Creation and evolution as independent categories
Linguistic / symbolic
Includes language and terminology of evolution and creation, and
revisions of natural language to account for new learning regarding
being, process and evolution
2.3.3
Mathematical - a special case of the symbolic
Simulative - approximations to infinite [continuous or other]; finite
automata
Mechanistic
Physical, chemical, biological, psychosocial
2-13
HISTORY14
First, I must be clear about meaning. [1] This is an account of
progression of facts from origins to present, of universes of being and
discourse. [2] It is done with the bare minimum of philosophical,
linguistic, mechanistic, scientific, etc. base to make the information
intelligible. Deviations are permissible provided they are in addition to
the minimally interpreted versions. In brief, I am referring to a
minimally interpreted account of the universe and not an interpreted
account of humankind
All levels are to be included: universal  universal. The history of
humankind is a chapter. The classic tables of universal, geologic,
social, classical historical evolution are included
2.4.1
PREFACE
The ancients, living and evolving in the world, had powers of
observation and body-Earth-knowledge [elsewhere I call this type of
knowledge organic or organismic] and were capable of powerful and
synthetic insight into cosmography and history - synthetic in its effect
on action and social organization and interaction with nature, psyche
and universe
Positive - Existential knowledge forms a motivational, existential,
practical system: centering humankind in the universe, in being [i.e.,
making humankind feel at home, as in part of and with; not
necessarily above or over]; taking care of all dimensions of human
existence
Negative - incompleteness and dogma
An alternative title I had considered is “Mythic Accounts...” but I
decided that title would have been prejudicial to an understanding
and evaluation of the nature, origin, meaning and value of such
accounts. Mythical is often construed as “false” and “irrational”. Of
course, mythology does contain non-rational elements and this is
precisely one of its values, provided we do not rationalize or make
dogma
2.5.1
Reasons for studying organic accounts of creation,
guidance and destruction
[1] As archetypes of origins
They are suggestive of the archetypes of originations and
destinations. This is a valuable learning, for further development, and
other reasons
2.5.1.2
[2] As archetypes of psyche
They are suggestive of human archetypes and archetypes of psyche
and imagination. This, too, is valuable
2.5.1.4
Computer
Symbolic
2.4
2-15
ORGANIC ACCOUNTS OF CREATION, GUIDANCE AND
DESTRUCTION
[3] Continuity with the past
They provide continuity with the past
Discrete - infinite or finite [von Neumann]
2.3.5
2-14
2.5.1.3
Continuous
2.3.4
The meaning of history here is described above [2.4, 2.4.1]. For
reference, a discussion of classical history is attached
2.5.1.1
Special
2.3.2
Meaning of History16
DISCUSSION
In order to understand evolution, it will be useful to have a sequence
or collection of modes of talking about it. None of these modes will be
complete or final descriptions and models, but will be use vehicles,
each at various levels of generality. This point is made [2.2.6-8,
1.4.2] and an abstract of evolution is provided in the General
Statement [pp. 10-17]
2.3.1
2.4.2
Purpose of the section
Before understanding, system and philosophy, comes assemblage15
[4] Some functions are still valid
Some of the historical “functions” of the mythical-organic accounts
are still valid - culturally speaking. The images of organic mythology
still speak directly to men and women
2.5.1.5
[5] Organic knowledge of human origins
They are sources of organic or organismic and cultural knowledge of
human origins and environment expressed in organic symbols; nor
are they devoid of rationality
2.5.1.6
[6] Symbolic-organic knowledge is valuable
Such symbolic-organic knowledge has been valuable to men and
women in modern times of stress when the liberal and rational
approach has failed. There are, it is true, misuses of the organic
doctrines, but so are there of the rational. Perhaps we could develop
a valuable synthesis. It has been claimed such syntheses have
2-17
been failures or, at best, disappointments. However, by synthesis I do
not think of the organic added on to the rational; but, perhaps, the
expression of the rational in an organic language or a conditioning of
the organic accounts to be consistent with the essence of rational
knowledge. In formulating this expression, it will be valuable to
remember the limitations of rational synthesis at the boundaries of
our universes of experience and knowledge
19
2.5.1.7
[7] If science should decay
2.5.4.3
If science and the rational approach should decay, because of either
inadequacy or incompleteness, disuse, or, perhaps, a failure of nerve,
the organic myths would be of value
2.5.1.8
[8] Insight organic knowledge
[3] Dissolution
...The kinds are similar to the kinds of creation. Also refer to
“Religious Doctrines and Dogmas” including eschatology [the doctrine
of last things]. This essay includes modern interpretations - utopian,
Marxist, and Revived Christian eschatologies
The study will be a source of insight into a form of organic knowledge
Archetypes
2.5.2
Final dissolution
Function
Function. First, as suggested [2.5.1], as a source of organic or implicit
behavioral knowledge [self-knowledge, too] of the total system of
humankind's exterior [includes physical, social] and interior [includes
rational, emotional] universes. Second, and related to the first, as a
motivational system in the interior and exterior worlds. The third
function is related to the first two. It is a centering or placing
humankind in its place and time - empirically and symbolically.
Fourth, related to the second, as a source of cultural and individual
archetypes. Fifth, related to the first, as an initial flowering of
language and as a source of later development of language in a
culture - this would explain a lot of the power of myth and language
despite their inadequacies, adaptively or comparatively: they are
based, partially, in pre-rational and organic development of individual
and culture. There should be nothing essentially prejudicial
2-18
about the notion of pre-rationality. Do we control the function of each
cell or origin in our bodies at a rational level? There are essential prerational processes. Sixth, and somewhat more specifically, as
“narrative expressions of the basic valuations of a religious
community”. Note William James' idea of religion as, essentially, the
full motivational system of the individual, to which we can add society
and culture
2.5.3
Transition
Cyclic
2.6
This area is divided into a number of sub-areas. These are of two
types: [1] general [as 2.6.1-2] and specific treatments of “the” levels
of evolution - according to mechanism or level of organization, from
universal [2.6.3] through cosmological, geophysical, geo-chemical,
biological and to universal [2.6.13] again. A break in the sequence of
areas on levels is 2.6.9 on evolution [emergence] of levels of
organization and interactions; this is of Type 1. Interactions are
interactions between “individual” to form composite; this provides a
key to interactions between levels
A general plan, not completely followed, for treatment of the specific
levels is:
History... Sub-levels;
Speculations
Religion; pre-religion18
Myth and mythology
Magic, witchcraft, shamanism, alchemy and astrology, ancestor, hero,
nature worship
Folklore [George Frazier and others held that the myth of creation
occurred at the “highest” stage of development of a culture. This was
challenged by Scottish folklorist Andrew Lang, based on accounts of
cultures classified as “most primitive”]
special
considerations...
Mechanisms...
Connections to other levels
2-23
2.6.1
2.6.1.1
2.6.1.2
Sources17
SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNTS OF EVOLUTION
INTRODUCTION:
Reasons for studying systematic accounts
[1] Centering
[2] The Study Itself is Part of Human Evolution
The study is a continuing process in evolution of humankind. Related
aspects of the study are philosophy, knowledge, design, action, and
evaluation; therefore, furthering of the study is relevant to the same
purpose; this applies also to organic accounts of evolution
2.6.1.3
[3] As a Source of Knowledge and Its Systematization
As a source of knowledge and its systematization in all fields,
especially biology
Art [includes symbolic, visual, tonal, sensual expression]
2.6.1.4
History [possibly - based on analyses of generalized historical
accounts]
Knowledge for design; design within the boundaries of bio-genetic
and evolutionary potential in a more general sense; entering, using
the evolutionary process; bio-genetic technology; evolutionary
technology at other levels; “design with nature”; meaning and
direction...value, ethics, morals, standards evolve, too
Philosophy and science [surely have organic and holistic elements,
however rational]
In individuals - creative
imagination and criticism
combination
of
experience,
action,
2-19, 2-20, 2-21
2.5.4
2.5.4.1
19
Types
[1] Creation
Creation by a Supreme Being [masculine type, usually]
Creation through emergence [feminine, Earth]
Creation by world parents [combined symbols of masculine and
feminine]
Creation from the cosmic egg
Creation by Earth drivers
Note: Evolution could be interpreted as several of these creation
types. Review major religions and mythical systems. Individuals form
their own personal experiential, imaginative, and critical [separate or
synthesized] accounts of creation, continuance and guidance, and
dissolution
2.5.4.2
[2] Continuance
...The kinds are similar to the kinds of creation
2.6.1.5
2.6.1.6
2.6.1.7
[4] Knowledge for Design
[5] Learning about the processes and meanings of design
[6]. A continuation of the organic accounts discussion of
evolution
[7] Centering Humankind in Nature
Centering humankind in nature; humankind comes from, is, is in, and
goes to nature. Fear is natural. Time is a concept and the physical
space-time-field levels may tell us about the dimensions of being that
are behind the categories of space-time-etc
2.6.1.8
[8] As a Framework for a Unified Concept of Evolution
To provide a base or framework, along with organic accounts of
evolution, for a unified concept or language of evolution... Such a
language would probably be very general, and could not be used for
specific results, at least as a generalization. Underlying physical
mechanisms of various types could be incorporated. This includes any
language that would emerge from a general science of order and
evolution of order [2.9]
The use of unified concepts of evolution would be [1] learning,
systematizing and synthesizing for the different levels of evolution
and related disciplines of knowledge, and [2] learning for design and
the different levels of design
20
2-24
2.6.2
General comments on evolution and mechanisms
Evolution is emergence, continuance and dissolution of recognizably,
perhaps, stable and semi-stable structure[s] by non-exceptional
processes...processes accessible to understanding20
General mechanisms = uniform language = variation [simple variation
from nonbeing, replication, interaction - of some level of being or
organization] and selection  mutual adaptation or evolution of
ordered structures and environment. I emphasize again, evolution
cannot be understood without including continuance and dissolution,
processes of varying rates; although generally we expect magnitude
of change to be small compared to total order, and rate of change to
be slow compared to intrinsic process and life of the structures.
However, we remain open-minded and expect exceptions. We saw in
the General Statement that aspects of physical evolution “ simple
variation and selection of stable state and to improve the accuracy of
the approximation, variation must, or probably should, [based in
large-scale physics] include some preference for order [stability]
2-25
Chemical evolution = simple variation and reproduction and selection;
and now, with quantum states and thermal, chemical, radiation noise
as drivers of variation, non-preferential variation provides [probably]
a good approximation. In this context, the theory of neutral variation
is of interest. Because of the universal presence of thermal noise,
perhaps the bearer of order should be [relatively, perhaps] insensitive
to thermally driven variation. This carries over to biology: biological
evolution = simple variation [and recombination] and reproduction
and interaction [and recombination] and selection. The General
Statement discusses implications of interaction
We see a trend: physical evolution = simple variation [in some cases
replication, as crystals, convection cells] and selection; chemical
evolution “=“ physical evolution and [later] reproduction; biological
evolution “=“ chemical evolution and interaction. What of social and
psychosocial evolution... We can see it as imposed on biological
evolution:
Social evolution - loose interaction of organisms and variations
Arising in complexity of biosocial structure and environment and
creative thought, plus possible weak effect of biological change as
variation [weak because relatively slow], plus replication by memory
and social institution, plus selection of stable groups and populations.
Clearly there are many factors in social evolution besides bio-potential
2-26
2.6.3
Universal evolution
Universal evolution; the unknown; the potential; a dimension of the
sacred, in which good and evil remain undifferentiated; nature of
being, including being behind categories: space-time-matter-field-lifeconsciousness
2.6.4
Cosmological evolution. Known and speculative
universe21
1. Evolution as a whole - based on modern knowledge and
speculative physics and philosophy; evolution of space-time-field;
large and small scale; arrays of universes; evolution of elementary
particle or atomic structure, of laws of physics as known to us;
questions of origins and destinations and before and after and beyond
- meaning of the real mathematical singularities and boundaries of
field theory - are they not physical? Nature of space-time-matter field
2. Evolution of the known universe as a whole; origins, destinations
and large-scale structure
2.6.5
Evolution of the phenomenal and physical objects of
the known universe
Origins, quantum fluctuations, punctuated equilibria, and “excess”
matter
Super-galaxies and inter- [galactic and stellar] matter
Galaxies
Stars and other objects; star clusters
Star systems; planetary systems
Fundamental questions and speculations; stability; connections to
geophysical evolution
2-27
2.6.6
Geophysical evolution
Origin of the solar system
Origins and long-term evolution of Earth
Development of the layers; origin of Earth's magnetic field;
developing nature of land, ocean, atmosphere and outer atmosphere
History of oceans, continents and land forms; drivers of continental
drift, climate
2.6.7
Geochemical evolution
Early and continued evolution of chemical forms in land, atmosphere
and waters of the Earth
Origins of complex chemical environments
Origins of replicating molecules
Speculations; connection with biological evolution
2-28
2.6.8
Biological Evolution
Preface to Discussion
This section is long because:
1. I need to learn some of the central ideas of philosophy of biology
2. Philosophy of biology contributes to philosophy of knowledge
through a number of new “paradigms”
3. Physics, biology, science of humankind and society are three
fundamental sciences. I am familiar with physics and have studied
some of the basic aspects of social science, psychology, and
anthropology
4. It will be a source of information
Some of the information is from Growth of Biological Thought by E.
Mayr. Although his ideas are interesting, I do not endorse all,
especially his notion of super-biological processes
An outline of biology may be useful
1. Variety of life and environment; class
2. Form, process and level of organization
3. Evolution of items 1-2
4. Class according to 1-3
Outline of biological evolution... origins and continuing evolution of
the following:
Process [and complexity]: Life - biological environment and replicating
molecules
Form: viruses, prokaryotes, autotrophs, and eukaryotes
Diversity: phylogenetic tree - species, kingdoms
Information processes: emotion, mind, and consciousness
Relations to human and social evolution; speculations
2-29
Biological Evolution: Main Discussion
The complex and varied life forms on Earth, of today or of earlier
times, can be approximately classified by their observable
characteristics into various groupings and sub-groupings. Of the
levels22 of classification, some stand out as fundamental. One is the
kingdom which represents in some basic and distinctive sense one of
a few, usually two to five, major divisions of life; a second is the
species which is a division of [similar] individuals forming a
reproductively isolated group, isolated not in the sense of geographic
barriers, but to biological barriers such as genetic, structural, and
behavioral. Of course, all meaningful schemes are approximate. There
are exceptions to rules, unclear cases, incomplete theoretical
foundation and sometimes little theoretical foundation. Although the
taxa in higher categories are well delimited, it is not possible to give a
21
non-arbitrary [objective] definition. Even the distinction population
between and individual is not always clear - being relative to some
purposes; e.g., level of focus in a hierarchy with varying degrees of
interaction and integration. Some of the major units of biology are
individuals - [1] the fundamental chemical structures, [2] cells, [3]
organisms as individuals, and populations - [4] species, and [5]
kingdoms. These structures and affinities have an approximate [and
evolving] basis in observation and are useful in studying,
understanding and advancing the basis and range of life and its
processes
2-30
The major thesis of biological evolution is that the life forms came
about, over the life of the universe, from a few elementary forms; a
standard version holds there to have been one fairly localized Earthorigin of replicating chemical molecules - perhaps one molecule. This
strictest version is not obvious, nor is it essential to any concept and
nature of evolution. However, one aspect of this version is essential
to one of the prominent worldviews of science; i.e., philosophical
materialism. The aspect in question is the origin in physico-chemistry.
The appeal of this view is the provision toward a unitary structure to
the universe - and the security that such a belief brings. So much of
science is so neatly explained on this unitary basis. However, this
specific unitary basis has not been demonstrated in “fact” [in this
context fact cannot mean certainty], either in the origin of life [yet] or
in unification of all categories of science and knowledge. Should the
aim of biological theory relative to philosophical materialism, then, be
one of confirmation and belief or one of openness to all possibilities? I
find both attitudes acceptable, each being amiable to a group of
personality types and each being productive of advance, provided not
held as absolute dogma
The remaining discussion is divided into four parts:
1. Relation of biology and biological evolution to science and general
evolution, and the nature of biology
2. Problems of biological evolution
4. Outstanding problems of biological evolution
2-31
2.6.8.1.1
Relation of biology and biological evolution to science and
general evolution23
Objectives of Science
[1] Understand the world [provision: of explanations and predictions],
[2] economic organization of understanding [patterns of relationship
among phenomena and processes are organized into concepts and
relations among concepts - includes law], [3] formulation of
hierarchies of certitude [testability and falsifiability]: introspection ¬
reflection ¬ experiment ¬ historical evidence ¬ evolutionary
interpretation; and of ambiguity: probability  certainty; and
authority  independent verification]
2.6.8.1.2
Special Features of Biology
Special features of biology, biological science and biological evolution,
according to Mayr:
Advance in understanding through concepts [e.g., in systematics classification, species, category, and taxon; and in evolution descent, selection, variation, fitness]
Importance of comparative method compared to the experimental:
comparison [observe  compare  classify... iterate] is a powerful
approach to dealing with uniqueness and diversity
The use of concepts and processes over mechanism, mathematics,
and law... Concept and process is not mere classification and
description
Population thinking...individuals are unique; means are constructs;
variances are important] vs. essentialism ...identity of individuals,
variance due to measurement
2-33
2.6.8.1.4
The Problem of Teleology
Problem of teleology - resolved by recognizing four different
meanings: [1] teleonomic, or goal-directed activities...due to
operation of a program; not found in inanimate nature, but in
artifacts - computers, [2] teleomatic processes - in which a definite
end is reached “through” the operation of time-local physical-chemical
law, [3] adapted systems - due to selection, an example of which is
Item 1 above, but not Item 2 as far as is known; [4] cosmic teleology
- there is purpose in the universe, based [Aristotle] on the false
dichotomy purpose vs. chance in relation to adaptation
2.6.8.1.5
Special Features of Life
Special features of life, according to Mayr:
Complexity - generally greater than inorganic species
Organization - the subsystems or parts of an organism function
interdependently
Chemical uniqueness...many macromolecules are unique... that they
occur in all life whenever their function is needed
3. Outline treatment of the problems
2.6.8.1
2.6.8.1.3
Discovery and Method in Science
Nothing was said about discovery and or method in science: the
fundamental method [I recognize] is the reflective-speculative
[2.6.8.2] approach. This is the method of speculative philosophy,
extended by reflection. Speculative philosophy is the formulation of a
speculative system, explanation [includes prediction] of a field of
phenomena [biological, physical, general] and selection of the system
which currently is “best”. This is augmented by a process in which a
need to resolve understanding arises, questions are asked,
information is assembled. This composite process is reflection. The
separations are not perfect...there are inner iterations. Neither
reflection nor speculation comes first. There is an iterative-interactive
process: reflection « speculation
Quality and qualitative reasoning and classification essential [though
not exclusive]
Uniqueness and high variability of individuals in populations [from
cells to ecosystems]
Possession of a genetic program which regulates cell and individual
reproduction, function and process and growth... Unlike inanimate
nature [analogy: artifact - computer program]. [Perhaps, therefore,
some level of outline should be “regular”.]
2-34
Historical nature - of organisms, based on inheritance from primeval
form[s]; taxa recognized by descent, biological classes supposedly
distinct from logical classes
Selection - natural “and” sexual; unlike inanimate nature
Indeterminacy - temporal prediction rare; logical prediction possible;
causality not disproved but not used as much as in physical science
because of the following related factors: randomness24 and
uniqueness of events and entities, magnitude of stochastic
perturbations, complexity of organic systems - interrelations and
feedback, emergence of new or “unpredictable” features at
hierarchical levels
This includes as special cases the following methods and aspects of
methods:
Deduction... Induction... Hypothetico-deductive... Creative... And
many others
22
2.6.8.1.6
Reduction in Biology
According to many philosophers of physical science and physical
scientists, biology is “reducible” to physics25 and this restores the
unity of science. This is reinforced by the claim that the only
alternative to reductionism is vitalism. Mayr rejects all of these claims.
He does so by identifying three types of reduction and confusion
among them
2.6.8.1.6.1
Constitutive Reductionism
[1] Constitutive reductionism asserts that the material composition of
organisms is exactly as found in the inorganic world [it is not clear
2-35
this has a precise meaning]; further, none of the events and
processes encountered in living organisms is in conflict with the
physico-chemical phenomena at the level of atoms and molecules.
These claims are accepted by modern biologists... and except for the
vitalists, and all biologists for the last two hundred years or more. The
difference between inorganic matter and living organisms does not
consist in the substance of which they are composed but in the
organization of biological systems. Constitutive reductionism is thus
not controversial [Mayr's view]
2.6.8.1.6.2
Explanatory Reductionism
[2] Explanatory reductionism is the idea that one cannot understand a
whole except to reduce it to its parts and these parts into theirs and
so on. This is often illuminative but there are severe limitations:
where do we stop? Lower level units may be so completely integrated
as to make high level function almost independent of the lower level
[this seems to contradict Item 1, so what should be said is “...almost
independent of the details or 'atoms' of the lower level[s]”. Extreme
analytical reductionism is a failure because it cannot give proper
weight to the [integrative] interaction of the components. Lower
levels in systems or hierarchies can only supply a limited amount of
information on characteristics and processes at the higher levels. It is
misleading to apply the term reduction to an analytical method. How
is analysis of complex biological systems facilitated? There are
numerous ways. As an example, the study of genetics was speeded
up by going to more numerous generations per year: large mammals
 fowl and rodents  1910 species of drosophila [especially
melanogaster]  19302 neospora and other species of fungi [yeast]
 molecular genetics with bacteria  viruses. Extrapolation to the
higher species was successful except that the genetic system of
prokaryotes and viruses is not fully comparable to that of eukaryotes
2-36
2.6.8.1.6.3
Theory Reductionism
[3] Theory reductionism is showing that the laws and theories in one
field of science are special cases of laws and processes of some other
field. Clearly, explanatory and theory reductionism are related.
Attempts to reduce biology to physics have been unsuccessful. As an
example, discovery of the chemical structure of DNA, RNA, and
certain enzymes fills in certain black boxes of the transmission theory
of genetics [and this is illuminating and useful] but is not a reduction
of genetics to chemistry. The essential concepts of genetics: gene,
genotype,
mutation,
diploidy,
heterozygosity,
segregation,
recombination, and so on, are not genetic concepts. Theory
reductionism is a fallacy because it confuses processes and concepts:
biological concepts such as meiosis and predation are also chemical
and physical processes but they are only biological concepts and
cannot be reduced to physical and chemical concepts. There are
levels of meaning
Thus, Mayr refutes reductions. It is interesting that he denies the
existence, or utility, of supra-biological categories “mind” and
“consciousness” as indefinable and universally present. Are his
motives parochial after all, or is he simply an inadequate philosopher?
Mayr claims reductionism to be futile, and this is exemplified by:
Emergence is the appearance of new, irreducible, characteristics in
the whole. There are two interesting aspects of wholes: [1] Hierarchy
- there are levels of wholes and explanation such as macromolecular,
cellular, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, and so on, or “constitutional
hierarchies” and such as species, genus...kingdom or “aggregational
hierarchies”; and [2] holism-organicism [an alternative to vitalism]
2-37
2.6.8.1.7
Conceptual Structure of Biology
Conceptual structure of biology - historically “for thousands of years”,
biological phenomena were labeled physiology [medicine] and natural
history; and this division was much more perceptive than later labels
zoology, botany, mycology, cytology, genetics, and such. The
historical distinction corresponds to the conceptual division into
proximate causes [physiological science broadly conceived] and
ultimate or evolutionary causes [the subject matter of natural
history]. The same systems can be studied in both contexts. The
basis of evolutionary biology is comparison and observation:
observation  description  comparison...or “qualitative”. The
transition from reduction and mathematical science to qualitative,
historical science is incomplete
Supposedly, historical narratives, not theories, provide explanation in
evolutionary biology. The ideas of central subject, and singular event
are fundamental in historical narratives which are explanatory in the
sense of showing causal connections [either in relation to mechanism;
e.g., variation and selection, or singular events - relative to the
discipline, such as extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the
Cretaceous which vacated a large number of ecological niches and set
the stage for the spectacular radiation of mammals in the Paleocene
and Eocene]. Historical narratives have predictive value [in the sense
of logical if not not-temporal prediction]. Some other sciences that
are historical and employ observation and comparison are
cosmogony, geology, paleontology [phylogeny], and biogeography.
Mayr does not point out the rise of history in physics. In sciences that
involve both theory and history, no aspect is understood completely
until both aspects of causation have been elucidated
2-38
2.6.8.1.8
Philosophy of Biology
The two modes are [1] theoretical-essential-quantitative-cyberneticfunctional-organizational, [2] historical-population-qualitative, and
program-uniqueness-adaptedness... Philosophy of biology is more a
manifesto rejecting logical positivism, essentialism, reductionism,
physicalism, vitalism, but hesitant and inchoate in its major theses;
e.g., acceptance and reception of emergentism
“Life”, “mind”, “consciousness” merely refer to reifications of activities
and have no separate existence as activities. Consciousness cannot
even be defined approximately. Avoidance of nouns that are nothing
but reifications of processes greatly facilitates the analysis of the
phenomena that are characteristic of biology. [Reification means to
“make” or treat as “concrete”.] Biologists like Rensch, Waddington,
Simpson, Bertalanffy, Medawar, Ayala, Mayr, and Ghiselin have made
a far greater contribution to a philosophy of biology than an entire
older generation of philosophers like Cassirer, Popper, Russell, Bloch,
Bunge, Hempel and Nagel. Only the youngest philosophers, Beckner,
Hull, Munson, Wimsatt, Beatty, and Brandon have been able to get
away from the obsolete reifications and biological theories of vitalism,
orthogenesis, macrogenesis, dualism, and positivist-reductionism
2.6.8.1.9
Some Principles of a Basis for Philosophy of Biology
[1] A full understanding of organisms cannot be secured by the
theories of physics and chemistry alone,
[2] The historical nature of organisms must be fully considered, in
particular their possession of a historically acquired genetic program,
[3] That individuals at most hierarchical levels, from the cell up, are
unique and form populations, the variance of which is one of their
major characteristics
[4] There are two biologies: functional biology, which asks proximate
questions; and evolutionary biology, which asks ultimate questions
[5] The history of biology has been dominated by establishment of
concepts, by their modification, maturation and - sometimes rejection
23
[6] The patterned complexity of living things is hierarchically
organized and higher hierarchic levels are characterized by
emergence of novelty
[7] That observation and comparison are methods in biological
research that are as fully scientific and heuristic as experiment and
theory
[8] An insistence on autonomy of biology does not mean an
endorsement of vitalism, orthogenesis, or any theory that is in conflict
with the laws of physics
[9] A philosophy of biology should include consideration of all major
specifically biological concepts of molecular biology, physiology,
development, and evolutionary biology [such as natural selection,
inclusive fitness, adaptation, progress, and descent]. Systematics
[species, category, classification], behavioral biology and ecology
[competition, resource utilization, ecosystem]
[10] Do not: waste time on theory reduction, laws, vitalism and other
unscientific ideologies
I will say again that Mayr is odd in including biology as a separate
paradigm of science, making biology exclusive and rejecting metabiology [e.g., “mind”]
2.6.8.1.10
Biology and Human Thought
In reference to C. P. Snow's two cultures, Mayr says Snow is right
about the gap between physics and humanities; but there is a similar
gap between physics and biology, and that biology being historical
and closer to the nature of the human being is something of a bridge
between the physical sciences and the social sciences and
humanities26
Some of the supposed difference between history and science27 are
[1] history deals exclusively with the unique, science with the general,
[2] history teaches no lessons, [3] history is unable to predict
[temporally]. [4] History is necessarily subjective, and [5] history,
unlike science, involves issues of religion and morality. These claims
are true only for physical science, says Mayr. Differences 1,3, 4 and 5
are largely true for evolutionary biology...and 2 is not even true for
history. Therefore, says Mayr, the sharp break between science and
the non-sciences does not exist
Copernicus, Darwin, Freud have profoundly altered human thinking;
mathematical physicists Einstein, Bohr not so much - scientists must
be read by lay people to affect popular thought. Probably, since
biology, psychology, anthropology will have more impact on human
thought than the physical sciences since they are of immediate
concern
Mayr calls for a joining of biology and philosophy in a rekindling of the
interest in the basic philosophical areas of metaphysics, ontology and
epistemology. These areas had been abandoned in the Englishspeaking countries due to the Positivist influence of physical science
and mathematics
2.6.8.1.11
Biology and Human Values
Mayr's points are:
[1] Unlike physical science [he does not say this categorically],
biology is not detached from humankind, objective, and therefore,
affects human values, society and traditional belief. [Of course,
physical science has affected belief - heliocentricity, etc. - and its
conclusions are value laden, but biology is directly value related.]
[2] Socio-political thinking developed under the influence of
essentialist thinking: essential identity of members of a class; “all men
are created equal”, whereas biology says “no two individuals are
created equal” and therefore social provision is necessary for equality
of opportunity, rights, and before the law
[3] He regrets the condemnation of sociobiology over its divergence
with “democratic thinking”. Mayr does not outright endorse
sociobiology, but that is its thrust28. The scientific aspects of
sociobiology are unresolved; but, to me, it does seem excessively in
some arguments for biological determination of social behavior and
anti-historical. The question is not whether biology determines
behavior [homosexuality, altruism, male-female roles, violence, and
such] at all, but to what extent is variation due to - and what is individual potential, species variability and social and other input
[4] The individual is not “merely on animal”, but ego is not essential:
instead consider humankind, the species or culture, and resolve
issues of cultural inheritance [in addition to biological], inclusive
fitness29 and ethics
2-42
2.6.8.1.12
Philosophical Implications of Darwin's Theories
Mayr lists:
[1] Replacement of a static by an evolving world [not original with
Darwin]
[2] Implausibility of creationism
[3] Refutation of cosmic teleology
[4] Abolition of any justification for absolute anthropocentrism
[5] Explanation of “design” by non-directed variation and
opportunistic reproductive success entirely outside Christian dogma
[6] Replacement of essentialism by population thinking
[7] Various philosophical-methodological innovations: consistent
application of hypothetico-deductive method, a new evaluation of
prediction. This brings study of ultimate [evolutionary] causation into
science
[In several of the points above, biological evolution and its theories
contribute - as opposed to independently imply.]
2-43
2.6.8.2
Theoretical and Empirical Problems of Biological Evolution
Nothing has yet been said about the course of and evidence for
evolution and its mechanisms; these are the main conceptual
problems:
[1] Outline of the course of evolution,
[2] Provision of evidence of evolution
The two problems are interdependent. In the content of the
speculative method [hypothesis and deduction], evidence is empirical
and theoretical: empirical - experimental, observational and
experiential, theoretical - organization of data and information
through comparison, concept, mechanism, law and theory so as to
permit summary representation, interpretation of old and new data,
and prediction of logical and or temporal types
These two problems are the main conceptual problems of biological
evolution. There is another
[3] Methodological problems [2.6.8.1] of biological evolution
These, of course, touch upon other areas of evolution and knowledge.
The three problems are elaborated further below. Although
separated, the problems are interdependent
2-44
2.6.8.2.1
[1] Outline of the Course of Evolution - Evolution and
Descent of the Major Biological Types
We will probably never know, nor need to know, the full details of
evolution of biology and the universe - at least in our finite
manifestations. Further, what knowledge we have will not be certain
and it is because of this essential incompleteness and uncertainty that
theory and concept30 formation is useful...so our knowledge of the
course of evolution is necessarily, and should be, in outline. Of
course, degree of certainty will improve; detail will expand. Here I
mention some main points of this outline:
Evolution and Descent of the Major Biological Types: Remember that
evolution includes origins, growth, maintenance or equilibrium, decay
and death or extinction. The idea of descent refers to relations among
origins of taxa. There are a number of possibilities for types of
descent: [a] Common descent vs. creation or special creation common descent is the idea that members of a taxon are
descendents of a common ancestor. According to this “species
descended from a single progenitor are grouped into genera; and
genera are included in, or subordinate to, subfamilies, families, and
24
orders all united into one class...” Creation is the violation of common
descent through independent [and or special, that is not evolution]
origin. [b] Tree like or more generalized descent - tree structure
permits branching. A generalized version permits mixing of taxa. The
types are:
2-47
2.6.8.2.2
[2] Provision of Evidence:
Empirical
Indirect
Life: complex chemical processes, environments, and replicating
molecules
Structural similarities
Division I: viruses and cells, biological form and process, auto- or
heterotrophy
Behavioral similarities - among different species
Division II: phylogenetic tree, kingdoms, and species...evolution of
complexity, systems, bio-systems; independence
2-45
We know that categories above species can be fairly clearly
demarked, but objective definition is not possible, nor is there yet any
criteria according to which such criteria would be meaningful; close to
the origins of life, under the assumption of common tree-like descent,
species  genus  ...  kingdom
2.6.8.2.1.1
A Four-Kingdom Scheme based On the Notion of
Common Tree-Like Descent
The four-kingdom scheme of Encyclopedia Britannica is 1. Monera the prokaryotes [bacteria and blue-green algae], 2. Protista eukaryotic single cells and non-photosynthetic plantlike eukaryotes
[protophyta - algae other than blue-greens, molds and fungi,
protozoa - unicellular animals], 3. Plantae - photosynthetic multicellular plants [bryophytes and vascular plants], 4. Metazoa - multicellular eukaryotic animals [parazoa - sponges and metazoa-higher
animals]
The four-kingdom scheme is based on the notion of common tree-like
descent. The divisional scheme is not fully clear. Even allowing for
common descent [at least beyond the earliest of replicating molecules
- groups of replicators may have originated independently but merged
or one became dominant or chemistry was similar, so we would then
have mixed descent. Even if this were true,31 the principle of common
tree-like descent would operate over large portions of evolution; there
could be confusion if descent, though common, had merging or
convergence. Whittaker32 and Margulis33 have argued that plants
evolved at least four separate times from protistan ancestors, fungi at
least five times, and animals at least three times
2-46
2.6.8.2.1.2
A Three Level, Five Kingdom Scheme based On
Descent, Morphology and Ecology
Based on these ideas, a classification based on morphology and
ecology can make sense. The following three level, five-kingdom
scheme reflects these factors as well as, naturally, convergence and
descent:
Developmental similarities - embryonic
Comparative biochemistry - e.g., similarity with human blood
decreases along the sequence - gorilla, orangutan, baboon, deer,
horse, and kangaroo according to an immunologic blood test from
parasitology. The alternative explanation is that hosts and parasites
were created together. Similarity of parasites confirms similarity
according to other criteria
Biogeographical - Buffon's evidence on difference between flora and
fauna of New and Old
Worlds despite climates being similar implies common descent and
led Darwin to question fixed species
Direct
Paleontology [but only a small percentage of record remains]
Genetic
Theoretical
Concepts - categories, functional biology, common descent, species
Mechanisms - variation, selection of adapted offspring from excess,
slow evolution of complexity through adaptive intermediate stages,
occurrence of singular events and filling of ecological niches,
mechanisms of speciation
2-48
2.6.8.2.3
[3] Methodological Problems
See 2.6.8.1 for discussion of reflective-speculative method. One
obvious enhancement can be mentioned here: inclusion of evidence
of factual nature. The reflective-speculative method is obviously
applied to evidence, which is accumulated or discovered:
Empirical Activity « Speculation « Reflection « Empirical Activity
The nonlinear arrangement shows complex learning35 process as
simultaneous or sequential interaction. The problem is one of
coordinating multiple partial evidence with multiple partial hypotheses
2-49
2.6.8.3
2.6.8.3.1
Outline Treatment of the Problems
Darwin's Theory and it's Five Strands
Darwin's theory is a theory of evolution of life through common
descent and by natural selection. His theories had five strands:36
Level 1 [Kingdom - Monera]
Evolution as such
Prokaryotic one-cells - bacteria, blue-green algae, and viruses
Evolution through common descent
Level 2 [Kingdom - Protista] eukaryotic one-cells
Gradual nature of evolution
Subkingdom Protophyta - includes unicellular non-blue-green algae
Populational speciation
Subkingdom protozoa - unicellular animals: amoeba, some flagellates,
ciliates,
Natural selection
Parasitic protozoa
A number of criticisms arose:37
Level 3 [3 Kingdoms - Multi-cellular Eukaryotes]
Kingdom - Fungi34
Kingdom - Metaphyta [plantae] - all other plants: true algae, mosses,
liverworts, and ferns and related forms, conifers and allies, flowering
plants
Kingdom - Metazoa [animalia] - all other animals: sponges, corals,
flatworms, flukes, tapeworms, wheel animalcules, round-worms,
mollusks, arthropods [joint-legged animals], sea mats, arrow-worms,
lamp shells, sea squirts, lancelets, all the vertebrates from lampreys
to humans
2.6.8.3.2
Early Criticisms of Darwin's Theory
[1] Darwin had no direct evidence for the effectiveness of natural
selection, let alone for the origin of new species
[2] Darwin could not show a single species that was transitional
between two known species
[3] Complex organs, such as the vertebrate eye, could not have
evolved by stages, since they would have been useless at any
preliminary stage and hence would have given their possessor no
selective advantage
[4] If evolution has taken place, then some evolutionary trends must
have continued past the point of usefulness to the organism. Such
trends could not be accounted for by Darwinian selection
[5] The earth is not old enough for evolution to have taken place
25
[6] Evolution by natural selection is incompatible with the laws of
inheritance
[7] There is no inheritance of acquired characters
2.6.8.3.3
Darwin's Responses
[1] Darwin pointed out that direct evidence is not possible - but we
now know that direct evidence of selection is available
[2] The existence of polytypic species
[3] Adaptation through intermediate adaptive stages can be shown by
comparison and speculation
[4] Orthogenesis is an unnecessary component of evolutionary
theory, nor is it implied by the mechanisms of variation and natural
selection
[5] The earth is now known to be much older than was assumed in
Darwin's time
2-50
[6] Not as understood since Mendelian-biogenetics
[7] Inheritance of acquired characters is unnecessary, because of
genetic variation
2.6.8.3.4
An Outline of the Theory of Evolution
Not only is natural selection adequate to explain the features
discussed above, it is thought circumstantially adequate to address
the problems of 2.6.8.2. The best way to show the success of
evolution through common descent, by natural selection, is to provide
an outline of evolutionary theory. However, it should be realized that
there are unresolved problems relating to the course and nature of
life. My understanding of the theory as a logical structure needs
reworking. Note that for operation of natural selection, it is sufficient.
[1] Some variations must occur. These will be inherited
[2] Organisms produce more offspring than can survive. [3] Offspring
that vary most strongly in the direction favored by their reproductive
ability [ability to survive in environment, to reproduce] will propagate;
favorable variation will accumulate by natural selection. However, for
natural selection, not variation, to be the creative force of evolution
[a] variations must not prefer adaptation, and [b] variations must be
small compared to chance to a new species [if natural selection is to
be responsible for speciation]
species as reproductively isolated aggregates of populations and
analyzing the effect of ecological factors [niche occupation,
competition, adaptive radiation] on diversity and the origin of taxa,
one can explain all evolutionary phenomena in a way consistent with
the known genetic mechanisms and observations of naturalists
This involved, according to Encyclopedia Britannica:
Mutations can be adaptive and deleterious; most are deleterious.
[This may have been an argument for negating the importance of
selection.]
The deleterious are nearly always recessive [because they are
deleterious]
Fisher showed that under a system of Mendelian gene complexes
[multiple factors] for variation, selection and not mutation rate control
direction and rate of evolution
2-52
Arise of apparently non-adaptive characters can be explained through
changing conditions; allotropic growth [size of one part of an
organism is more than proportional to size as a whole]; genes with
multiple effects; the adaptive outweigh the deleterious; and sexual
selection
2.6.8.3.4.4
2.6.8.3.4.4.1
[4] Major Stages of Evolution
[1] Origin of life
Origin of life; simple and complex unicellular organisms
Complex environments
Phosphates Energy
Enzymes Synthesis of Complex Compounds
Nucleic Acids Replication
Lipids Membrane Structure
 Replicators
 Prokaryotic cells [DNA not in nuclei]
 Heterotrophs [food takers]: Bacteria Primitive sex: incomplete
interchange of genetic material
 Autotrophs [food makers]: Blue-green algae [Photosynthesis?]
 Symbiosis of prokaryotes  Eukaryotic cells
Outline of the Theory of Evolution: the Process of Evolution
2.6.8.3.4.1
[1] Variation
[DNA as chromosomes, DNA in nuclei]
Variation is heritable in Darwin's theory
Single cells
2.6.8.3.4.2
To exchange genetic material: temporary fusion of one-cells:
2.6.8.3.4.4.2
[2] Selection
[2] Multi-cellular Organisms
The most reproductively successful individuals selectively propagate.
Sexual and natural factors are important. For selection to cause
change [and not just eliminate the unfit], there must be a surfeit of
offspring. If these three circumstances are true, there will be
adaptation
 Small germ cells with mobility: “male”
For natural selection to be the creative force of evolution, variations
must be small and non-preferential or non-directed to adaptation.
These processes must produce complexity, speciation, and diversity
 Differentiation of function
2-51
2.6.8.3.4.3
[3] The Synthetic Theory of Evolution
In 1930, there was a controversial situation between naturalists and
experimental geneticists. Perhaps the most important differences
were: The naturalists believed in soft inheritance, that evolution and
species formation are gradual, due to natural selection. They
minimized the importance of Mendelian genetics in evolution
The experimentalists and Mendelians thought in terms of mutation as
the moving force in evolution, change in species due to large
mutations [saltations], hard inheritance, individual variation and
recombination as unimportant to evolution, and most continuous
individual variation as non-genetic
A synthesis was accomplished in which the italicized states above are
true. According to Mayr, [1] evolution is gradual and can be explained
by natural selection acting on small genetic variation equaling
changes or mutations and recombination; and [2] by considering
 Large germ cells with food: “female”
 Division of labor
 Multi-cells
2.6.8.3.4.4.3
[3] Colonization of Land
Patterns of evolution
Improvement and adaptive radiation
Paedomorphosis and clandestine evolution:
Paedomorphosis - adults of variants are like previous young; since
young are shell-less, there is no fossil record of the variants; so, later
fossils reappear without “paleontological warning”
Mosaic evolution occurs in transition: e.g., reptile  part bird, part
reptile [the “mosaic”]  bird
Parallel and convergent evolution
2-54
2.6.8.3.4.4.4
[4] Human Evolution
Hominization: bipedalism, immaturity of newborn; and neoteny,
similarity of adult to newborn
Humanization: Newborn, young of other species are plastic and
adaptive, not rigid and instinctual; therefore, humanization leads to
26
plasticity of adult human beings which leads to very rapid
psychosocial evolution
Species - Origins
Allopatric - due to geographic isolation
Sympatric - due to inhabitation of different sub-environments in some
geographic area; e.g., the apple moth and the hawthorn moth
Phylogeny - The Lines of Descent
This explanation must be uncertain as long as there is uncertainty of
the phylogenetic divisions. We saw in 2.6.8.2 the existence of more
than one basic scheme - a four-kingdom scheme based on common
descent, and a five-kingdom scheme based on form as well as
descent, and form represents uncertainty of descent
2-55
Review of Synthetic Theory
In the Darwinian era, evolutionists were united in a sort of common
front. After evolution had been accepted by the scientific and, to a
significant degree, the religious establishment, a program of detailed
analysis and verification began. It was out of this that the differences
arose between the geneticists and the natural historians. As we have
seen, according to E. Mayr, the synthesis included elements of both
parties - a counter example of Thomas Kuhn's boring paradigm of
paradigm change and more similar to Hegel's thesis leads to
antithesis leads to synthesis. The main architects of the synthesis
were R. A. Fisher and Theodore Dobzhansky. Other names were
those of Julian Huxley, Ernst Mayr, George Simpson, Bernhard
Rensch, and G. Ledyard Stebbins who, in major publications,
constructed bridges among the fields. Other evolutionists who
prepared the scene for drama: in USSR, Chetverikov, TimofeeffRessovsky; in England, Fisher, Haldane, Darlington, Ford; in USA,
Sumner, Dice, Sturtevant, Wright; in Germany, Bauer, Ludwig,
Stressemann, Zimmermann; in France, Teissier, L' He'ritier; and in
Italy, Buzzati-Traverso. Two multi-author volumes also contributed to
the synthesis: Heberer's Die Evolution der Organismen [1943] and
Julian Huxley's The New Systematics [1940]. Probably the most
central publication in the synthesis was Dobzhansky's Genetics and
the Origin of the Species [1937]
2.6.8.3.4.5
[5] Post Synthesis Development
E. Mayr, in The Growth of Biological Thought, identifies four periods:
1859-about 1895: Proof of evolution and mainlines of descent;
phylogenetic research
1895-1936: Period of controversy resulting in evolutionary synthesis
of hard Mendelian genetics, gradual change due to natural selection,
etc
1936-1960s: Working out of fine details in light of evolutionary
synthesis; population thinking, interest in population and species level
diversity; adaptational aspects of variation due to selection forces, but
all genetic interpretations dominated by gene-frequency concept
1960s-present: Diverse - 1. Stochastic components of variations, 2.
Molecular biology, 3. Issues in natural selection - types of selection, 4.
Modes of speciation, 5. Macroevolution, human evolution, and 6. New
controversy and unresolved problems
The fourth period is the post synthesis period. Mayr identifies six post
synthesis development
2.6.8.3.4.5.1
[1] Population Genetics
Experimental and stochastic study of natural selection in populations
2.6.8.3.4.5.2
[2] Molecular Biology
1953 - Watson and Crick...precision of replication, self-correction of
errors. Identity [on the whole] of genetic code is additional evidence,
pointing to a common and relatively localized origin of life, complex
chromosomal structure of DNA in eukaryotes different from simple
structure in prokaryotes, structure of genetic code 1961- Nirenberg
and Matthaei, threshold of possible new discoveries - control of
evolutionary trends, stability of phenotype in many evolutionary lines,
rapid shifts to new evolutionary grades in genetic revolutions
2-57
Many kinds of DNA - enzyme genes, structural protein genes,
regulatory genes, transposable genes, “introns” that are not copied to
MRNA and “exons” that are spliced together. Are introns parasitic or
do they help regulate gene splicing? Drastic differences in repetitive
DNA, etc., between closely related genera or species without much
visible morphological change or sometimes even loss of ability to
hybridize, enormous differences of amount of DNA seemingly
unrelated to complexity
Origin of life - identity of genetic code leads to “all organisms now
living on earth unquestionably had a common origin; perhaps there
was competition of molecular stock?”...Origin not spontaneous, many
different intermediate molecular stages between inanimate matter
and life would not be “eaten” and or oxidized but would survive in the
primeval reducing atmosphere...of course problems remain. What is
the origin of the symbiosis between nucleic acids and proteins?
2.6.8.3.4.5.3
[3] Natural Selection - Evidence
A. Selection in experiments and work of plant and animal breeders, B.
refutation of soft inheritance by geneticists leading to natural
selection is the only alternative to explain gradual evolution, C.
refutation of claim that most attributes of an organism are without
selective value; many thought to be neutral, turn out selective on
close observation, D. calculations of Norton, Fisher, Haldane, and
others show even very slight selective advantages over many
generations, E. population thinking shows discontinuities among
species and higher taxa can be explained as originating gradually
through geographic speciation and extinction, hence not requiring
saltations. Dobzhansky's work in this area, Genetics and the Origin of
Species [1937], was central2-58
He demonstrated selection as a process observationally, removed the
conflict between gradual adaptive geographic variation and selection,
and so eliminated the need for Lamarckian explanations. Mayr in
Growth of Biological Thought [1982] discusses five problems of
selectionism: kinds of selection- stabilizing, directing, diversifying;
statistical nature of selection; target of selection - individual [including
population as individual since gene pool is the same] and holism of
the internal-external; product of selection as a compromise among
parts of a whole, one cannot discuss selection of one feature in
isolation; and, selection as a creative force
2.6.8.3.4.5.4
[4] Modes of Speciation
Mayr's theory is that “Decisive evolutionary events occur most often,
by way of genetic revolutions, in peripherally isolated founder
populations.” Mayr claims that the evidence [as of writing about
1982] supports this. This is allopatric speciation. Geographic isolation
can be due to rivers, mountains, and vegetation. In geographic
isolation, under different conditions, there is selection pressure and
change from a heterozygous individual can spread rapidly through a
small founder population. Sufficient change results in reproductive
isolation [by which Mayr means genetic incompatibility]. Polyploidy is
a process in which the chromosomes double in number and a new
species can originate in a single step. However, chromosomal
rearrangement is not a normal mechanism. Some speciation can
occur without visible change in chromosomes. There is mounting
evidence that there are special genetic mechanisms and or regulatory
systems that control the degree of reproductive isolation, and it is
possible that just a limited portion of the DNA controls isolation...but
enough to make speciation gradual. Genetic change and geographic
isolation go together. They are not alternate mechanisms. There is a
question as to why genetic revolutions occur in some and not all
founder populations
2-59
This might have to do with which parts of the DNA are affected by
the selection pressure on the founder population. Some genes are,
perhaps, less susceptible to genetic revolution
Clearly, geographic isolation is not essential, just the opportunity for
the heterozygyte to establish. This could occur [1] due to isolation in
geographically coincident ecological-subsystems, [2] when the
27
original population is very small, [3] when the initial population is or
becomes sparsely distributed and isolates into a number of founder
populations [without “expatriation”]. Replacement of a species could
occur by [2] or by any other mechanism and subsequent competition
between two or more populations in which one of the new ones
“wins” through some sort of pressure for resources
society [nor do we even have fully developed criteria for such]; but,
third, we do know that diversity is good
2.6.8.3.4.5.5
The fundamental problem: of mechanisms; variations - ordered?
Indifferent? Natural selection as the creative element; common
descent, tree-like descent. Rates of evolution appear to have been
resolved. However: [A] the essence of information  reflection 
speculation  is knowledge as probable, [b] an open mind is
appropriate in all situations - to alternatives, [C] continued search for
loopholes will suggest alternates or confirm the current theories
[5] Macroevolution - the Subject of Paleontological
Study
Mayr proposes that it has been demonstrated that, for purposes of all
evolution, including macro-evolution - that is, evolution of higher
taxa, above species level - are explainable on the notions that [1]
saltations are unnecessary in explaining the origin of new species and
higher taxa; small variation and gradual selection is sufficient, [2]
autogenesis - that is, the built-in drive to increasing perfection - is not
required to explain the degree of complexity and adaptation, [3]
inheritance is hard
2-60
Some of the topics considered are evolutionary novelties, behavior
and evolution, phylogenetic research, role of essential character and
grades. A central topic is origin of macro-evolutionary diversity - the
answer had been available since Mayr's work on species origin but
had to wait until Eldredge and Gould's [1972] model of “punctuated
equilibria” which amounts to Mayr's idea that new species originate in
isolation. In this connection, Eldredge and Gould propose, in effect,
that the change in a founder population is through a single step
saltation-like. Mayr maintains gradual process in founder populations:
the process may seem saltational on a geologic time scale. Since
regulatory systems may be involved, their breaking up makes way for
new ones and rapid acquisition of new adaptations. The rate of
evolution is perhaps several orders of magnitude faster than in
traditional phyletic, evolutionary thinking but still very slow on a
human time scale
A related problem is extinction. This is a complex problem. Why did a
whole taxon of, say dinosaurs, become extinct in a short period?
Some people have suggested catastrophic events. One of my ideas is
the burden of success. Mayr has expressed this very tentatively by
suggesting a genotype [for the taxon] that is so well integrated that
the rate of mutation or variation is not sufficient to produce
departures from the norm that might permit a major switch in
resource utilization or in answer to a challenge from a competitor or a
pathogen. Of course, says Mayr, we must first learn more about the
eukaryotic genotype and its regulatory system. Mayr discusses the
periods of equilibrium and explosions of numbers of species [due to
specialists versus generalists?]; mass extinction [due to catastrophe?
- he questions this; why did mammals, birds, non-dinosaurian
reptiles, and angiosperms survive?]
2.6.8.3.4.5.6
[6] Human Evolution
Mayr discusses [1] the fossil evidence; recounts the well-known data;
observes that a complete story awaits further evidence; [2] molecular
and chromosomal similarity between humankind and ape-kind- an
example of mosaic evolution with varying rates of evolution; [3]
knowledge of the steps; bipedalism, tools, hunting, level of
intelligence, integration of perceptual systems, language and
language-based culture
2-61
rapid changes to this state 100,000 years ago...no further
evolutionary change, but psychosocial development. Mayr states his
belief that these processes are consistent with gradualism
Finally, Mayr discusses:
2.6.8.3.4.5.7
Eugenics
Mayr says [1] there are two types: negative - reducing the deleterious
genes... positive - enhancing the reproductive capacity of “superior”
human beings. [2] It is politically-socially impossible to discuss
eugenics rationally. [3] It is impossible to apply artificial selection
because, first, we do not know to what extent nonphysical
characteristics have a genetic basis, and, second, we do not know
what mix of talents and characters are good for humankind and
2.6.8.4
Outstanding Problems of Biological Evolution
Some problems are explicit or implicit in the earlier sections
2.6.8.4.1
2.6.8.4.2
[1] The Problem of Mechanisms
[2] Questions of Interaction
Questions of interaction: interaction of genes, regulation, genotype as
an active system, evolution through colony  individual, co-evolution,
evolution through symbiosis, sociobiology as interaction of biology
and society, ecology.38
2.6.8.4.3
[3] Genetic Variability in Populations
Level of genetic variability in populations. What proportion of
variability is due to selection and what to stochastic processes “Random walk evolution.”
2.6.8.4.4
[4] Rates of Evolution
Rates of evolution, extinction, and mechanisms of speciation and
formation of taxa. Why is the rate of extinction so high?
2.6.8.4.5
[5] Origin of Life
Origin of life [symbiosis of nucleic acids and polypeptides], origin of
viruses, prokaryotes, details of prokaryotes  eukaryotes, functioning
of eukaryotic chromosome, classification of different kinds of DNA and
roles in evolution and speciation
2-63
2.6.8.4.6
[6] Relationship and Phylogeny of Major Types of
Plants and Invertebrates
Relationship and phylogeny of major types of plants and
invertebrates; roles of inter- and intra-species competition in
evolution; evolution and roles of behavior in evolution
2.6.8.4.7
[7] Interaction among Fields and Levels of Evolution
Interaction of biological evolution with other fields and levels of
evolution. Development of a philosophy and language of evolution
2.6.8.4.8
[8] Specialist Questions
There is a multiplicity: pluralism and multiple pathways, evolutionary
constraints, and fusion of ecology, evolutionary, and behavioral and
molecular biology
2.6.8.4.9
[9] The Question of Gradual Change
This is related to Item 4. Mayr emphasizes, throughout, gradual
change due to natural selection. Darwin had emphasized uniform and
gradual change. Paleontological evidence is at odds with some of
these ideas, and Eldredge and Gould [1972]39 have given a model of
punctuated equilibrium to account for the paleontological evidence. I
have two observations: [1] the source of the conflict is the concept of
uniformity, not gradualism, and [2] the word “punctuated” is apt.
Explanation: I have introduced the idea [General Statement] of
natural systems evolving to or through stable states; let the natural
system in question be a major bio-ecological system consisting of
various species, environment; the more stable, the more likely we are
to have evidence; equilibrium remains the order for a long time until
some major change or singular event - break-up of continents, ice
age, perturbation due to comet, pathogen, etc.; the stability is so well
self-adapted that recovery from minor de-stabilization is probable but
improbable from major destabilization; the singular result results in
mass extinction and there is room for much new adaptive evolution
2-64
until a new equilibrium is obtained; relative to human, social, and
biological time scales the “explosion” is slow [very little change per
generation], but on geological [paleontological] time scales, it is very
28
rapid; the equilibrium state is gradual [zero = gradual and is a special
case of, not the opposite of, change40]; the whole situation is gradual
on biological scales; and so on. Other “explosions” could be due to
preparatory events - setting the stage. For instance, the PreCambrian development of eukaryotic cells permitted [real] sex,
diversity and multi-cellularity, which set up the Cambrian explosion
Supplementary information is included on evolutionary terminology;
and phylogeny: major systems, chordates, and mammals.41
2-66
2.6.9
Evolution or emergence of levels of organization and
interactions
strictly linear but contains feedback and interactive elements. The
development contains elements of conjecture
2-68
Stages of Development:
Hominization: Bipedalism, immaturity of newborn = plasticity Neoteny
- adults are more like newborn = more plasticity in adult stage
Humanization: Hominization of adults  adult plasticity  very rapid
psychosocial evolution
Speculations: This sequence is conjectural, based of study of
psychology, society, and religion
As pointed out in the General Statement, interaction is a mechanism
of evolution. Further, also pointed out in the General Statement,
interaction leads to complex structures or levels of organization. The
typical route may be: very weak interaction - populations  weak
interactions - societies  intermediate interactions - colonies and
symbiosis  strong interactions - organisms. Here is another example
of emergence of novelty through gradual process: population 
organism is a large step and unlikely, but the introduction of
intermediate steps removes this from being unlikely
Psychosocial evolution
Examples of interaction are in the General Statement and 2.6.8. Some
are [1] nucleic acids [replicators] and enzymes [synthesizers] and
phosphates [perhaps] [energy releasers]  viable replicators; [2]
replicators and lipids and ...  prokaryotes; [3] genetic interactions
between bacteria  primitive sex; [4] symbiosis between prokaryotes
 eukaryotes; [5] [possibly] genetic interactions between eukaryotes
[and differentiation]  sex [and male and female]; [6]  societies 
colonies  multi-cellular organisms  societies and schools of multicellular organisms...and from this final stage, possibly, humans and
human society
climatic adaptability nomadism psychosocial evolution
Society is also an “individual” [species and common gene pool] and
one may speculate whether there is any evolution to stronger
interactions between humans
Arboreal life  descent and bipedalism  gather  social
organization
 hunt technology [tools] – emotivity adaptive
integrative of perception  large brain adaptive  neoteny and
plasticity
 adaptability  language and language
[general] – based culture
agriculture and leisure  culture and civilization
2.6.11
Evolution of human society
Evolution [origin, maintenance, decline] of
Social groups
Social organization and chance
Social institutions [problems of stability vs. quality and equity]
Speculations; relation to evolution of the individual
2-71
Social institutions
Comparison between society and organism is interesting:
Economic, political [and military], legal
Organism - Tendency to central control, reproduction, strong
interactions, structure and longevity definite and coded
[programmed]
Technological
Self evolution of computer systems
Society - Tendency to decentralized control, “tradition”, weak
interactions, structure and longevity indefinite and not coded
Cultural institutions
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2.6.10
Human and psychosocial evolution: descent and
development
Descent:
Kingdom: metazoa [higher animals: subkingdoms parazoa, metazoa]
Subkingdom: metazoa
Development, application [objective design] and transmission of
knowledge through educational and academic institutions, and the
like; includes
Art and religion
Discussion: The technologies mentioned here represent a novelty - a
new manifestation of evolution that can interact with biological levels
of evolution. The cultural institutions are also involved
2.6.12
Phylum: chordata
Evolution of individuation and independence
Origins
Subphylum: vertebrata
In biological evolution
Class: mammalia
In evolution of humankind
Subclass: theria
In evolution of human society
Order:
Order: primates - prosimians, monkeys, apes, ape-men, and men
Suborder: anthropoidea - monkeys, apes, ape-men, men
Super-family: Hominoidea - apes, ape-men, men
Family: Hominidae - ape-men, men
Dimensions
Plasticity vs. hierarchy
Emotionality
Brain-mind-cognition
Consciousness
Genus: Homo - men, archaic and modern
Species: sapiens; race: Homo sapiens-sapiens
Molecular technology
42
Relations to social evolution
Development: It is not thought that the development of Homo was
uniform. There was a sequence and the sequence probably had
“elements of cause”. The earlier steps were instrumental in the
subsequent ones. Primary in this scheme is bipedalism leading to
increased cranial capacity. However, it should be noted [1] social
factors were significant in development, and [2] the sequence is not
Awareness of dimensions of being - construction of categories of
existence - schemmas - atlases
Concepts:
Knowledge [a history of origins and speciation of organismic and
symbolic knowledge is useful in foundations] and design and their
modes, integration-unity, replication
29
2.6.13
Possibilities and speculations: universal again
Actuality of self-directed evolution arising from intelligence and ability
to plan
Ideals as provided by philosophy and knowledge [including sociology,
psychology, anthropology, politics, religion]...constraints of material
science
Unknown or sacred; extrapolations to the unknown based on the
known
Possibilities - evaluations
Relations to organic accounts [2.5]; ideal religion
motivational systems] [4.2]; action philosophies [6]
[includes
Teleology... the will to the unknown, sacred, universal. Search for
such a will [as an intrinsic phenomenon]. Criteria of recognition
Connections between universal and biophysical evolution
Begin by assuming that only matter exists and is governed by
mechanism. Then materialism has evolved life; this includes human
life, and so design and choice. Hence, materialism, mechanism and
design are certainly consistent in immediate nature. As a
generalization, materialism, choice and design are not inconsistent.
What of good? In immediate nature, good has [at least partial] origin
in evolution = variation and selection, and the same must be true in
any universal design. If
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immediate nature is part of universal evolution and design, the good
at the two levels must have some connection - there will be such
connections for any interacting levels. However, evolution is not
perfection and divergence of perfection, and there will always exist
evil-bad-detrimental as part of the condition of emergence. Thus, we
expect good and evil in universal design
In this way, without justifying any specific organic system of
cosmology, we see the connection between system and myth. A
systematic universal evolution provides a general framework for
mythology
Scientific, rational conclusive evidence for universal design has not
been given, nor is this the intention. However, we have demonstrated
that we may speculate on this and related issues without being
irrational. Such speculation is an aesthetic and rational adventure at
the boundary of our universes of matter and knowledge. It is also an
ethical adventure if we choose further evolution as a higher value
than security. Further, in making this choice and related valuations,
we remember that while there are risks in evolution, there are also
risks in the refuge of security
Further speculations:
In addition to universal good and evil; universal recurrence - simple
vs. complex cycles; relation between such recurrence and universal
good and evil
Related to this discussion is an interesting comparison between some
of the ideas of theism and materialism. This is natural, given that the
superstructures of philosophical positions have similar motivations;
indeed, materialism43 arose as an alternative to theism in the wake of
the rise of science. Now, the comparison:
GOD, THE UNIVERSAL OR
THE ABSOLUTE44
MATTER
Eternal
No creation or destruction45
Omnipresent
Everywhere
Creator
Original
cause
Everything
originates in matter
Nothing created God
Nothing caused matter
Omnipotent
There are
powers
What God wills must be
What
mechanical
determine must be
Transcendent
More to matter than in any of
its parts
Immanent
Matter exists in each part of
nature
Omniscient
All
knowledge
material brains
exists
in
Omni-benevolent
Since matter is all,
goodness is contained
matter
all
in
Personal
Matter is personal
no
non-material
laws
Table 1 Theism and Materialism
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2.6.14
Open and fundamental problems of evolution
Continue search for:
Mechanisms and language...see §2.6.2
Reality and what is realizable...see §2.6.3
Physical reality: its nature - behind space, time, matter field...see
§2.6.4
Phenomenal descriptions of space, time, matter field...see §2.6.4
Evolution of nature; boundaries of nature - “space”, “time”- and
beyond these boundaries...see §2.6.4
Origins of replicating molecules; Dyson's concept of fault-tolerant
chemical systems predating genes...see §2.6.7
Descent; origins of bipedalism, neoteny, cranial capacity, language;
origin of social interactions...see §2.6.10
Origin of civilization - agriculture...see §2.6.11
Origins of social institutions and groups - economic, political, and
legal; and of cultural, mythic, traditional, and rational knowledge
expressed in religion, art, tradition, philosophy, symbolic, and
scientific knowledge
Origin of consciousness...see §2.6.12
Phylogenetic and ontogenetic learning
Evolution of knowledge
30
Development
2-79
Education
2.8
2-76
2.7
EQUILIBRIUM, DECAY AND GROWTH IN EVOLUTION
Origins are not the whole story to evolution. There is also equilibrium
and decay. The sequence, or cycle of life of an evolutionary structure
or process, could be expanded to origins, growth, equilibrium, decay
and death. Alternate words and ways of thinking are, for origins creation, genesis; for growth - progress, fulfillment of opportunity,
radiation; for equilibrium- balance, stability [unstable equilibrium
cannot be sustained], guidance; for decay - decline, retrogression,
fulfillment of evil; and for death - destruction, dissolution, fulfillment
of nonbeing or latent existence. I am not subscribing to these
definitions
I do not imply the cycle of life in a deterministic sense. Rather, the
phrases are states or processes in which entities may be; a given
phase may be recognized as another; regular progression can be
interrupted by catastrophe or a change to a new order. It seems to
me that the alternative to static being is change, and the
consequence of no change non-constancy is non-being  being;
static being  growth or decay, but initially growth and so on. Thus
any philosophy of change must imply origin  growth  equilibrium
 decay  death, not deterministically or in any regular or smooth
way, but surely or essentially
2.7.1
Why study these aspects of evolution?
1. Scientific and philosophical reasons - understanding
2. Religious, psychological and social reasons - understanding,
acceptance and design
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3. As possible elements in growth of understanding
State  process  reality that transcends and integrates time [time
 time and space as relationship]
4. An elaboration of Item 2: openness to, joy in
Conflicts and resolutions
God created the world and the classes of living things as they are.
Life has evolved from the primitive earth-universe. Surely, these two
statements are contradictory, surely creation and evolution are
incompatible. Evolution and creation could or ought to be
synonymous, because creation does not necessarily imply absence or presence - of evolution, and evolution does not necessarily imply
absence or presence of a creator, designer, or guide
The conflict between creation and evolution can be resolved: even in
“creation” we recognize grades and class of structure, and evolution
can be understood by an open-minded creationist who looks at the
world and says, “What is God's design?” The Bible can be interpreted
to fit or to negate evolution. There is no fundamental conflict with
evolution, except that “evolution” is perhaps conducive to economy of
thought and creation to “needs” of some psyches. The “facts” are
equally conducive to open and generalized notions of evolution and
creation - but to different aspects of evolutionary theories than of
creationist ideas. Only due to dogma or ego is there conflict. These
comments are a beginning. [1] A better convergence of science and
religion is possible. [2] An improved interpretation of creation,
evolution and design is possible
2.8.2
The ultimate nature of things
We think we do not know the ultimate nature of things, and I suspect
we do not either. However, some observations are possible. Above, a
creationist interpretation of evolution was made; improvement is
possible. Is an evolutionary interpretation possible? Evolution
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evolved humankind; humankind can plan for the future; therefore,
evolution has evolved design. At least it is conceivable that design can
be a universal dimension of being and of category of explanation.
Questions remain
2.8.3
Equilibrium, decline and death
Analogies and conceptual synthesis
Organic accounts of creation  archetype [metaphor, simile,
essential model]
Preparation for decline and death
New beginnings
5. Completion of understanding of physical, biological and social
cycles
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2.7.2
2.8.1
EVOLUTION AND CREATION: CONFLICTS, ANALOGIES,
SYNTHESES
Evidence for origin and growth, equilibrium, decline
and death
1. Religion
Hinduism - Creator Brahma, Maintainer Vishnu, Destroyer Shiva,
cyclicity
Buddhism - Web of causation, every thing that has a beginning has
an end, ends, too
Christianity - God guides the world, Apocalypse and revelation
2. Philosophy
 Systematic, adaptive, and open [science, philosophy] accounts
 Organic accounts
2.8.4
2-81
Philosophy of change implies Non-being  Being, Being  NonBeing,  cyclicity
2.9
Comment: Life cycle is complex; cyclicity is complex cyclicity and
interaction
2.9.1
Criticism: Philosophy of change has its origin in the empirical
observation of being
3. Observation
Elementary particles, cosmological objects, many geological forms,
organisms46 [cells, higher forms], species [birth, long equilibrium,
extinction - most], ecosystems [most], societies [not implying
determinism], ideas and ideologies [many - until now]
Value synthesis
Organic accounts provide moral and motivational systems [or
attempts at such], which are missing in the scientific47 accounts which
provide hierarchic Organizations of certainty [or attempts at this]
which may be missing in the organic ones...although factual
syntheses are possible as are motivational ones. There must be some
motivation to the scientist from within science; e.g., relation to the
world and universe. A proper synthesis will be one that recognizes
that the two types of account provide complementary things. This
might be preceded by internal changes in each, or eclectic selection
from each
PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION OF ORDER: A SCIENCE OF
ORDER
Generalized characteristics models
undergoing evolutionary CYCLES
of
systems
Generalized characteristics and models of systems undergoing [a]
evolutionary cycles that include the phases of origin  growth 
equilibrium  decay  death, and [b] the phases...that follow
Mechanistic: Physical [classical, quantum, and statistical; relativistic space, time, field]; chemical, biological, psycho-social and social;
general and special ad hoc mechanisms
Mathematical:
Differential
equations,
catastrophes, chaos, and automata
oscillators,
stability,
Philosophical, linguistic, general symbolic
31
2.9.2
Requirements for models
Explain: variation, reproduction and recombination, interaction,
selection; nature of stable or relatively stable ordered states; growth
and equilibrium and decline, and also origin and death of systems
2.9.3
Problems to be modeled
Specific patterns of growth, equilibrium, decay and conditions; e.g.,
sigmoid growth; problems of success and centralization; evolution
and inherence of design, relations between evolution and design;
explanations and reductions of various types; relation to different
levels of actual evolution, and relation to whole
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2.9.4
Relation with type of causation
1. Deterministic
2. Probabilistic
3. Causal - classical and relativistic
4. Synchronistic
5. Future depends on present: [a] State, [b] State and rate of
change; Hamiltonian systems, [c] other
Ergodic, mixing character
6. Future depends on past [history] or on past and present
Nature of physical and symbolic reality which corresponds to these
relations
2-83
2.10
2.10.1
EVOLUTIONARY DETERMINISM AND INDETERMINISM
General questions
Indeterminism “due” to ignorance vs. essential indeterminism [at all
levels of evolution]
Interaction of levels, explanations and theories [reductions] [2.6.8.1]
Determinism vs. potential
Constraints [and possibilities]
Necessity and contingency of cycles and or growth, equilibrium, and
decay
Punctuated equilibrium as determinism with inessential indeterminism
[possibly]
2.10.2
Specific theories
Materialism [quantum vs. classical concepts, relevance of quantum
“fluctuations” in cosmological evolution]
Dualism. Ontic and epistemic - similar to the ontic and epistemic
categories of subjectivity i.e. consciousness is ontologically subjective
but epistemologically subjective
Social Darwinism
Sociobiology and psychology
A. As biological determinism
B. As interaction of material-biological and social elements
Social determinism [of individual nature, potential, and values]
Historical determinism
Marxism vs. capitalism
2.10.3
Does evolution approach perfection?
My present opinion is that I do not think so
This is only an opinion
What is perfection?
Within the standard concepts, perfection does not have a clear
meaning
To have a meaning there would have to be a reference framework of
metaphysics and values
3-1
32
3
PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy seeks ultimates and endeavors to display these as clear,
transcendent or universal, connected and simple48. The notion of
clarity is that the ultimate should be shown as immediate, evident
without recourse to excess demonstration. In actuality, philosophy
will be related to individual and culture. The ideal of transcendence is
to seek universals. A condition of connectedness is that all existence being and process; experience, expression, knowledge; value and
design - should appear as a unity, as interdependent aspects of the
ultimate. Simplicity is that the notions of philosophy will not contain
too many elements. Philosophy seeks these ideals; actuality may fall
short of the ideal. Understanding and nature are always changing.
Philosophy, however, incorporates this dynamic element; this may be
the key to realizing the ideals
In its search, philosophy considers and uses all elements: evolution,
philosophy itself, knowledge, design, action, evaluation. In its concern
for clarity and for validity, a form of clarity, philosophy seeks the
essence and truth of each element. Therefore, philosophy provides a
critical function, with value to knowledge. However, philosophy also
seeks to synthesize the elements and to go beyond them. This is the
essential value of philosophy: for the individual elements of
experience, which in original being were a unity, have become
separate and thus are incomplete truths; and the mere collection of
half truths does not provide truth
It is valuable to emphasize that philosophy contains, in addition to the
critical element, a creative one: in criticism itself, in synthesis and in
going beyond original circumstances
It is also valuable to note that, in its ultimate form, philosophy is not
exclusive; all aspects of experience, reality are included, all points of
view - and ways of viewing - merit consideration: in order to use
them as potential elements in the creative function and to subject
them [or the ideas that they suggest] to the criteria of clarity,
transcendence, connectedness, and simplicity
3-2
3.1
REASONS FOR INCLUSION OF PHILOSOPHY
Why include philosophy in considerations for design? In the General
Statement, I have indicated four levels of design. These levels are
nested. The hierarchy starts with a very specific type - simple
objective design, and generalizes by degrees to the fourth level:
design = evolution. As the hierarchy generalizes, objectives
proliferate and lose specificity, control decreases, and design by
planning, analysis and foresight decreases. Objectives have become
as diffuse and numerous as the phenomena of the “ecosystem.” At
the very simplest level, there is a single clear objective subject to
complete control by analysis; such cases are trivial. In realistic cases
of design-by-objectives, there is more than one objective. These
objectives may be hard to define, and design includes analytical and
actual trial and error. At intermediate levels - social process - the
objectives are not completely clear; only partial control is possible,
and trial and error is an essential part of the process: design for a
viable society, as an example. There must be room for trial and error.
At the most general level there are, it seems49, no objectives - at least
no clear objectives; there is no apparent control, no foresight, no
planning
Perhaps the most general level, evolution, should not be called design
since there seems to be no designer, according to standard biological
and physical evolutionary theory in 1986; yet the levels do interact,
all levels involve evolution, the most general level includes the more
specific. If there is no high designer then design itself evolves - there
is foresight in natural systems: human, insect colonies as wholes.
Further, we cannot rule out design at universal levels. Use of the
word design is certainly valid at all levels provided it is accepted that,
consistent with current 1986 understanding of physical and biological
evolution, design is manifest at the specific levels and latent at the
general levels. This latency may later turn out to be essential or,
instead, it may turn out to have actual manifestations at the general
or universal level - or it may not
There are unresolved philosophical issues within the specific levels of
design: for human designers - on the nature or existence of mind as a
manifestation or separate metaphysical category; in
3-3
biology the following questions arise: “what is evolving and what are
its interactions, and can read evolution be read into the universe?” On
the question of interactions between levels, there are clear
philosophical issues: to what extent, and by what criteria, are the
specific levels “contained” within the general; how is foresight
identified - related to this, is there foresight in insect colonies - not in
individual insects but in whole colonies: perhaps, but not as flexible
and “free” as in “higher” animals; in what sense can we justify use of
the concept design at a level of evolution; is humankind to be
considered a part of nature - I think so, obviously; to what extent are
languages of design and evolution possible apart from mechanism;
are these languages identical - e.g., design = generation and
selection of ideas and artifactual actualities, evolution = variation and
selection of natural actualities; should the distinctions generation vs.
variation and artifactual vs. natural be essential; are these languages
“precise”, adequate approximations; how will we decide whether
latency is essential? Other questions, of course, remain
Additionally, as discussed in the introduction [3], the elements of
social process, which link together in evolutionary social design, have
partial foundation in philosophy
A more specific statement is given next [3.1.1]. Other values to
inclusion of philosophy are given in the subsequent subdivisions
3-4
3.1.1
NATURE AND FOUNDATION OF ASPECTS OF DESIGN
AT DIFFERENT LEVELS
This includes evolution, value, knowledge, design, action, and
evaluation...definition of evolutionary philosophy...knowledge, all
dimensions of being and process...foundation of the parts [processes]
and subparts and their interrelations, especially as processes
Objective design is immersed in a social process or an individual's life:
knowledge [awareness, value, being and disciplines]  design 
action  evaluation. Philosophy provides an understanding of the
nature and foundation of the different aspects of the process and of
the total process, and similarly to other interacting levels of design
and evolution. Philosophy also contributes to the sub-processes - the
branches of knowledge, modes of action, and so on. The provisions of
philosophy should be in interaction with the individual disciplines but
while focusing on totality, purpose, meaning, and setting
The contribution of philosophy is complementary to the
understanding provided by evolution and, if we choose, we can
contribute the lessons of evolution and organicity into evolution. Thus
philosophy and evolution enhance each other and these
enhancements interact, making it legitimate to introduce an
evolutionary philosophy
3.1.2
FOUNDATIONS OF THE OBJECTIVES AND BASIC
POSTULATES
...of this work have been stated [1.2, 1.3]
3-5
3.1.3
APPLICATION OF PHILOSOPHY TO DESIGN VALUES
All levels of design are included and therefore all areas of human
endeavor. Examples are philosophy of science, political philosophy,
philosophy of “life”
Philosophy includes general schemes of understanding, knowing,
being, predicting and choosing and, as such, is useful in design. For
example, in engineering or social design, we would like to know
something about what values are relevant and how they affect
choice. Such questions are considered critically and creatively in
philosophy. The creative element is valuable because design is not
merely reflection of values but also calls values into question certain
general philosophical criteria: coherence, logical connectedness,
adequacy, and applicability are relevant, with appropriate
interpretation to design models. In personal design, there is a need to
33
know the accessible dimensions of being. “Complete” answers to such
questions would include a philosophical one
Given the pace and tempo of modern 1986 design and change, we
can question the value of philosophy. Philosophy questions the pace
itself, for the pace is a philosophy - of action. One way, a reasonable
way, to counter such a philosophy is with a philosophy of reflection;
and, certainly, there are sufficient warnings and signs to warrant the
question of pace. Philosophy provides a context for understanding
pace, its interrelations and values, implications of change. More
generally, society has long left the arena of mythic and intuitive
philosophy of action and being; and while such philosophy remains
durable, the more reflective and independent forms of philosophy critical and creative - are essential
The input from philosophy will be general and further considerations
will come from specific experience and disciplines. Philosophy through
personal philosophical reflection,
3-6
accumulated and generalized experience of others; indeed, through
the experience of evolution itself, will provide a general framework
that will avoid the circular and self-referential logic of special
disciplines
In short, “philosophy first” is an aspect of top-down design
How practical!
3-7
3.1.4
TO UNDERSTAND THE PROCESSES OF HUMANKIND,
SOCIETY, AND NATURE AS A UNITY
There can be but one process [3.1.1]; we classify, see and know subprocesses and aspects. The following representation is foundation for
further development:
Being and process
¯
Evolution
[Creative evolution]
¯
Awareness and manifest process
or
Design and action
¯
Knowledge [awareness, fact, value]  design  action  evaluation
This structure includes whole social process - and not merely
cognition and related institutions; and life and nature. Evolution
shows the connections through knowledge, which is also evolving;
these elements are essential to complete design
Philosophy can understand the nature and provide a foundation for
this composite as a unity, directly through critical and creative
contribution to the elements of understanding and through provision
of a foundation for evolution. Philosophy can encourage direct vision
of this unity, for nature itself has no assumptions, axioms or
contradictions. One of the tasks of philosophy is to remove the
vagueness in origins [and hence axioms], and the contradictions of
our modes of thought and feeling, of our separate realities, and
provide eclectic synthesis. In addition, as philosophy shows the
incompleteness of our thoughts, it clears paths to direct vision, which
includes cognition. In this way, through reflection on being and
process as a unity, we become open to the whole of existence. This is
valuable - and the pragmatic and the sacred combine in this value
because the future is unknown, and, perhaps, largely unknowable to
any static system
3-8
3.1.5
AS AN OUTLINE or FRAMEWORK FOR STUDY OF
PHILOSOPHY, BASED IN EVOLUTION AND DESIGN
However, why is a framework for philosophy of value in design? As
understood here, philosophy is a part of design. Here we are
considering all levels of design. Philosophy founding philosophy is
design founding design. The general study is an essential complement
to the specific studies; for the latter, while paying essential attention
to specifics, can, in their involvement, omit the more global
connections. Philosophy provides a framework for [1] the large-scale
connections at levels corresponding to all appropriate dimensions of
being, and [2] the interconnections between, and appropriate balance
among, degrees of scale and level
Integration of social process, and design and evolution is an organic
framework for understanding and seeing nature and the induced
unity on our understanding of the process is of a philosophical
character...out of this, and together with other philosophical
approaches such as organicity, evolutionism, we can develop a
philosophy of knowledge, design, action, evaluation and of
philosophy. To this end, it will be useful to understand existing
philosophy. The objective will be to include whatever is valuable in
existing philosophy, knowledge, art, religion, and so on and to add to
the relative truths50 of these systems by founding in original existence
[being and process]
3-9
3.2
THE NATURE OF PHILOSOPHY
Approaches to definitions should not be ad hoc or based merely on
accumulations of old definitions and ideas on the nature of the
concept involved. Two rational approaches can be used: [1] a general
one is which a whole context is delineated, studied, classified,
compared and applied; repeated use of this approach including
historical and evolutionary principles available from a study of such
repeated use. For a topic as general as philosophy, no final definition
can be given but only contributory characterizations as a part of
changes in culture [history] - while such changes occur; and [2]
specific or specifiable definitions rooted in specific contexts or related
to specific purposes or conceptual schemes. Such definitions will be
useful but limited, at least somewhat, to the specific time and
purpose. These definitions will be among those that contribute to the
general, evolving concepts
The full objectives of this work include all of philosophy. This
becomes clear when it is noted that evolution, knowledge and design,
action, and so on, are included. Philosophy includes synthesis and
foundation of these aspects of life. However, there is value to a
consideration of the nature of philosophy in a way that is independent
of the slant and objectives of this work. This independent
consideration may be synthesized with a philosophy that is slanted
toward the objectives of this work...some specific purposes were
given [3.1]. General purposes are implied by “nature of philosophy”.
While the explicit design objectives here cannot be used as the basis
of a full understanding of philosophy, they can provide a start: the
content of 3.1 suggests the following characteristics of philosophy
3-10
3.2.1
SOME ASPECTS BASED IN DESIGN
A. Philosophy is [or should be] grounded in and useful for life
[application], but seeks a whole picture and avoids over-concern with
immediate application. These features, in combination with more
immediate disciplines and arts, make philosophy useful and adaptive
to the general situation of humankind. Philosophy provides a general
framework for action and design - including all aspects, levels,
organismic and symbolic knowledge - as they interface the unknown
and the known. This is a motivation for the development of
philosophy
B. Philosophy provides general schemes of understanding, knowing,
being, acting, predicting, choosing; inclusive generality partly
motivated by large unknowns and partly by need for holism and
inclusion of organic knowledge, including evolution, in such
understanding
C. Complemented by special disciplines; implies [1] philosophy does
not get into details where accurate specialized disciplines are
available - unless there is some special need [e.g., understanding,
suggestion, testing]; and [2] can get into analysis of details where
special disciplines have not been developed and, perhaps, given the
nature of the aspect of experience under consideration, are not likely
34
to be developed. This is the origin of physics and biology, psychology,
sociology and social studies such as political, educational analysis,
logic, linguistics, analysis of religion, value, art and esthetics. At any
given time it is difficult to say which specialized disciplines are
emerging; possible modern 1987 examples are cognitive science,51
evolutionary analysis - since Hegel and Darwin - including foundations
of knowledge [and value], design, action, synthesis of idea, religion
and general evolutionary synthesis of the elements of social process not to the exclusion of the biophysical; further, philosophy remains
important in frontier studies as in the interactive meaning of space
and time and the pre-perceptual and cognitive foundation of these
concepts, foundations of science, meaning and possibility, and nature
of human motivation
3-11
D. Study of true or ultimate nature; generally and in special
disciplines, even where accuracy is available; accuracy itself is not
understanding
E. Study of foundations, criticism of knowledge whether special or
general; unified understanding of separate dimensions or aspects of
reality by eclectic syntheses of the corresponding disciplines phenomenology as a basis of synthesis; thus includes concern with
consistency and logic
These views are preliminary and partial characterizations with respect
to both accuracy and completeness. Below, sections 3.2.2 through
3.5, are a number of other characterizations and observations to
complement and correct the ones made above
3-12
3.2.2
PHILOSOPHY AS A METHOD VS. PHILOSOPHY AS
KNOWLEDGE
A number of characterizations of philosophy are considered in an
article by J. Passmore52
The characterizations in this article range from Plato's to Russell's.
Most are rejected as inadequate; but are interesting and valuable for
their insight and contribution. Finally, philosophy characterized as
“theory of critical discussion.”
This is a good characterization of one philosophic tradition [method]
[English-speaking philosophers; analytic and critical philosophy], but
leaves out much that is valuable. Much original Western philosophy,
modern 20th century Continental philosophy, and Eastern philosophy
are excluded. Entire traditions in philosophy are omitted; e.g.,
speculative philosophy which provides the content which can be
critically formulated, and examined critically and empirically [from
data including specific theory]; and the more direct approaches to
knowledge such as intuitive, mystic, transcendental. The speculative
method [3.4.3] is a more complete model of philosophic method than
the critical method; the speculative method is a generalization of
hypothesis-deduction and verification or selection [which includes
“falsification”].53 It is trial and error and includes the critical [more
algorithm like] as well as direct approaches. A more complete
characterization of philosophic method is the speculative-critical
approach - a synthesis; this includes all standard varieties of scientific
method, especially the hypothetico-deductive method as special cases
Also omitted from the idea of philosophy as method is the whole of
philosophic knowledge. There is a sense in which all knowledge is
philosophy but, to be useful, restriction should be made to knowledge
that is in some sense ultimate, eternal, general, synthetic, the result
of critical analysis and so on. While it is true that the content of
philosophy is evolving due to creative speculation, criticism, evolution
of culture and knowledge generally; and while it is also true that
specialized disciplines break away
3-13
from philosophy as their content crystallizes and becomes more
secure; there is still a place, within philosophy itself, for knowledge.
For, the importance of method is, in addition to its being a process, in
its ability to provide content, as both method and content intertwine
and evolve. At any time philosophy is, perhaps, best characterized by
some happy, “best” combination of methods and contents [3.3-3.5].
Further, it remains that there is a core of philosophy, the sacred or
eternal problems [3.3.1-2, 3.5.2] whose contemplation transforms
individuals by a centering in the greatness of creation and which is
constant or changes very slowly
3-14
3.2.3
GENERAL CHARACTERIZATION
Some of the observations of 3.2.1 and 3.2.2 will be repeated for their
relevance to a general characterization of philosophy. In any analysis
which is a part of evolving “knowledge,” “culture” and so on, concepts
are modified [and introduced] even though, often, the words remain
the same. Introduction of new meaning is through seeing new
connections - in this work particularly, from holism [knowledge in
nature and organism], organic holism [organism in nature], whole
process and by metaphor, speculation, trial construction. The old
words are both necessary [to connect the new to the old - except
when the old must be completely discarded], and a hindrance [I must
carefully attend to specification]
A. Includes generalized knowledge; whole world, universal views
B. Has an inclusive function; holistic: organism a whole, organism and
environment a whole; knowledge has many dimensions including
intuitive, emotive, feeling, organismic, and knowledge a part of
organism and environment, of evolution; is open to entire universes
of experience and knowledge. Inclusion includes polarities and
continua, polarities within continua - polarities as opposites or
discrete entities, as “actualities” and ideas. In many situations a
polarity is most economically and beautifully understood as a
continuum with one pole a special case, not opposite, of the other examples: knowledge, and therefore philosophical knowledge, as
separate from nature versus knowledge as a part of nature, that is of
organism, ecosystem; and, therefore, of evolution. Knowledge and
nature as discrete are largely ingrained in modern 1986 naive thinking
- knowledge is information, found in libraries but not process. This
discreteness is related to Descartes' mind and matter; corresponds to
the “critical” theory of knowledge and philosophy which accepts, as
given, some ultimate form of discourse which is complete - though
not completely discovered [Platonism] - and within which assertions,
theories are clear in their meaning and true or false. In contrast there
is the “speculative” theory of knowledge and philosophy which does
or should root knowledge in organism, environment and evolution either through “hardwiring” or potential - knowledge and organism
are part of the same whole, accepts no current mode of discourse
within which meaning is absolutely clear and assertions and theories
are characterized by ambiguity and probability [the actual situation is
complex since theories have philosophical as well as factual content;
see 3.3.2 and 3.5.6]: meaning itself evolves as knowledge and society
[and organism evolve]. Examples: [polarity]: fact vs. theory.54
3-15
C. Is open to criticism at the deepest levels, for philosophy and
language often labor under the inadequacies and misconceptions of
ancient thought. This is more a problem in the more “developed”
cultures in which [1] language is the primary medium of philosophy
and [2] philosophy is a profession
D. An approach to the “problems” of polarity, inclusion or exclusion,
ambiguity and probability is to start with the most inclusive scheme of
philosophy of knowledge possible. In such a scheme all experience
and potential experience, fact or potential fact, and assertions and
potential assertions about such would be included. Then a number of
criteria for classifying, grading, or hierarchical organization would be
specified. In cases where a criterion is applicable with ambiguity or
inapplicable, this could be specified. System would then be introduced
into the schemes. Since time will be one of the means of grading,
evolution is an implied concept. For the selection of criteria, and
specification of experience, fact, and assertion, some primitive
theoretical-empirical system is used. The meta-scheme is tested by
appeal to the panorama of available fact, experience, and theory. This
approach is not greatly different from conventional except: [a] level
of inclusion, [b] flexibility in grading, [c] explicit recognition of
elements of the process
35
The basis of a meta-scheme upon a simpler scheme is a model of
evolutionary process including [a] variation and selection, [b]
reproduction and interaction [carefully thought out], and [c]
emergence of levels. Basis in social [knowledge] is immediate and
basis in primal evolution is not apparent55 except as knowledge makes
contact with such evolution and through levels of social evolution,
Levels I and II
E. Uses the “speculative approach” to constructing language and
systems of understanding, explaining, generalizing, predicting, and
choosing. This consists in using formal, algorithmic, heuristic, intuitive
means to constructing such systems and testing for consistency and
truth by application to factual and theoretical systems
3-16
F. Philosophy provides its own motivation:
[1] As an attitude toward knowledge philosophy includes - or
attempts to develop and include - an invariant language which is
unaffected by sciences and science, knowledge, psychology. This
seems like a resurrection of the critical function as the whole of
philosophy and as such seems antithetical to evolutionary-speculative
philosophy. This is not so. There is value to the critical attempt in that
it attempts to provide an independent reference for knowledge. But
such a reference probably falls in between the ideal [and perhaps
nonexistent - even potentially] ultimate and invariant and the
ephemeral nature of science; and it is undoubtedly, in this way, part
of some implicit evolutionary-speculative system, and some actual
and explicit, if forgotten, speculative scheme. Perhaps all symbolic
knowledge, even symbolic expression of intuitive knowledge, begins
as speculation; futile speculations are discarded, fertile speculations
“become” knowledge
To the degree that an invariant language, perhaps a language of
thought, is possible, it is useful and provides one characterization of
metaphysics:56 whereas the speculative cosmology of the scientist
describes the world in terms of elementary physical objects and
processes [to what degree this is no longer true in modern 1987
physics, is problematic]. The speculative cosmology and descriptive
metaphysics of the philosopher is expressed in terms of logical
concepts as thing, individual, process; but note that the language of
metaphysics, however distanced from some original physical real or
class of reals, is not totally devoid of reference to reals [3.5.6] and
therefore we can have hierarchies of descriptive metaphysics which
may find universes of application. If a descriptive metaphysics is
abstracted from some real and intuitive physics [etc.], it may apply to
imagined processes
[2] As an attitude toward life: There are philosophies of life and
action [Area 6]; these are philosophies by virtue of advocating some
view other than consensus value and showing by discussion literary
exposition, or example how the alternative value provides a good
basis for life, thought, action, creation. The “normal” value system
could also be treated in this way - and often is; philosophy is not anti
or pro “norm.”
3-17
G. Philosophy and language are related. Whitehead:57 “Every science
must devise its own instruments. The tool required for philosophy is
language. Thus, philosophy redesigns language...At this point appeal
to facts is a difficult operation. This appeal is not solely to the
expression of facts in current verbal statements. The adequacy of
such statements is the main question at issue...” Hence, the essential
nature of speculative philosophy. [Algorithms for developing adequate
general languages are probably impossible.]
H. “Schemes of speculative philosophy dominate the sciences; one
aim of philosophy is to make such schemes explicit.”58
I. “In philosophy, the merest hint of dogmatic certainty is exhibition
of folly.” The value of this assertion may be questioned. [Does it
include the transcendental? Is the transcendental communicated or
implanted without physical and temporal communication? Does the
transcendental evolve? Why should transcendental be different? Is
not transcendental knowledge self-communication between symbolic
and intuitive modes...?] The point: The evolutionary, speculative,
probable natures of philosophy, knowledge are underlined again
J. One aim of philosophy is “self-correction by consciousness of its
own initial excesses of philosophy.”
3-18
K. Analytic knowledge and philosophy, expressed in symbolic
language, work by recording and abstraction from nature. Abstraction
is essential to avoid eternal concern with detail, to provide clarity and
understanding, to make it “easier to conceive the infinite variety of
specific instances resting in the womb of nature.” However both
recording and abstraction involve incompleteness and inaccuracy;
therefore, analytic knowledge can never be fully complete or correct unless the universe is actually much simpler than we commonly think
it to be - except by accident. [Does this apply to the transcendental? I
think so, but am not sure because of my uncertainty about the nature
of transcendental communication as reported.]
In the speculative model advance is evolutionary = variation and
selection and speculation and test [critical and empirical]; in fact, I
question whether “the function” of knowledge is absolute meaning,
clarity, certainty; rather the function, in all circumstances, is adaptive
to some purpose. Such purposes include but are not restricted to
evolutionary “purposes.” Because of freedom within physical-biopsychosocial constraints, we are free to choose perfect accuracy as a
value, except that the speculative model questions the final meaning
of accuracy
L. There is in addition to descriptive metaphysics, a real metaphysics.
Aristotle, in Metaphysics: “There is a science which investigates being
as being, and the attributes which belong to this in virtue of its own
nature. Now this is not the same as any of the so-called special
sciences, for none of these treats universally of being as being. They
cut off a part of being and investigate the attributes of this part.”
3-19
3.3
DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
The discussion of 3.1 and 3.2 has suggested the nature of the
divisions of philosophy. It includes what there is in the universe
[metaphysics] and how we know it [epistemology]. Metaphysics
includes existence as a whole and those parts of existence which are
not covered within “established” knowledge - the special problems
and applications of philosophy. Epistemology seeks a critical approach
to understanding and knowledge. Epistemology is a study of the
processes [reason] and apparatus [perception] by which knowledge is
obtained and is closely related to method. Metaphysics and
epistemology are at least partially inclusive of each other. Despite
these connections, I will show metaphysics, epistemology and method
separate in classification tree below
The relation between language and analytic philosophy is clear
[Whitehead was never merely an analytical or critical philosopher].
However, there are questions as to whether language is the only
vehicle for philosophy. In addition to symbolic communication, there
is sensual communication - visual, tonal, etc., aesthetic and artistic
communication, communication by example and action. An important
point is - while knowledge and philosophy are incomplete, new forms
of communication and expression are needed
36
It
is
not
my
intent
to
justify
this
scheme
of
Philosophy
PHILOSOPHY
GENERAL
METHOD 3.3.3 and 3.4
METAPHYSICS
EPISTEMOLOGY59
EVOLUTIONARY
Knowledge
of
existence as a whole
3.3.1
Theory of knowledge
3.3.2
SPECULATIVE
myth, fire
sacrifice
APPLICATIONS
AND
SPECIAL
PROBLEMS...continued
to the next table
CRITICAL
and
Table 2 The Divisions of Philosophy
APPLICATIONS AND SPECIAL PROBLEMS
ETERNAL
AND
UNIVERSAL
PROBLEMS
VALUE
AND
FOUNDATIONS
ITS
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
AND FOUNDATIONS
PHILOSOPHY
SPECIAL
DISCIPLINES
3.5.2
3.5.3,
5.3.5
and
160, 2.6, 3.5.4, and
3.5.6
3.5.1, and 4
1, 2, 3.5.6, and 5
3.5.7
Ideal
Religion,
The Sacred
Axiology,
Aesthetics
Ethics,
Economic,
Political,
Legal, and Cultural
Sciences,
Humanities
Levels
Transitions
5.3.2,
OF
PHILOSOPHY
DESIGN
OF
OPEN PROBLEMS
OF PHILOSOPHY
Culture refers to all
modes of knowledge,
institution
and
tradition
Table 3 The Divisions of Philosophy - Applications and Special Problems
Links to Charts on the Divisions of Philosophy
The Divisions of Philosophy [10 Kb]
Applications and Special Problems of Philosophy [6 Kb]
3-20
3.3.1
METAPHYSICS
Outline of the Section
General metaphysics, cosmology, epistemology, evolutionary
metaphysics and epistemology, comparative metaphysics and
epistemology, metaphysics of design and choice, content and
process, nature of metaphysics - modes and dimensions of being
and their processes, sources of metaphysics, authors of
metaphysics in Western Philosophy.
Nature of existence, reality, being as being; in full; as a whole; the
ultimate nature of things... “We hope to find in experience and
elements intrinsically incapable as examples of metaphysics”61 The
metaphysical characteristics of an entity are those that apply to all
entities: include descriptive metaphysics as the appropriate language
for analytic metaphysics. Speculative metaphysics is the speculative
and speculative-critical method applied to being and results in analytic
metaphysics if language is the medium of expression of the
speculative system. Transcendental metaphysics is direct knowledge
of ultimate being
Metaphysics includes all special sciences but the special sciences do
not imply metaphysics. There is one reality; the analytic-rational
process - of necessity - takes this apart descriptively and analyzes
each part. The parts can be synthesized in a number of ways; such
syntheses reflect some aspect of their original unity. Syntheses are
possible because of the original unity that is manifest in evolutionary
convergence of “mind and matter.” The unity is seen through the
existence of hybrid sciences: biophysics, physical chemistry, and
molecular biology. Re-linking is one approach to showing unity - and
a special case is hierarchy; an alternative to re-linking aspects of
being is to reconnect sub-processes. In this way [1] the number of
connections is smaller, and [2] the dimensions of being need not be
sought. Yet, this is not, in itself, a guarantee of fullness. Perhaps
there is an evolutionary path to fullness, evolutionary metaphysics
Divisions of metaphysics:
▪ General Metaphysics: Being and process as a whole. Speculative and
or critical and transcendental metaphysics - approaches ontology:
ultimate nature of being
Values are [1] as a source of insight, and [2] provision of an invariant
language or descriptive metaphysics62 or general framework of
understanding
3-21
▪ Cosmology: The science that includes all sciences; based in physical,
biological...constructs. Includes speculative and critical cosmology
Cosmology is satisfied by explanations and theories; metaphysics by
ultimates
37
▪ Epistemology and Psychology: Epistemology pertains to the
relationship between knower-and- known, and [1] so includes the
relevant aspects of psychology. Among these are psychologies of
perception and value, including affect; and [2] both epistemology and
psychology could be considered as part of metaphysics since knowerand-known is part of the universe
The first process above [Item 1] occurs on a time scale about that of
a human life span. The time scales of the remaining processes
increase in order of presentation. We may learn about metaphysics by
reading progressions through the levels of process. If the gaps
between levels are too high, there may be intermediate levels. Such
progressions may be dynamic and causal; others may be analogical
The value of epistemology to metaphysics is clear, for [a] it is not
obvious that there are ultimates in nature, but, if there are,
epistemology has something to say about recognition of the
ultimates; and [b] irrespective of whether there are ultimates in
nature, epistemology has something essential to say on perception
and knowledge, and whether there are any ultimates in perception
and knowledge
An example of analogy follows. Evolution of the physical universe is
thought to have occurred through a number of phases. Cosmologists
liken the transitions to phase changes. We can also liken the
transitions to emergence of new types of order. The evolution of the
universe could then be compared to the punctuated equilibrium
model of biological evolution
In other words, regarding knower-and-known as part of a composite
system of interactions, there may be ultimates in states of knowledge
and processes of knowing and perception. These ultimates may be
inherent in composite nature everywhere or accessible through a
process of evolution. If such ultimates do not exist then epistemology
still has much to say on the results of the processes of knowing; i.e.,
on knowledge and metaphysics
We are thus lead to a dual view:
[1] Metaphysics as the knowledge of ultimates includes epistemology,
or
[2] Epistemology as the science of ultimates in the composite relation
or process of knower-and-known includes metaphysics
There is an identity between metaphysics and epistemology.
However, in their psychologies, emphases and approximations, they
may be different and there may be practical reasons to prefer one set
of emphases, etc. over the other in actual situations. Some
preferences are as follows. Individuals with object emphasis - prefer
metaphysics; those with subject-object emphasis - prefer
epistemology
3-22
▪ Evolutionary Metaphysics and Epistemology: Metaphysics is the
attempt to deal with final truths behind knowledge and epistemology
includes the attempt to elucidate final forms of knowledge. Both
include and occur within a cosmological scheme. Evolution is
emergence of order; current knowledge of biological evolution
recognizes no finality or end but the same is by no means truly
known of universal evolution
Advance in epistemology and metaphysics may occur because of [1]
evolution or growth of an individual, [2] evolution of the social and
ecological framework within which individuals live, [3] biological
evolution of species and life, and [4] evolution of the universe or
cosmological63 evolution. The latter includes the material substrate.
We cannot predict or limit knowledge with finality - at least within
analytic rational frameworks as currently understood. However, it
may be possible to predict and secure advance by reading evolution
To understand the need for metaphysics - as, metaphysics of Western
philosophy, an individual must understand the motive to perfection
and finality in the enterprise in general, including knowledge. Even if
this aim is not possible, the motive to advance and progression
remains. Direct or indirect involvement in the advance of a single
discipline, or synthesis of more than one, provides an example and
motivation toward metaphysics; thus there is elegance and economy
in advance and synthesis. Additionally, by analyzing the evolution of
one's own growth and thought, insights into the growth of
metaphysics occur. This, too, fashions the growth of metaphysics.
Similar advance occurs through analysis of the remaining processes
and interactions among all four. Physics is beginning to have insight
into the evolution of the universe and its structure as we understand
it. [There may come a time when we understand the dynamics of this
evolution and then this dynamics will become part of the “the”
structure of the universe.] The insight of physics may give us insight
into new frameworks for metaphysics. There is a role for philosophy
here but those who develop it will have to have a deep understanding
of science and philosophy
3-23
▪ Comparative Metaphysics and Epistemology: Analogy, similarity and
difference form the basis of comparing studies. In addition to
introspection and evolutionary study, metaphysics may be advanced
by studying the cosmologies of all sciences, religions and so on
▪ Metaphysics of Design and Choice: Most biologists accept biological
evolution but reject mentalism. Most scientists would reject mentalism
saying that mind is not a thing but a process
This latter observation is actually an argument for mentalism - in the
sense of mind as a process. Many “things” that one thinks of as
things “are” processes; this does not mean I adhere to process
philosophy. In some sense mind [the process] must be inherent in the
“inert” nature that is the substance of biological evolution. An
assumption of materialism is more wonderful than mentalism [mind
as matter]: the processes of nature evolved mind
The same applies to the consciousness, choice making, design and
planning faculties. It does not do to explain these concepts away.
These faculties are among the primary64 facts of our experience, even
when they cannot be verbalized. The materialists and biologists and
neurologists who would explain them away, would do so on the basis
of secondary and tertiary facts of analytic or linguistically expressed
science
If nature is “inert”, “blind”, or “material” then it is this nature which
has evolved mind, choice, design. We have no logic that will rule out
design on other scales of space-time-being. Perhaps design and
choice are part of the ultimate or progress to the ultimate in being
and understanding; material being or process is a special case and
not opposite to design
3-24
▪ Content and Process: Some modes of description employ a language
of entities. These emphasize the constants of nature or of perception
and knowledge. Other modes of description employ a language of
process. These emphasize flux, change and shifting. Perceptually
content is recognized through contrast in extension and process is
recognized through contrast in time. Psychologically, content
emphasizes permanence and security; process emphasizes transience
and openness. Both modes of perception, knowledge and
psychological being exist and have their place, The distinction is not
intrinsically political, but it could have political implications
It is desirable to incorporate both modes and perhaps better to fuse
and unite them where possible. In some sciences this is done as
follows: Content and Interaction = Dynamics  Process; Process =
Variation [includes Interaction] and Selection  Emergence of
Content
Perhaps the two types of contrast are interwoven; beginnings in this
direction are part of relativity theory
We can recognize local patterns of contrast and global patterns. The
local patterns have been called “proximate” and the global ones
“ultimate.” We expect the ultimate to be “built up” [in the analytical
method] out of the local. Out of convenience, we do use different
languages - in biology the distinction has been interpreted as the
distinction between functional and evolutionary biology
▪ Nature of Metaphysics - Again: We “learn” about the modes and
dimensions of being and their processes, especially in the more
[most] universal [mechanistic, evolutionary, and so on] and general
38
forms; also the modes of description of this metaphysics makes
contact with epistemology. The multiple categories of knowledge do
not imply a duality of nature
3-25
▪ Sources of Metaphysics. [1] In written works. The writings and
records of philosophers, religious leaders and mystics, the great
works of science and knowledge are sources of metaphysics - through
either content or suggestion. The concerns of philosophy and the
visionaries of ideal religion include the boundaries and unions of the
known and unknown, and so the metaphysical
The sciences, too, are concerned with metaphysics. Within the
domain of science there are two metaphysical questions: first, the
question of unification, and second, of validation. This is metaphysical
at the same time that it is epistemological. The discussion of these
questions must include metaphysical notions to progress. Unification
requires concepts belonging to no science; validation brings us face to
face with the general lack of certain proof. The character of scientific
assertions is probabilistic in a specific sense; the generalizations
incorporate all the relevant known information. At the boundaries of
science, metaphysical notions are essential. Even the established
notions of science point to a reality quite different from the naive one.
It is, perhaps, psychologically necessary for the practicing scientist to
eschew metaphysical ideas as “dangerous”; but without a history of
metaphysics behind us, we would be without language, culture,
civilization, science, and technology
[2] In evolution. See especially the Area 1, and refer to sub-areas
2.6.1, .2, .3, .9, .13... and items in this area that pertain to
evolutionary-comparative metaphysics and epistemology
[3] In attitudes of openness, adventure...in the wish to live on the
edge of creation. The antitheses of these are closed-mindedness and
dogma, conservatism, the desire for security. Of course, reality
requires the presence of balance and all progress is an alternate
tipping of the balance in the directions of openness and contraction
3-26
▪ Authors of Metaphysics in Western Philosophy.65
Many of the great Western philosophers are [were] metaphysical
thinkers. We see from the writings of these individuals, the value of
metaphysics as an invariant framework of thought. Heisenberg was
able to appeal to Plato. This does not imply the absolute nature of
metaphysics and metaphysical knowledge. The Western world still
labors under the errors and omissions of its linguistic and
metaphysical traditions. This points to the value of metaphysics and
metaphysical thinking and reconstruction, as well as linguistic
reconstruction in at least two ways: [1] the hidden and implicit
foundation [in addition to the explicit ones] of Western civilization and
thought, including common sense, in Western metaphysics and
language, including corruptions of the same, and [2] the deprivation
and poverty of the Western tradition in comparison with its own
origins; this includes attitudes
The authors can be divided into a number of periods:
Greek
Parmenides
Aristotle
William of Occam
3-27
Rise of Modern Philosophy
Descartes
Spinoza
Leibniz
Locke
Hume
Kant
Post Kantian Philosophy
Evolutionary Pantheism
Hegel
Pragmatism
C. S. Pierce
John Dewey
Origins of Logical Positivism
Ernst Mach
Ordinary Language Philosophy
Russell
Phenomenology
Henri Bergson
A. N. Whitehead
Existentialism
Martin Heidegger
J.P. Sartre
3-28
NOTES. Ordinary language philosophy - the notion that ordinary
language has more to it than philosophers have formally recognized,
and that ordinary language is sufficient for philosophical discourse;
logical positivism - science is a convenient summary formalism;
phenomenology - observational science and ordinary sense
presuppose a primitive experience that can be grasped by a
deliberately naive description of actual entities; existentialism metaphysics is a reality which cannot be described in an emotionally
neutral way, but is in some sense possessed or encountered in
commitment to a cause, or in facing the certainty of one's death
3.3.2
3.3.2.1
EPISTEMOLOGY - the THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
The Nature of Knowledge...and of Truth, Logic and
Reason
Outline of the Section
Truth, logic, reason, epistemology and logic, direct and
transcendent modes of knowledge; what is knowledge?
Knowledge as: justified true belief, a type of goal-directed
activity, an interaction between systems, an adaptive element in
evolution; location of knowledge; philosophy of mind and nature;
types of theories of knowledge, origins of knowledge.
Plato
Middle Ages
Boethius
John Scotus Erigena
St. Anselm
William of Champeux
St. Bonaventure
Peter Abelard
Revival of Classical Philosophy
Aquinas
Duns Scotus
There is a close relation to metaphysics: theory of reality - for theory
of knowledge includes nature of knowledge of reality, ways in which
such knowledge is arrived and verified individually, socially. In fact, in
the last section we saw how metaphysics and epistemology could be
formally seen as including each other: metaphysics includes
knowledge and knowing because minds, brains, memories, processes
and their evolution are part of reality; epistemology includes the valid
processes of knowing and therefore, potentially, all metaphysics [for
the unknowable, when we include the organic processes of
knowledge either directly or through their communication with
thought, is not part of the universe of metaphysics]. However we
regard this mutuality, we can make a distinction of emphasis:
metaphysics emphasizes content and process of reality in general and
39
in which mind66 is a chapter; epistemology emphasizes content and
process of mind and metaphysical content and process is a topic. As
suggested in 3.3.1, there may be advantages in regarding
epistemology and metaphysics - knower and known - as a composite
system of interacting and or inclusive states and processes; this will
go toward understanding the natures of being and knowledge in
general and the question of the unknowable and unknown in
particular
Relevant to the nature of knowledge are the notions of truth and of
logic.67
Truth, rationally, is the agreement of a proposition with the facts. In
analytic philosophy, a proposition is expressed verbally and this brings
in to question the ability of each linguistic system to adequately
express each, or all propositions. Some argue that a proposition is its
linguistic expression; this would be so if each level of evolution
proceeded in exact synchronicity with one another, and this includes
the case of no evolution. However, I do not believe this to be true;
actual language and actual mind66 evolve at different rates
Classically, a proposition is true or false: there are only two levels of
agreement - agreement and disagreement. In reality, we can
recognize degrees of agreement, and so there is a role for extending
the notion of truth to incorporate degrees of truth [or falsity]. This is
an
3-29
everyday situation. In more complex areas of thought and activity,
agreement between the propositions of thought [conscious and
organic] and facts cannot always be complete. However, it is valuable
to know whether a proposition is close to true. We can introduce a
measure of quantification as a basis of comparison or a relation such
as “more true” or, if that seems contradictory, “closer to truth.”
▪ Logic:68 Analysis of relationships between truth - or degrees of truth
- of propositions. Classically, the only truth-values were “true” and
“false”. Multiple-valued Logics pertain to relationships between
degrees of truth of propositions. When different criteria of truth are
used within the same system, we have “modal” Logics; example, a
system of propositions in which we recognize both necessary and
contingent truth
When truth pertains to fact [the “I am”], the logic is “declarative.”
When truth pertains to value [the “I should”], the logic is
“imperative.” Herbert Simon, in The Sciences of the Artificial, has
shown the reduction of imperative logic to declarative logic through
optimization theory. This reduction depends on the applicability of a
particular class of optimization theory. Perhaps the reduction can be
formally extended. However, we have existential reasons to believe in
the identity of the nature of fact and value [simply, if “I should do
this” is true, then “...” is the proposition of a fact; of course not every
value is “I should...” “or “...should...”?] The identity of fact and value
has been called a pragmatic notion - I do not agree, because I do not
think of all facts as material, biological, and the like; that is, I am not
being a reductionist in this issue
The idea that proof is central in philosophy has been criticized. If
philosophy is to talk about notions beyond the special disciplines,
proof cannot be central. One of the aims of philosophy is to provide
notions, general analytic, rational, mystic, and so on;
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Philosophy can provide frameworks within which fruitful discussion
about world, knowledge, affect, aesthetics, ethics, and such can be
conducted. In addition to logic, meta-logic, and various philosophical
principles, there are various suggestive, illustrative, analogical direct69
- mystical and other - ways of knowing or reasoning to truth. These
types of “logic” can be called heuristic,70 as distinguished from formal
logic. Of course, the heuristic includes the formal. Heuristic pertains
to discovery - and more, as explained - and formal logic to
verification; and so existence is objection to excluding direct from
formal
In connection with the previous comments, Whitehead [Process and
Reality , p 10], has said:
The primary method of mathematics is deduction; the primary
method of philosophy is descriptive generalization. Under the
influence of mathematics, deduction has been foisted onto philosophy
as its standard method, instead of taking its true place as an essential
auxiliary mode of verification whereby to test the scope of
generalities. This misapprehension of philosophic method has veiled
the very considerable success of philosophy in providing generic
notions that add lucidity to our apprehension of the facts of
experience. The depositions of Plato, Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas,
Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Kant, Berkeley, Hume, Hegel, merely
mean that the ideas which these men introduced into the philosophic
tradition must be construed with limitations, adaptations, and
inversions, either unknown to them, or even explicitly repudiated by
them
We begin to see philosophy as process
▪ Epistemology and Logic. Logic is clearly connected with
epistemology, but excludes the empirical aspect. It is often regarded
a part of epistemology even when it is treated separately. Clearly, in
so far as philosophy and knowledge are processes, logic is an
essential part of epistemology. For logic plays a role in the production
of knowledge through the coordination of information as
proposition[s] into concepts and the development of consequent
knowledge and information through suggestion [and pattern],
generalization and deduction. Whitehead's exception to the use of
formal deduction is not an argument against this essence if we
include heuristic as an aspect of logic
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▪ Direct and Transcendent Modes of Knowledge. In a direct mode of
knowing, the “medium” of knowledge - the knower [e.g., the “mind”]
- directly apprehends the object of knowledge. It is not implied that
there is no processing. Intuition is a form of direct knowledge
In a transcendent mode, there is no processing, or process is not
accessible either subjectively or rationally. The direct and
transcendent modes include organismic and “feeling”; e.g., the body
knows itself kinesthetically, but this kinesthetic knowledge of self
includes knowledge of gravity, ground, water properties, and such
Other modes of knowledge discussed are analytic, rational, and
symbolic
▪ What Is Knowledge?71 I prefer not to tackle this question first under
“epistemology.” I do not feel it sufficient to consider a single
approach to explanation. There are four approaches below. These are
not intended as exclusive
[1] Knowledge - not process, now definition - as justified true belief.
This is a definition of knowledge by reduction to constituent concepts.
The concepts should be explained. We take truth as agreement of a
proposition with the facts. If we agree with Whitehead [Process and
Reality, p 11] that “there are no self-sustained facts, floating in
nonentity” and “every proposition refers to a universe exhibiting some
general systematic metaphysical character...a proposition can embody
a partial72 truth because it only demands a certain type of systematic
environment which is presupposed in its meaning,” then we must ask
what these environments are. Explanations 2, 3, 4 following are
approaches to this environmental question. Four is, perhaps, the
ultimate answer to this question, if not to the actuality of knowledge
then to the potential for knowledge. Note that Whitehead is not
saying that propositions are essentially partial, but that they are
partial when the systematic environment is partial. He does imply
elsewhere that such environments must always be limited. Certainly,
evolution provides an environment that is systematic. It is not obvious
however, that it is total even though evolution can be traced back to
cosmic sources - for the order that has, or could or may have,
emerged elsewhere or even in our own environment, may be different
- we do not quite know
3-32
Of course, speculation on the possible may lead to a more “positive”
type of thinking. This possible includes completeness as well as
incompleteness, the metaphysics inherent in [our] evolution. Either
40
way we may imagine blocks to process and breaking through. [This
can be a subject of metaphysics [3.3.1]]
Another question in relation to truth: “are” propositions necessarily
linguistic, analytic, symbolic? Other modes: preconscious, emotional
intuitive, organismic...learned, innate or “learned” during evolution
[e.g., instinct]
Belief is the “feeling”73 that a certain proposition is true. But we can
remove the distinction between feeling and analysis as seen above,
and so a somewhat alternative approach to knowledge would be to
identify different modes; e.g. “thinking,” “feeling” - and regard
individual knowledge as agreement among the individual modes:
rational-empirical, intuitive, “feeling”-empirical and feeling, etc
Justified means according to some criterion. In relation to an
individual, we can regard rational-empirical as justification, and
“feeling” as believing. For some, “feeling” is justification. See previous
parts of this section and 3.2 and 3.4 for further observations on
rationality. Criteria for justification are not absolute and universal, but
can be arranged according to ideal and hierarchy. There is individual
knowledge and “public”: justification accepted by some type of
majority. However, it is not preferable to define public in some
unthinking statistical criterion, such as 100%, 99.9%, or 50%. I
would rather have some criterion “intrinsic” to the general
metaphysical-epistemic universe, such that when used the “actuality”
of the resultant knowledge has value - a quantum jump in quality for significant numbers of people and purposes; examples: ideal
science, ideal religion. Such knowledge[s] are not necessarily
universal or universally “better.” They are adapted differently, to
different universes - “general” attitudes to such systems are issue
involving more than “pure” epistemology
not directed to any goal as well as activity directed toward general
goals which arise from “primal being” through evolution. The activities
directed toward general goals include storage of “resources” and
related activities of environmental [social and natural] “modeling.”
Such generalized activities are advantageous and it is natural that
they should “feel good” to individuals. These processes come to be of
value in themselves, but must remain in balance - in society as a
whole. Now:
Goals =
primal being75  “resources” and “modeling”  intention 
execution  actualization
Resources provide the base for specific activity. Modeling provides the
base for specific and later for general activity. Specific goal
achievement is, in general, contribution to general goals - of course,
variety and multiplicity of approach is also of value: hence, the
advantage of evolution of generalized potential as contrasted to
specific capability. Modeling, models, generalized models and the
capability for such are “knowledge”; organismic, intuitive modes are
not excluded. We can now say:
Goal achievement =
primal being  “resources” and knowledge  intention  execution
specific
general
Dashed line: provides base; not “explicitly,” as I recognize it, part of
the process
3-35
So, achievement of specific goals =
We can thus formulate the idea behind the definite “justified true
belief” somewhat differently. There are systems of public knowledge:
art, religion, and science...involving various modes of knowledge
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knowledge  intention  execution
These systems, though not exclusive, do not refer to identical data.
The truth of ideal science [in a limited sense] does not conflict the
truth of large parts of ideal religion because it cannot; religion and
science [limited senses] refer to largely different data. An individual
has access to these modes and systems; forms his or her personal
interpretations and special systems in reference to experience that
includes the public systems. He or she forms fusions from experience,
public systems, and imagination. These fusions include inclusion,
synthesis, generalization, and extension. These are subject to
personal criteria, public criteria. Some fusions, advances “succeed.”
No stage is absolute. Each stage is progress toward a general
metaphysics or knowledge without qualification [because it satisfied
all appropriate qualifications]. Thus, knowledge is knowledge when it
satisfies sets of criteria; justified true belief [with publicly-individually
justified truth according to rational-empirical74 criteria and at least
individual belief] is a wide spread and for many purposes an
appropriate set

This approach to definition, formally unpolished, is an analytical
approach based on a minimum of assumptions on the nature of
reality. It is justified as such. However, it makes no reference to
objectives, the knower, or origins of knowledge. These considerations
may provide alternates, modifications, improvements, restrictions,
and generalizations
[2] Knowledge as a Goal Directed Activity. Begin by breaking the
achievement of a goal into stages: pre-execution and execution. Preexecution can be divided into intentional - the stage in which the
execution toward the goal is a definite objective and pre-intentional in
which the individual has other goals and or more diffuse or
generalized “goals” but no special emphasis or awareness of the
specific goal in question
3-34
Of course, there is no perfectly sharp break between activities - at
least not in all situations. With this proviso, and abbreviating “activity
not directed to any specific goal” to “being,” we have: goal
achievement = being  intention  execution. Being includes activity

pre-intention
pre-execution
The first meaning of execution is “physical” action, but we find that
pre-execution activities can themselves be the subject of knowledge
and intention; hence execution does include action, does not exclude
knowledge and intention - even the mental aspects. Knowledge
includes cognitive as well as emotive, intuitive aspects and physical
action. Intention includes the same aspects as knowledge but more
specific and directed toward execution. Intention includes planning
and design
This entire discussion is descriptive rather than deductive or axiomatic
Summary:
Knowledge = any generalized modeling through simulation or
conceptualization and pattern recognition of total environment and
process: physical, natural, social, mental; includes
Empirical activity
Intention = Design and planning; similar to knowledge but related to
specific goal
Execution = Direct activity towards specific goal - includes physical,
and mental
Discussion: The modeling activities include learning [from nature] and
the result of this learning is knowledge. We cannot “know” all the
facts and, so, knowledge must include concepts as its entities and
patterns as its contrasts [spatial structure, temporal process]
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In the sense of the present concept, knowledge is related, but not
subject to a purpose, is adaptive, though not to any specific purpose
and not solely to survival: the purpose of well being is included. Wellbeing is included but not limited to proliferation; abundance and inner
defined values are included - within bounds and in balance. What
additional criterion of truth [as in “justified true belief”] does the
present concept provide - it is of adaptation to generalized purposes
of “being” and “well-being” [i.e., survival, security, and happiness:
41
perhaps belonging, status, actualization, transcendence; the mulberry
bush: transcendence  evolution] and adaptability to specific
purposes of themselves [value of variety, diversity, special purposes
 survival and expansion and emergence] and as they contribute to
general purpose
The present discussion contains circular elements on a strictly logical
level and can be tightened up - though primitives - conceptual atoms
and processes would remain76 - since description, information and
understanding have been provided
[3] System Theory of Knowledge. The idea is that knower [“mind”]
and known [“mind and universe or sub-system”] are regarded as a
composite system in which the subsystem mind has states and
processes which correspond to states and processes of the universe
[including mind]. This does not distinguish conceptual nature of
knowledge, but could. This theory explains the nature of symbols and
symbolic atoms, but does not give them a foundation or explain their
origins. The origins of knowledge are not explained, but its operation
as a steady or, perhaps, near steady process are
[4] Evolutionary Theory of Knowledge. The origins of knowledge are
explained through emergence. Here is an approach to a full and
complete foundation of knowledge - rational and descriptive. There is
a possibility for deduction that is finite [if reality behaves in a finite
way]. Here is a full approach, potentially, to the origin and nature of
knowledge
3-37
It is not clear how deep into evolution to go: certainly to the first
point of symbolic knowledge; probably to the origin of organic
knowledge and organic and organismic information processes for we
shall probably need to explain the origin of symbolic atoms on this or
some related, simulated, similar, or simplified basis; perhaps to the
origin of biological evolution for here is the origin of organic evolution
and reactivity, that is original knowledge, but only “perhaps,” because
it does not seem to matter that we go back quite this far - cellular
level may be adequate. Then, again, the explanation may be simplest
and most obvious at the molecular level with DNA, RNA and nucleic
acids staring us in the face. It may be necessary to go before
chemistry to the elemental physical level, but this seems very
improbably. However, if it is necessary, the explanation would be
simple, probably too simple and hence the improbability of the
explanation at this level. It may be necessary to invoke some model
of consciousness as well, as some subset of total process,
pragmatically, because the need for autonomic organic processes are
essential because knowledge is generalization
“The” evolutionary theory does not maintain that survival is the only
object of knowledge; nor does it or any adaptive theory necessarily
deny that any of awareness  knowledge  design  action 
evaluation  feedback lack value [in face of complexity, uncertainty]
as separate or integrated institutions. The previous meanings justified true relief, goal directed activity, and system theory - are
included, at least potentially, and even with truth, certainty. Bioenvironmental interactions bring out the development of potential [in
social context - society and organism being part of environment] and
potential is developed in a socio-environmental context [within biopotential limits, but not necessarily to the extremes of the limits]
▪ Location of Knowledge. State and process descriptions are relevant.
Where is knowledge [noun] stored? “Memory”! Where does
knowledge [verb or process] occur? “Intelligence”! Words of this type
are anathema to behaviorists and to those who recognize misuse.
Also, memory is not static - it decays and underlying these slow and
fast decays are micro-processes. Where does knowledge reside? Who,
what originates [starts] the process?
Clearly, the location of knowledge is a diffuse thing if we take the
adaptive, systemic and or evolutionary theories instead of the humancognition
3-38
centered point of view of “justified true belief” - the latter is a
specialized version of the former. We find diffuse elements of mind
and intelligence everywhere. In nature , all life reacts adaptively to
information in a way that includes some acquired or inherited state
[of “knowledge”] and or processing of information. In advance
organisms there are the organismic, diffuse-feeling, centralized
emotional, and the conventional intuitive and symbolic-cognitiverational modes. The conventional modes and centralized emotional
and, perhaps, certain pre-limbic aspects, are highly centralized or
focused, highly specialized, very complex and powerful, related to
“consciousness” - another word that makes pseudo-sophisticates
bristle or cringe, and a central element of civilization. For these
reasons, as well as the anthropocentric ones, we tend to focus on the
specialized modes. However, there may be essential loss of
information in suppressing the feeling-organismic modes [as knower
or known] and so these modes are important in themselves and for
their interaction with the more centralized-conscious modes. In
addition, the organismic-feeling modes exist in all of life with which
we are interdependent and which fact tends to be suppressed by
excess emphasis on the “higher” modes
Where else do we find intelligence and mind? In artifacts of life:
libraries and books [very static], modern information systems [less
static], societies - human and other; and in institutions and certain
artifacts of societies or, better, in the social structure that enhances
production of artifacts: beaver colonies producing beaver dams
In inert matter as it is? Potentially, insofar as “inert” matter is the
progenitor of life, yes; and mystics claim to see mind and
consciousness pervading all of creation - and there is a point to this.
We might well ask ourselves when we “rationally” judge inert matter
as without “mind”: are we confusing rationality and egocentrism? Of
course, and even though this would be neat, I do not expect a stone
to solve a differential equation. However, we may consider whether
an inclusive hierarchy of intelligence, mind, consciousness attributed
to all “creation” or “being” is a more accurate description than the
simple polarization: conscious-unconscious
What about computers? They are inert - but, whatever we feel about
our experience now, I do not think we can say that they will not
progress, evolve, or self-evolve to the point of being intelligent in the
multifaceted, flexible way of humans. And what of evolution in the
universe? We cannot logically [or any way that I know of] rule out
large design
3-39
Philosophy of Mind and Nature. Philosophy of mind is important in
relation to the nature of knowledge and its theory. Hence, I think it is
appropriate to discuss mind as an issue in epistemology. However, I
do not think of mind and nature as separate. Mind is equally an issue
in metaphysics. The distinction “mind” and “matter” beginning with
Descartes, permitted development of a science of nature
independently of church doctrine, and continues, in modified form to
modern times [1986]. I believe this distinction to be a convenient one
for certain purposes, but a misleading one for others [for example,
parts of psychology]. Therefore, it is inessential
Those who regard [or have regarded] the “mind”-”matter” distinction
as essential have been unable or unwilling to distinguish between
actuality of being and descriptive categories, and or have been
motivated by religion or politics. However, I do not think, as do some
empirical-positivist-analytic philosophers and scientists, that the
concept of mind should be banished. I believe that such opinions
originate in some combination of reaction, fear, ego, extension of
linguistic forms [language, logic, mathematics, etc.] and science
beyond their domains of descriptive and predictive ability
Banishment of concepts and essential dualisms are irrelevant to
understanding - except in the sense that strident statements and rigid
positions can spark development. Concepts and understanding evolve
even when words remain unchanged. Concepts and understanding
are dynamic and shifting in spite of apparent stability due to
psychological [need] and social [political, cultural - example, in a
society largely dependent on material technology, science may seem
to be more real than life]. If a concept is outmoded, it will usually die
a natural death
The distinction between mind and nature is a particularization, in the
human context, of the distinction between epistemology and
42
metaphysics. However, discussion in 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 indicates the
essential connection of epistemology and metaphysics - of mind and
nature
3-40
Mind and nature are part of a composite system-process and, no
matter the scientific disposition to nature or mind as matter, it is not
the function of philosophy to mimic science. One function of
philosophy, the critical function, is to found and explain science.
Another function, part of the speculative one, is to maintain an
independence from science [and any specific discipline or specific
group of disciplines]; among other things this provides balance,
understanding, framework for development and evolution of the
specialized disciplines, wholeness and integration of the full
dimensions of humankind and nature, adventure and essentiality in
thought. This diversity of approach is appealing and perhaps so
because it is also an adaptation against an unknown future; and this
is called an argument for balance in thought and “other” function,
such as action. This may be provided by design. Perfect balance is
never obtained - nor is it ideal. “Nature” permits, within limits, and
encourages variations; and the human institutions in which this
process is most dynamic is also a mixture of balance and variation
We need a composite philosophy - mind and nature rather than a
philosophy of mind or a philosophy of nature. Such a philosophy
would begin as a neutral composite of all elements thought to be
irreducible. Various combinations, reductions and “consequences”
would be considered - a theory structure approach to philosophy. The
structural relations of different “schools” will be included as “metaphilosophy” - although “meta” in this term is superfluous. Aspects
that are similar to the metaphysics of existentialism will be included but the psychological and political doctrines of existentialism will not
be essential
Earlier in 3.3.1 I have suggest analytic, adaptive, system theory, and
evolutionary approaches to a theory of knowledge
3-41
A philosopher of the speculative tradition might object to the
adaptive, system, evolutionary approaches as excessively restrictive,
pragmatic and anti-philosophy. This is not so - and this follows from
the type of composite approach just suggested...and to be explained
further. We could view the derived [by philosophic generalization]
systems: pragmatism from adaptation, organicism from system
theory, evolutionary emergentism from evolutionary theory and other
speculative systems such as spiritualism, materialism, etc., as well the
more specific doctrines, disciplines and sciences as mutually
restrictive. This would be due to a need for dogmatic belief. The
specific philosophic schemes can be viewed as a hierarchic system
arranged according to inclusiveness and generality - with sciences as
the specific forms and philosophies etc. as the more general ones.
The various philosophical hierarchies so obtained will be seen as
mutually restrictive when analyzed as antithetical. However, the
generalized versions of the different schemes will begin to show
similarities, which will be the basis of synthesis; further, since each
specific discipline can be the source of more than one vertical line
[resulting in a “hierarchic tree”] of generalization, experimentation
will be an element of the process. We may wish to consider a subset
of the totality of syntheses. The different philosophic schemes will be
seen as mutually expansive when seen as coherently synthetic. In
addition to generalization and imaginative synthesis, some schemes
will coexist as descriptions of independent [as such, or at the level of
understanding] aspects or categories which are not antithetical [a
theory structure] or incompatible. In view of the non-ultimate
[tentative] nature of some of our categories of description etc., a
“theory” of partial incompatibility [partial logic] will be useful
This approach encourages a view of language, idea, word,
proposition, logic, syntax, knowledge that is dynamic, adapting,
adjusting
3-42
Relational leads to developmental approaches
Reflective-empirical-speculative
Evolutionary
▪ Dualistic [knowledge separate from and therefore about nature] vs.
monistic [knowledge is part of nature, or is nature, and therefore
“about” knowledge-in-nature]
▪ Transcendental vs. understanding
▪ Certain vs. probabilistic
Aspects
1. Knowledge is accurate [at least in principle, in part]
2. Knowledge is accurate within domains of validity
3. Knowledge is highly certain, accurate [in principle, in part]
4. Knowledge is highly certain within domains of validity
5. Knowledge is probable [this is not in reference to quantum theory
which refers to probability of the data of knowledge] - not
inconsistent with Items 1 through 4, depending on the nature of the
distribution function
Items 4 and 5 are more compatible with the reflective-empiricalspeculative, hypothetico-deductive method. Hypothetico-deductive is
a form of reflective- empirical-speculative; empirical includes testing
against theories - with respect to data and concept
▪ Dynamic vs. structured theories [See 3.3.3, Philosophy of Mind and
Nature]
▪ Combinations
3-43
▪ Origins of Knowledge can be sought in a variety of causal patterns
and locations:
▪ In the individual
▪ Genetics as a source of innate knowledge and bio-potential for
acquired learning; effect of biological environment on development of
the biological organism. Levels of such knowledge: organismic and
centralized
▪ Effect of physical and social environment on acquisition of
knowledge; levels: feeling, emotion and symbolic-emotional, cognitive
▪ Individual and universal motivation
▪ In society
▪ Social institutions explicitly for transmission, “storage” and
development of knowledge [“wisdom” not included] and learning;
formal educational systems and institutions, informal groups and
institutions - family
▪ Other institutions as sources for transmission, storage, and
development of knowledge and learning
▪ Social evolution of institutions and systems of knowledge; symbolic
systems - language, logic, mathematics, algorithmic and heuristic
systems - formal deduction, computers, creativity, special disciplines philosophy, sciences, humanities
▪ In biological evolution
▪ Origins of individual capabilities for learning and development, and
innate capacities of the types mentioned above, in biological
evolution; levels chemical, cellular, organismic, centralized, conscious
and “psychological” levels
▪ Pre-chemical levels [perhaps]
▪ Interactions
▪ Biological constraints on psycho-social evolution
▪ Effect of society, social evolution on biological change
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▪ History of understanding and development of nature and processes
of knowledge [related to previous point “In society.”
▪ Types of Theories of Knowledge
1. Random association
▪ Intrinsic vs. relational
2. Systematic introspection; origins of logic
43
3. Systematic observation; origins of experiment
4. Synthesis of 2 and 3; hypothetico-deductive [includes comparative
and predictive schemes; concept formation, induction], reflectiveempirical-speculative method; controlled, designed experiment;
science
SYMBOL
MEANING
U
The total universe
x, y
“Higher” organisms [in transition]
PR
Propositions
G
Genetic, “innate” establishment of a part of
the collection of propositions...The total
collection is not fixed
P
Perception - includes but by no means limited
to channels and processing of “sensation”
T
Thought...not limited to symbolic, rational,
analytic; here includes emotion, feeling,
intuition
5. Extension of 2 and 3,4 to history; evolutionary theory
Art and religion as knowledge [not prejudicial, restriction to meaning
of art, religion since knowledge is interpreted very inclusively; not
pragmatic, for the same reason]; parallels to the sequence 1  5; a
common sequence
▪ Evolution and intelligence; some observations
1. Intelligence and rationality are apparently limited in their ability to
provide understanding; there are numerous ways in which there is
limitation: comprehensiveness, accuracy, and others
2. However, intelligence arose in evolution where its primary object
was not “perfection” but advantage, flexibility, improved accuracy,
enhanced probability of correctness. This is not to question the value
of ideas in knowledge and other enterprises, but to emphasize that
such ideals are not absolutes
3-45
3. The proper workings of intelligence include adaptivity, observation,
feedback and correction, in addition to the ideal; in other words,
intelligence incorporates evolutionary features - on the social, physical
levels. The question of “best” or “appropriate” mix adaptation and
ideal is a valid one
4. We can probably enhance intelligence by understanding its
evolutionary bases:
▪ As a process; the Hegelian, adaptive and punctuated equilibrium
models
▪ As a component of social evolution
▪ As a factor in individual evolution and growth
▪ As a product of biological and bio-social evolution
By understanding these bases, we can make proper designs;
however, these understandings are to be taken as potentials and
possibilities and not determinisms; much is unknown in our universes
of being and by feeling back into the depths of origin and merging
with them we add true rationality to our destination; this includes
adventure and risk
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3.3.2.2
The Universe of Being, Action and Thought
Outline of the Section
The universe of being, action and thought; propositions,
language, truth, reason; language, reason, logic and formal logic;
adequacy of language; language of thought.
▪ Propositions, Language.77 This is a “very” preliminary and rough, but
formal, description. I am not trying to present precise definitions or
complete systems; nor am I assuming that such are possible or
necessary
There is a universe U of Being within which actions -or processesoccur and relations exist. Within U there are beings x, y,...that [1] are
centers of independent action, [2] have a type of internal structure
and relation whose elements PR potentially map or model some of the
relations and processes of U, [3] have types of interactions G, P with
U resulting in the creation of potential maps PR, [4] have a type of
internal action T involving transformations of PR, which provide
atlases of U in the following sense - Collections [PR, T] - atlas the
beings, relations and actions of U. We can now identify:
Truth has been defined as agreement of a proposition with the “facts”
[data and datum]. But a fact is a certain structure [being], relation or
process in U. The relation [e.g., a G or P] between a PR and a fact,
cannot be defined in terms of anything else78
3-47
at the present level of discussion since the perceptions are not simple
maps. What we are talking about when we are talking about truth is
an agreement among the different propositional expressions of a fact:
organismic, feeling, emotional, cognitive, symbolic, and empiricalobservational-experimental. Thus, in relation to simple facts, the
distinction “knowledge” vs. “truth” is void. Also, we can introduce an
evolutionary, adaptive definition of “knowledge” and “truth”79 but
these also involve a type of propositional expression. Therefore,
perhaps, an appropriate definition of truth is agreement [consonance,
coherence] between the different propositional expressions of a fact which may alternatively be expressed as the synthetic unity of the
single [total] proposition
What is being said above includes that truth of propositions can be
arrived at by a synthesis of elementary perception, thought [reason,
defined below] and an active combination of elementary perception
and thought: experiment, observation, empiricism and the
hypothetico-deductive method. In other words, truth is also affirmed
through knowledge. Perception and thought are not completely
independent, are fairly dependent and interdependent. There is a
certain continuity between perception and thought
Learning is the growth of truth and knowledge that is not “innate.”
Learning is the growth of adaptivity. The growth of innate knowledge
can be regarded as evolutionary learning. Philosophically we do not
have to distinguish the acquired from the innate. Beings x, y are in
transition whether they are thought of as individuals or as populations
In the discussion above, I have used the term “expression of a
proposition.” Perhaps “manifestation” or “location” or “locus” of a
proposition is more suggestive of the “intent.” I want to use
“expression” slightly differently
3-48
Language is a symbolic mode of expression, representation, and
communication of propositions. Just as there is a truth of propositions
[agreement with facts, consonance among the manifestations,
adaptive to action, evolution, and so on], there is a truth of thought
and this is another reason why perception and thought are
interwoven and form a continuum. We can think of logic in two ways:
[1] Reason or logic of thought is the relation between truths as
propositions [by processes of thought]. [2] Formal logic is [study of,
science of] relations between linguistic expressions of true
44
propositions. [In this sense, some informal Logics are formal.] The
ideas expressed earlier, relating to degrees of truth [multiple valued
Logics], different conceptions or standards of truth [modal Logics],
probable validity of logical process instead of certain validity [heuristic
Logics of discovery and reduction are relevant here - also the
imperative and declarative]. One of the implications of the present
discussion is that the distinction of truth from logic is not perfectly
sharp
Commonly, in logical theory, “proposition” stands for a type of
linguistic expression. However, a proposition is a map or a collection
of maps of a “fact,” and the linguistic proposition is a symbolic
expression of the proposition. Hence the question of the adequacy of
language80, or of a language, to express propositions arises: is the
language broad enough to express all [or a sufficiently large class of
propositions and is the expression of each proposition accurate,
faithful - or, perhaps more appropriately, do linguistic propositions fit
in with the overall scheme of truth of propositions? A similar question
arises regarding the adequacy and validity of formal logic. As before,
the question of separation of propositional and logical process arises;
in axiomatic logic they are separated, but in general, analysis perhaps
not; additionally the symbolic scheme, language and logic, may be
thought of as fitting into the existential scheme of proposition and
reason. Reason is the truth
3-49
function of thought; i.e., study of, systematization of, feel for
relations among true propositions. All that was said about types of
logic [multiple-valued, etc.] is inherent in reason.81 Just as perception
and thought, linguistic [propositional] truth and logic are interwoven
and form a continuum, so are propositional truth and reason
Symbolic - visual, tonal
Internal-external
Entering - the perceptual aspect of intuition
Linguistic
▪ Modes of reason83
Rational
Analytic
Logical
Intuitive
Mystic, direct
Symbolic
Instinctive
Emotional
Integrative
Organismic
▪ Modes of knowledge83 - Again, includes synthetic combinations of
perception-reason
3-51
3.3.2.4
Issues in Epistemology
Issues raised by science; classical, quantum, relativistic
Dimensions of being; categories
Ultimates vs. evolution
Ultimates and unity
The question regarding adequacy and accuracy of language-logic is in
regards to breadth and accuracy as a model of proposition-reason
Value of unity; holism; economy: anti-alienation; adequacy
▪ A language of thought. Because of the inadequacy of formal
languages of thought, it is valuable to speculate a pre-formal
language of thought. For retention of word language, the language
would have to be symbolic. Formal languages are a possible basis.
Much reasoning about “reality” occurs as reasoning about language
and much perception is translation into symbolic form. It has been
suggested that there is inborn, in all humans, a native language of
thought
Approaches to unity84
Note that formal languages are symbolic and iconic; this is also true
for any natural pre-formal language
There is an artificiality, prejudicial to [poor] reason, to an essential
split: formal and pre-formal
Multiple categories do not imply dualism
Identity
Part of a whole [being-process]
Evolved from unity
Synthesis of the analyzed categories and concepts85
Intuition
Direct-mystic
Theories of scientific truth, advance
Certainty  probability  evolutionary
Issues discussed in Area 3
3-50
3.3.2.3
Perception, Reason and Knowledge...and their Modes
▪ Perception. According to the discussion immediately concluded, it is
an approximation to analyze
knowing  perceiving and thinking [reasoning]82
or
epistemology  perception and reason [theory of]
However, there is some value to this scheme. Perception “is the
process from fact to proposition.”
Note: Knowledge is knowledge of knower x about universe U that
includes x. Therefore perception includes “self-perception.”
▪ Modes of perception
Sense
Kinesthetic
Feeling
Direct or mystic
Transcendent
Organismic or genetic
Chemical
Ritual
3-52
3.3.3
PHILOSOPHICAL
METHOD.
SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY
CRITICAL
AND
Critical and speculative philosophies represent two broad classes of
philosophical method
Simply stated, speculative philosophy seeks advance by expanding
the framework of understanding as well as the system of facts that
are coordinated by the framework. Critical philosophy accepts a
certain framework [a particular level of vocabulary, language, and
logic] as final and coordinates facts within the confines of the
framework [“the perfect dictionary”]
There is a critical school of philosophy, which requires that all analysis
must be critical analysis; there is also a speculative school that allows
speculative analysis. The word “speculative” is liable to
misinterpretation. Speculation does not mean wild, uncontrolled
opinion. A speculation is a tentative formulation; speculation is
necessary when we have no formal approach to coming up with such
formulations. We do have heuristics. There are heuristic approaches:
insight, philosophic generalization; but the speculative method is
rigorous in its testing of its schemes. It is analogous to the
hypothetico-deductive method in science, and others
To me the choice [if there must be one] is speculative philosophy for
it can explain the origin of philosophy; the critical approach cannot
45
Critical philosophy is analogous to “problem solving” [search in a fixed
space] while speculative philosophy is like “creative analysis” [search
in a space which is generated as part of the solution process]. In this
connection, recall the space of philosophic systems generated by
hierarchic generalization and multiple theories; this space is not well
defined
Critical philosophy is conservative, safe; speculative philosophy is
openness, adventure. Critical philosophy is not evolving, and does not
accept or understand evolution as applied to philosophic method; the
speculative method is evolving
There are problem areas that can, over periods, be analyzed by the
critical method; however, a foundation of philosophic method requires
something more general - the speculative method is one approach to
rational foundation
3-53
3.3.4
PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY:86 AN OUTLINE
The problems indicated by ▪ have not yet been considered in this
work. They will be briefly discussed in 3.5
3.3.4.1
Speculative Philosophy
What is the nature of philosophy?
Coordination of the disciplines; metaphysics
Understanding
epistemology
and
developing
frameworks
for
knowledge;
▪ Eternal problems of philosophy [God, nature of being...]
▪ Value problems [axiology, aesthetics, and ethics]
3.3.4.2
Critical Philosophy
Aspects of all problems can be analyzed by the critical approach, but
the problems mentioned above cannot be adequately treated
▪ The specialized disciplines of knowledge can be adequately treated
by the critical approach - to a point; this is because the foundations
of the disciplines can often be analyzed and revised within a fixed set
of philosophical concepts and ideas. However, when the revision of
the specialized disciplines is significant, it may be necessary to modify
concepts at the philosophic level of generality
Comment On Value
Within critical philosophy, fact and value are often regarded as
distinct. Pragmatism, acting within the critical framework, can identify
fact and value by reducing one to the other; e.g., value is a biological
imperative arising out of bio-social evolution and is therefore factual.
The utility of this observation can be criticized: value may be fact, but
we do not and cannot necessarily always know the facts. We can also
criticize the reduction that speculative philosophy can answer both
objections: [1] knowledge is not regarded as absolute according to
the speculative
3-54
approach, [2] there is no necessary reduction in the speculative
method. Given a state of knowledge-data [“raw” perception],
speculation proceeds: questioning, reflection  speculation - raw
[source of concepts], philosophic generalization [expansion,
modification of concepts], synthesis [eclectic]  test against dataknowledge expansion of field of application  new knowledge data
3-55
3.4
3.4.1
OBJECTIVES
Outline of the Section
Specialization, unity, knowledge as an element in social process;
education.
When knowledge became an independent institution, it developed
internal criteria for validity. One objective of philosophy is the
understanding and foundation of these criteria, and of the disciplines
of knowledge
However, knowledge forms a whole; the disciplines are part of a
general framework and a proper framework is not founded as a whole
by mere founding of the components. Thus philosophy endeavors to
provide criteria and foundation for knowledge as a whole, and is, at
the same time, concerned with the content of such knowledge. As A.
N. Whitehead claimed, “The useful function of philosophy is to
promote the most general systematization of civilized thought.” Thus,
philosophy reflects upon, founds and provides civilized knowledge, at
its general level, and philosophical reflection, indirectly, a base for
affect and action
Knowledge is part of a larger scheme of processes. First, the concept
of knowledge itself is appropriately expanded to include affect,
feeling, and intuition. Second, knowledge is part of a larger adaptive
process: awareness  knowledge and value  design  action 
evaluation  feedback.87 Thus there is, in addition a philosophy of
existence [being-process...], a philosophy of human existence,
recognized in the simplicity, true economy, equanimity and grace of
the individual, or alternately in the passion-selflessness which unites
individual and whole - or results from such unity
3-56
In this connection,
considerations:
education
is
important.
Some
of
the
Top  down
Content
Method = attitude
Open, non-dogmatic
Rhythm of development
3-57
3.4.2
VALUE OF PHILOSOPHY
Value and objectives are closely tied together. Briefly, philosophy
provides foundation for knowledge, belief, and action. In this
connection review previous discussion in Area 3 and see, particularly,
3.4.1. See also 6: Action
As pointed out earlier, philosophy includes an attempt to provide an
invariant language or framework of special disciplines, etc. It includes
provisions of mind and introspection in “creating” or discovering and
evaluating knowledge. Though such attempts are incomplete, they
are valuable
Philosophy has “applications”: See 3.3.4, and 3.5
3.4.2.1
Comments From Whitehead's Process and Reality
FURTHER CHARACTERIZATION OF PHILOSOPHY: ITS
OBJECTIVES, VALUE AND METHOD
“Metaphysical categories are not dogmatic statements of the obvious;
they are tentative formulations of the ultimate generalities.”
The process of understanding is tied to the process of creating and
so, in a changing cultural environment, understanding is always
incomplete. This discussion continues my characterization of nature
and value of philosophy and philosophic method
“Rationalism never shakes off its status as an experimental
adventure. The combined influences of mathematics and religion,
which have so greatly contributed to the rise of philosophy, have also
had the unfortunate effect of yoking it with didactic dogmatism.
Rationalism is an adventure in the clarification of thought,
progressive, and never final. But it is an adventure in which even
partial success has importance.”
“One practical aim of metaphysics [descriptive metaphysics] is the
accurate analysis of propositions; not merely of metaphysical
propositions, but of quite ordinary propositions. It is merely credulous
to accept verbal phrases as adequate statements of propositions. The
46
distinction between verbal phrases and complete propositions is one
of the reasons why the logicians' rigid alternative, “true or false”, is so
largely irrelevant for the pursuit of knowledge.”
“A precise language
knowledge.”88
must
await
a
completed
metaphysical
“Philosophy frees itself from the taint of ineffectiveness by its close
relations with religion
3-58
and science, natural and sociological. It attains its chief importance by
fusing the two, namely religion and science, into one rational scheme
of thought.”
3.4.2.2
An Advertisement for Philosophy by Bertrand Russell in
relation to the eternal questions
From “The Problems of Philosophy”:
“Philosophy is studied not for the sake of answers but for the
questions. These questions enlarge our imagination and our
knowledge of the possible, reduce dogmatic assurance against such
speculation which closes the mind but, above all, because, through
the greatness of the universe which philosophy contemplates, the
mind is rendered great and becomes capable of that union with the
universe which constitutes its highest good.”
From “Why Men Fight”:
“So long as we think of the immediate future, it seems that what we
can do is not much...We cannot destroy the excessive power of the
state or of private property. We cannot, here and now, bring new life
into education, in such matters, though we may see the evil, we
cannot cure it by any of the ordinary methods of politics. If we have
courage and patience, we can think the thoughts and feel the hopes
by which, eventually, men will be inspired. For this reason, the first
thing we have to do is be clear in our own minds as to the kind of life
we think good and the kind of change that we desire in the world.”
“The ultimate power of those whose thought is vital is far greater
than it seems to men who suffered from the irrationality of
contemporary politics. Religious tolerance was once the solitary
speculation of a few bold philosophers. Democracy, as a theory, arose
among a handful of men in Cromwell's army. By them, after the
restoration, it was carried to America...the power of
3-59
thought, in the long run, and greater than any other human power.”
“Without some willingness to be lonely, new thought cannot be
achieved, and it will not be achieved to any purpose if the loneliness
is accompanied by aloofness, so that the wish for union with others
dies, or if intellectual detachment leads to contempt. It is because the
state of mind required is subtle and difficult, because it is hard to be
intellectually detached and yet not aloof, that fruitful thought on
human affairs is not common, and that most theorists are either
conventional or sterile.”
“In seeking a political theory which is to be useful at any given
moment, what is wanted is not the invention of a utopia, but the
discovery of the best direction of movement...in judging what is the
right direction, there are two general principles which are applicable
1. The growth and vitality of individuals and communities is to be
promoted as far as possible
2. The growth of one individual or one community is to be as little as
possible at the expense of another.”
“Men's impulses and desires may be divided into those that are
creative and those that are possessive...'Take no thought, saying
what shall we eat? or what shall we drink, or wherewithal shall we be
clothed?' Whoever has known a strong creative impulse has known
the value of this precept in its exact and literal sense: it is
preoccupation with possession, more than anything else, that
prevents men from living freely and nobly.”
3-60
“The supreme principle, both in politics and in private life, should be
to promote all that is creative, and so to diminish the impulses and
desires that center round possession.”
3.4.2.3
Social Change and Creative Personality
3-61
3.4.3
89
Philosophical Method
At the mythic level knowledge and culture are intimately intertwined;
the life of some piece of mythic knowledge continues as long as the
culture or society continues. Mythic “knowledge” does have survival
value even when it is not “true” - it bonds culture; more generally
mythic knowledge may have adaptive value even when “false” or
neutral. In this sense, the overall cultural system is “true,” in some
appropriate sense, because of mythic knowledge. It is not implied
that all mythic knowledge has such value. It should be remembered
that [1] mythic knowledge may satisfy rational criteria, or be
suggestive of truth, and [2] rational knowledge may have mythic
value
At a certain stage in cultural development, knowledge detaches itself
from the cultural milieu. This detachment is always present in some
degree and is never complete. As a rough approximation we can call
the detached knowledge science-philosophy or pre-science and prephilosophy. The knowledge that remains bound to culture can be
called “value.” The distinction is not clear for: [1] not all “science” is
true, [2] some value may be “true,” [3] some knowledge may serve
both functions
In order to serve an adaptive function, knowledge [potential
knowledge] which is detached from mere cultural expression is
judged by its “truth.” The process of selection that applies indirectly
to mythic knowledge through the selection of the mythic cultures is,
in modified form, applied to knowledge itself in post-mythic cultures.
This is very close to the problem solving, design methods of the
artificial intelligence and design literature; is an adaptation of the
overall social process [evolution] in microcosm. A number of different
descriptions apply [but not equally]:
3-62
[1] Evolution = variation and selection
= creation and invalidation90
[2] Creation = induction
= search in a dual space of concepts and laws and of instances
[3] Hypothetico-deductive method
= formation of hypothesis [concepts, laws]
and deduction of consequences
and test of consequences
[4] Speculative Method
= formation of speculative systems [propositional, linguistic, action,
conceptual frameworks]
and drawing of consequences
and testing of consequences against sub-conceptual systems [theories] and facts
The speculative method is most general. It includes scientific method,
philosophical construction and artistic creation. What is the “essence”
of the method? This depends on the inclination of the individual;
some emphasize the creative. Some the deduction-explanation, some
the testing and discarding of invalid systems; some eschew method
altogether
3-63/64
3.4.3.1
Brief Criticism of Invalidation Theory
This is also known as falsification91 theory. It is not falsifiability per se
that makes a theory “scientific” or a scheme “philosophic,” but its
survival of attempts at falsification and its prediction of positive
information [for a coherent domain of experience]
47
The main criticisms of falsification are [1] it is a pessimistic approach
or implies a pessimistic approach in which certainty is overvalued, [2]
in its limited sense it rests on narrow notions of truth and falsity - and
is appropriate for aspects of science and mathematics, but not for all
mathematics and science or for all knowledge and philosophy, [3]
related to [1] and [2], as a philosophy it devalues mythic and intuitive
knowledge in situations where such knowledge is “proper” and
adaptive and overextends the application of rational knowledge, and
[4] for various reasons, knowledge is hard to falsify
These criticisms can be overcome, at least in part, by providing a
hierarchy of notions of unacceptability
Popper later replaced the idea of falsifiability with testability or the
property of being selectable. In other words, knowledge is an
evolutionary category
3-65
3.4.3.2
Whitehead on Speculative Philosophy. The following
quotation is from Process and Reality:
“Speculative philosophy is the endeavor to frame a coherent, logical,
necessary system of ideas in terms of which every element of our
experience can be interpreted...Everything of which we are conscious
as enjoyed, perceived, willed, or thought, shall have the character of
a particular instance of the general scheme. Thus the philosophical
scheme should be coherent, logical, and, in respect to its
interpretation, applicable and adequate. Here “applicable” means that
some items of experience are thus interpretable, and “adequate”
means that there are no items incapable of such interpretation
“'Coherence', as here employed, means that the fundamental ideas,
in terms of which the scheme is developed, presuppose each other so
that in isolation they are meaningless ...In other words, it is
presupposed that no entity can be conceived in complete abstraction
from the system of the universe, and that it is the business of
speculative philosophy to exhibit this truth
“The term 'logical' has its ordinary meaning, including 'logical'
consistency, or the lack of contradiction, the definition of constructs in
logical terms, the exemplification of general logical notions in specific
instances, and the principles of inference. It will be observed that
logical notions must themselves find their places in the scheme of
philosophic notions
“ ...This ideal of speculative philosophy has its rational side and its
empirical side. The rational side is expressed by the terms 'coherent '
and 'logical.' The empirical side is expressed by the terms 'applicable'
and 'adequate.' However, the two sides are bound together by
clearing away an ambiguity that remains in the previous explanation
of the term adequate. The adequacy of the scheme over every item
does not mean adequacy over such items as happen to have been
considered. It means that the texture of observed experience, as
illustrating the philosophic scheme, is such that all related experience
must exhibit the same texture
3-66
Thus the philosophic scheme should be 'necessary ,' in the sense of
bearing in itself its own warrant of universality throughout all
experience, provided we confine ourselves to that which
communicates with immediate matter of fact. But what does not so
communicate is unknowable, and the unknowable is unknown; and so
this universality defined by 'communication ' can suffice
“This doctrine of necessity in universality means that there is an
essence to the universe which forbids relationships beyond itself, as a
violation of its rationality. Speculative philosophy seeks that
essence.”92
“Philosophers can never hope finally to formulate these metaphysical
first principles
“There is no first principle which is in itself unknowable...But, putting
aside the difficulties of language...the difficulty is in the empirical
side...We habitually observe by a method of difference
“The metaphysical first principles can never fail of exemplification. We
can never catch the actual world taking a holiday from their sway.
Thus...the method of pinning down thought to the strict
systematization of detailed discrimination...breaks down...In natural
science this rigid method is the Baconian method of induction, a
method which, if consistently pursued, would have left science where
it found it. What Bacon omitted was the play of a free imagination
[variation and selection], controlled by the requirements of coherence
and
logic...The
negative
judgment
is
the
peak
of
mentality...conditions for the success of imaginative construction
must be rigidly adhered to
“...The first requisite is to proceed by the method of generalization so
that certainly there is some application...beyond the immediate origin.
In other words some synoptic vision has been gained
3-67
“...The term 'philosophic generalization' has meant 'the utilization of
specific notions, applying to a restricted group of facts, for the
divination of generic notions which apply to all facts.'
“In its use of this method natural science has shown a curious
mixture of rationalism and irrationalism. Its prevalent tone has been
ardently rational within its own borders, and dogmatically irrational
beyond those borders. In practice such an attitude tends to become a
dogmatic denial that there are any factors in the world not fully
expressible in terms of its own primary notions of void of any further
generalization. Such a denial is the self-denial of thought
“The second condition of the success of imaginative construction is
unflinching pursuit of the two rationalistic ideals, coherence and
logical perfection
“Logical perfection does not require any detailed explanation
“The requirement of coherence is the great preservative of
rationalistic sanity
“Incoherence is the arbitrary disconnection of first principles, in
modern philosophy Descartes' two kinds of substance, corporeal and
mental, illustrate coherence
The attraction of Spinoza's philosophy lies in its modification and
Descartes' position into greater coherence. He starts with one
substance, causa sui, and considers its essential attributes and its
individualized modes; i.e., the 'affectiones substantiae.' The gap in
the system is the arbitrary introduction of 'modes . ' And yet, a
multiplicity of modes is a fixed requisite, if the scheme is to retain any
direct relevance to the many occasions in the experienced world
3-68
“The philosophy of organism is closely allied to Spinoza's scheme of
thought. But it differs by the abandonment of the subject-predicate
forms of thought, so far as concerns the presupposition that this form
is a direct embodiment of the most ultimate characterization of fact.
The result is that the 'substance-quality' concept is avoided; and that
morphological description is replaced by description of dynamic
process. Also Spinoza's 'modes' now become sheer actualities; so that
though analysis of them increases our understanding, it does not lead
to discovery of any higher grade of reality. The coherence, which the
system seeks to preserve, is that the discovery that the process, or
concrescence, of any one actual entity involves other actual entities
among its components. In this way the obvious solidarity of the world
receives its explanation
“In all philosophic theory there is an ultimate which is actual in virtue
of its accidents. It is only then capable of characterization through its
accidental embodiments, and apart from these accidents is devoid of
actuality. In the philosophy of organism this ultimate is termed
creativity; and God is its primordial non-temporal accident. In
monistic philosophy, Spinoza's or absolute idealism, this ultimate is
God, who is also equivalently termed 'The Absolute.' In such monistic
schemes, the ultimate is illegitimately allowed a final, 'eminent'
reality, beyond that ascribed to any of its accidents. In this general
position the philosophy of organism seems to approximate more to
some strains of Indian, or Chinese, thought than to Western, Asiatic,
or European thought. One side makes process ultimate; the other
side makes fact ultimate.”
48
3-69
3.4.3.3
Speculative Method93 - An Outline
▪ Variation to zero; raw speculation
▪ Modification
▪ Juxtaposition
▪ Direct insight
Outline of the Section
Doubt, reflection, definition of scope, assemblage, speculation,
evaluation, modes and evolution of evaluation, application,
doubt, entry into evolution.
▪ Transcendent-mystic
▪ Philosophic generalization
▪ Synthesis
3-71
The following outline incorporates some of the ideas of the discussion
and quotation in 3.4.3, so far. Also included are: the process of
questioning - of existing schemes; reflection; decisions at the level
and degree on inclusivity; collection of “information” - assemblage;
and entry into evolution. The method includes a constellation of
special methods
A flow of the method: doubt  reflect  scope  assemblage 
speculate  evaluate  application and selection  entry into
culture and evolution. As with any flow scheme: further evolutionary
levels could be included. The process is iterative - any level of
feedback and forward is possible [interactive process], but the stated
sequence is a first approximation. The process is cyclic [or spiralhelical]
Outline
1. Doubt. Question everything - fact, being, knowledge, nature of
these, because:
6. Evaluation. Philosophy begins when criticism begins, but ends
when speculation ends. Philosophy is knowledge-process become
aware of its own [excess] subjectivity and lack of adaptation
Modes of evaluation:
Empirical - Against fact [experience, observation, experiment] and
fact embodied in knowledge
Rational - Logic, coherence
Evolution of Evaluation:
Random
Speculative [coherence?]
Introspective [includes experience] [logic?]
Observation [beginnings of empiricism-applicability]
Experimental [adequacy]
Historical [extension of adequacy]
Evolutionary [extension of adequacy, perhaps]
7. Application. New realms of experience. Evaluation through
application
▪ There is no final system
▪ Specific need
▪ Learning is only possible when one accepts that one's believes can
be false
8. Entry into evolution. Thought is never completely de-mythicized;
and even post-mythic thought serves actual [in addition to
psychological, which is actual] mythic function: thought remains
relevant to selection
Doubt is not merely “rational” - includes intuition, emotion, and
mystic
3.5
▪ Origin of process
2. Reflect. On need; possibilities
3. Define scope. Decide on inclusion [level and extension]. Fact,
being, evolution, knowledge
4. Assemblage. Gather information, facts, and theories, ideas...guided
by 1, 2, and 3
3-70
5. Speculate. Form concepts and hypotheses-systems
▪ Primitive humankind speculates and symbolizes the speculation.
More - the speculation includes the formation of symbol-meaning
systems; internal sources of validity - encoding, through evolution, of
pre-linguistic and pre-logical structure into organism and the linguistic
capacity of the organism. By no means does this guarantee certitude
of speculation but, perhaps, there is some identifiable built-in
selectivity - natural language or logic which is “learned” in pre-cultural
evolution by race, species, life
▪ Two forms of growth of such speculative systems: addition and
success. Surely there is pre-formal internal selection even if minimal.
Building of meta-schemes - with the primitive scheme providing
meaning and cultural evolution. Before thought separates from its
mythic origins, this is a primary selective force
3-72
SPECIAL PROBLEMS
APPLICATIONS
OF
PHILOSOPHY...AND
ITS
The central problems of philosophy are outlined in 3.3 and 3.4.
Subsection 3.3.4 includes a brief outline of problems of philosophy;
here a more detailed listing of the special problems [of history,
nature, scope, methods, divisions, philosophical schools and
doctrines] and applications
3.5.1
PHILOSOPHY OF THE SPECIAL DISCIPLINES AND
ACTIVITIES: OUTLINE
The following aspects are included:
Method and content of philosophy is applied to disciplines and
activities
Philosophical concern is with the half truths and assumptions, fact,
method, logic, coherence, completeness; with foundations and
interactions
Implications for philosophy are considered; examples, approach to
metaphysics through “philosophic generalization”; implications of
modern physics and biology94; action and experience
▪ Includes variation to zero of philosophical and general knowledge
and language because they labor under the inadequacies of ancient
thought...however there are limits on how far back in evolution raw
variation can go, perhaps
Means-methods [includes science, art and religion] of speculation in
post-mythic cultures:
▪ Initially random association and classification; repetition
▪ Reason and perception; and introspection
▪ Creativity and imagination-mythic thought; includes heroic thought
49
Traditional Fields
The Disciplines and Activities
Axiology - The Good
Being and Process95
Aesthetics - Beauty
Ethics - The Right
Evolution
Awareness  knowledge  design  action  learning and
correction
These distinctions are flexible. The good refers to ends or desirable
situations and the right to actions...both are both analyzed within
ethics
3.5.3.1
Types of Ethics and Ethical Study
3.5.3.1.1
Meta-ethics
The meaning of ethics [vs. normative = “actual” ethics]
3.5.3.1.2
Metaphysical ethics
Ethics as a branch of metaphysics: ethical notions are derived from
metaphysical notions
Table 4 Origin of Special Disciplines and Activities
3.5.3.1.3
Knowledge includes value, religion, art. Design includes planning.
Action and evaluation each include control
Any ethics that do not make the right depend entirely on value
Comments
Teleology: theory of purpose, ends, final causes, opposite of
mechanism; teleological ethics: rightness depends on probable
conduciveness to some end
Being and process: includes all dimensions: corresponding to levels of
knowledge - Area 4, personal dimensions96; processes include
particularizations of awareness 
3-73
Evolution: See 3.5.6; also General Statement, 2, parts of 3.1,2,3,4
Deontological ethics
3.5.3.1.4
Teleological ethics
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3.5.3.1.5
Evolutionary ethics
Social institutions: anthropological - groups; cultural - art, religion,
knowledge and science, education; organizational - economic,
political, legal
Any ethical theory in which the doctrine or theory of evolution plays a
leading role is an evolutionary ethics. Typical moral standards of
evolutionary ethics are adaptiveness, conduciveness to life. The
problem is a difficult one because evolution [if true] has given
humankind significant freedom from the environment, and this
freedom has a generalized adaptivity. Also: should we regard mass
extinction and punctuated equilibria as part of evolution? The point is
that there is much flexibility in choice of evolutionary phenomenon or
other phenomena
Design and planning: See 3.5.6, General Statement, 1, 5
3.5.3.2
Action: See 6
Epistemological and metaphysical: any one of a number of
philosophical doctrines can form a basis. These include experience,
action
Knowledge: See 3.3.1, 3.3.2, 3.5.4, 3.5.6, and 3.5.7
This section includes science and its disciplines, humanities - including
art, philosophy, religion; technology; corresponding symbolic
disciplines. See 4 and reference materials
Evaluation: See 7
By the very nature of philosophy, each philosophical consideration
spills over into other philosophical considerations and we soon begin
to contemplate existence. This tendency and the opposite tendency to
proliferation of detail remain in balance
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3.5.2
ETERNAL PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY
These are problems of a universal, fundamental and general
character, which retain their problematic nature. As Russell said
[3.4.2.2], it is the questions themselves which are valuable, for
through them we are led to consider the greatness of the universe
and so derive some greatness
As knowledge, science, and religion progress, understanding is
obtained; as the ethos of an era gives way to a new one, the focus of
intensity shifts. Yet the intellectual or existential nature of these
problems remains
The eternal problems: freedom, choice, will, determinism, fatalism,
cause action; mind, awareness, consciousness and sentience, AtmanBrahman, God and Godhead, metaphysical nature of being and
process; reality, truth, reason, unity, value
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3.5.3
VALUE: AXIOLOGY, ETHICS AND AESTHETICS
The study of value, the good, is traditionally a separate field of
philosophy. It is often held that value and science are separate, but
even if this is not true, there is a contribution in understanding from a
separate and independent discussion of value. Although I argue that
process, evolution, interaction, organicity and holism show a unity of
value and knowledge, this does not imply that value is determined by
“science.” Philosophical reflection is capable of providing insight into
the true relations and ensuring a level of judgment that is
commensurate with available knowledge
General Foundations of Value
Evolutionary
Constraints: Physical, biological, and psychosocial
Possibilities: Origins of aesthetics value dimensions in evolution and
relation to constraints. Possibilities in general; growth and emergence
Choice: Relating past to future. Creating values
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3.5.4
SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY
Relevant topics are considered in 3.5.1, 2, and 3. However, social
philosophy has traditionally been a division of philosophy. In some
periods certain philosophers held: that social philosophy was
philosophy. Organization of a field of social philosophy is useful. In
addition, social science cannot be considered as complete
3.5.4.1
Philosophical Anthropology
The philosophy of humankind
3.5.4.2
Philosophy of cultural institutions - Art, Religion, Learning
and Discovery, Education
Art
Religion
Learning and discovery: Knowledge, humanities, science and sciences
[as form and process]97
Education97
50
3.5.4.3
Philosophy of social organization and relation of individual
to the group
3.5.4.3.1
3.5.4.3.2
Political philosophy
Economic philosophy
3.5.4.3.3
Philosophy of law
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3.5.5
PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE...As distinct from “academic”
philosophy
3.5.5.1
The Well Lived Life
Existentialism
Philosophy of Nietzsche and other existentialist thinkers who assertimply that the “solutions” - such as they are - are inherent in the
individual's being
3.5.5.3
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Evolutionary Levels for Which a Framework Is Provided
Mechanism
Tells humankind how to live and provides values and maxims to live
by; facing the choices and conditions of life; being one's highest
being. This is better interpreted as dialog than as instruction and is
sometimes interpreted as the meaning of life
3.5.5.2
The statement in this sub-area [3.5.6] is supplemented by
observations, ideas, discussion dispersed throughout this volume
[General Statement, Preface, 1,2,3 and 5]. My own understanding is
itself evolving, and the content of this work is a preliminary
statement. In this sub-area, I include, first, an outline of the
evolutionary levels for which a framework is to be provided and then
some considerations for a philosophical framework
Religion and the Philosophy of Religion
Clearly related to religion conceived as a motivational system;
consistent with Nietzsche's opposition to much of Christianity; and
related to philosophy of religion
Change in “mechanism” from level to level: evolution of evolution
Physical evolution
... =? Mechanism » raw variation and? Selection
Chemical evolution
... =? “Physical” and? Reproduction
The concept physical is in quotes because [1] I want to point out that
pre-chemical physical evolution sets the scene and provides
constraints for chemical evolution; [2] there is also a pre-reproduction
evolution that is chemical. [3] I am not implying that chemical
evolution is not physical. Similar comments apply to subsequent
stages, with appropriate modifications
General motivational analysis
Reproduction includes reproduction of variation and this sets the
stage for life and evolution of complexity and diversity. Note that
reproduction evolves too, and this is an example of evolution of
evolutionary mechanisms
Hinduism, the Bhagavad-Gita, Buddhism
Biological evolution
Philosophy “should” contain its own motivation
... =? “Chemical” and interaction
Philosophy as an adventure
Combination of reproduction and interaction permits evolution of
complexity: chemical reproduction [hypothetical pre-genetic fault
tolerant reproduction concept of Freeman Dyson [Origins of Life], or
genetic-structured
pre-DNA
reproduction]

genetic-DNA
reproduction  ? Prokaryotes  photosynthesis...  eukaryotes 
multi-cellular organisms  Diversity and complexity. This sets the
stage for complex perceptual and information processing forms
3.5.5.4
Philosophy of action
See Area 6
Generalization of the previous item philosophy as The Adventure
What is happening here? The field of being is an adventure in which
every concept is dismantled and rebuilt, in which every being may
enter the dynamics of the real
3.5.5.5
Role of instinct, mind, spirit
Evolution of the physical and chemical environment continues as a
system that [1] includes life, [2] regulatory mechanisms: ecosystem
concept...Earth as an ecosystem, perhaps
Russell
3.5.5.6
Role of truth
Unity, truth and all true philosophy relevant in some measure
3.5.5.7
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Relationship to psychology
Pre-human social evolution
Related to psychology, especially existential psychology
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3.5.6
PHILOSOPHY
OF
EVOLUTION
AND
MATERIALISM, MECHANISM, CHOICE
DESIGN
Introduction
We have seen that design and evolution are related. Each concept
has levels of meaning; there are relationships and unities among
these meanings. I have given reasons to identify the most inclusive
levels: design = evolution, but have attached to this equation a “?”.
Philosophical reflection and analysis adds to understanding of the
levels of meaning and their relations; its contributions include
speculation and suggestion, analysis of concepts and language.
Clarification of assumptions, contradictions, and paradoxes, provision
of general conceptual frameworks: when “proper” understanding is
obtained the different meanings and frameworks coalesce in unity,
inclusion [instead of hypercritical exclusion], and coherence.
Philosophy includes - or adds to - the scientific and empirical side. In
return, understanding evolution - and design - contributes to
understanding of nature, knowledge and philosophy. This enhanced
understanding is profound and deep, for the universe embodies the
signature of its past; it cannot be understood either as whim or as
comprehensively planned perfection
Since human action and aspirations are intimately connected with
understanding, and this includes belief, this deep progress has
momentous consequences for aspirations, designs and plans, and
action
Social evolution begins very early, conditioned by and conditioning
biological evolution and, later, being a significant factor, especially in
evolution of psyche: pre-limbic, affective, and cognitive
Human and psychosocial evolution
Descent of humans is an interesting and valuable story; well before
appearance of Homo sapiens - psyche and society are important; with
appearance of Homo sapiens [but not necessarily only Homo sapiens]
a relative independence of social evolution from the pressures of
physical, chemical, biological evolution becomes possible. This does
not mean there are no constraints from physical, chemical, biological
nature - there are; and this does not mean that there are no
interactions between social and other levels of evolution. There are
and will be. However, these are long-term compared to social change
Socio-cultural evolution
As a rough concept I will define cultural evolution as the free play,
independent of immediate interaction, with physical, chemical,
biological and pre-human levels but within the constraints of such
levels, of social structure and its physical [technology and such],
biological [husbandry, agriculture, and so on], and psychological
[religion, art, knowledge, tradition] artifacts, and interactions of such
artifacts, made possible by specific developments of psyche [prelimbic, affect and conative, cognitive and perceptual, and so on],
homeostatic flexibility, bipedalism, manual dexterity and interactions
of such developments. Concern is with origins and development of
socio-culture. Interaction with pre-cultural levels is slow but
51
[probably] important. Evolution of language and symbolic information
and knowledge are important aspects of cultural evolution and
3-82
are probably an example [if not “the” example], dating back to origins
of culture, of interplay of culture, society, biology
Historical evolution
History has a number of senses; at this point, I mean the recorded
tradition of history of culture and society. Questions of accuracy,
interpretation, meaning, significance are of debate. The recorded
tradition is related to development of language and script. It points to
some phase of chance. An important question is whether that phase
represents progress - the interplay of cultural, societal, biological and
physical evolution has implication for that concept of progress and its
evaluation concerning existence and value
By historical evolution, I do not mean progress; I mean to ask
whether history has mechanisms of evolution. Although in any
interpretation the “mechanisms” are evaluated through a cultural
filter, there is a phase of change and the question is whether we can
find a variation and selection principle that is independent of any
cultural filter. The question of how we can know or deduce the
independence is a valid question, and must be answered before the
knowledge can be validly held or deduced. However, it is not the
same question as the one being asked here. Further, although
“relativism” can validly assert the existence of cultural filters, it cannot
3-83
validly assert [because it is subject to similar limitations] the absolute
nature of these filters. This leaves open the possibility of indirect
intellectual means or, possibly direct means of some type, of
answering the question on evolution in history. Whitehead [at least
implicitly: see 2.4] and Hegel have asserted the existence of evolution
in history
What is “the” relation between progress and evolution in history?
Evolution of knowledge
I treat this separately, because some considerations on the possible
natures and consequences for such evolution is given, in 3.5.6.1
Evolution of the processes and institutions of society
See 3.5.6.2
Evolution of consciousness
...and the concept of the individual; evolution of the individual:
personal growth - see 3.5.6.3
Evolution of design
See 3.5.6.4
Evolution in the universal
See 3.5.6.5
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Mechanism and “Paradigms” of Modes of Change
1. Mechanism
...immediate mechanism - physicochemical
“How” does mechanism evolve over the “life” of the universe “?”
2. Purpose and design
Purpose and design as essentially different from mechanism
Purpose and design as expression of mechanism
Purpose and design as expression of evolution
3. Evolution
As expression of mechanism, and or purpose and design
Evolutionary descriptions and mechanisms: Items 4, 5, 6, and 7
4. Evolution
= variation and selection
5. Variation
= raw variation [mechanism?] and reproduction and interaction
6. Selection
= absolute, preferential
e.g., absolute
reproduction

“death”;
preferential

in
abundance
of
7. Co-evolution
...of systems and environments: ecology
8. Gradualism - synthesis vs. saltation
3-85
9. Uniform change vs. punctuated equilibria98
Punctuated equilibrium: relatively rapid [on geological, not
evolutionary scales] change occurs when niches are opened up due to
emergence of new possibilities due to change in environment and or
mass extinction or due to new levels of organizations; other periods
are evolutionarily quiet  explains facts [reasons for extinction open
and interesting, 1987, but not an obstacle]
Punctuated equilibrium and gradualism not contrary since change is
not necessarily rapid on evolutionary scales
Uniformitarianism: the idea that change in geology [Lyell] and biology
[Darwin, perhaps] is “uniform.” This does not seem to be supported
by the evidence
New meanings of uniformitarianism: natural law or mechanism is
constant and acts throughout evolution. But, is it constant? Perhaps
natural “law” evolves and according to a punctuated equilibrium
model. Uniformitarianism - is the ideal of search for uniform
explanations
3-86
10. Evolution of evolution
Levels of evolution have been interpreted as though there is some
new essence at each level. If this is true then each level could be
completely independent of previous levels. A new essence is only
necessary at a level if the level is completely independent. New levels
do not seem to be essentially and completely independent so I do not
find it necessary to invoke any new essence[s]. Emergent evolution
entails certain apparent dualisms. Modern “sociobiology” on the other
hand provides for determinism of social behavior in bio-genetics.
More than this is said. The following type of claim is often made: for
behavior y, there is a biogenetic gene x that determines y; and, y is
optimum. Further, if all behavior is determined bio-genetically,99 such
genetics cannot “really” bear the mark of social influence, for such
influence is itself the expression of biogenetics [except that conditions
could be different in periods of rapid change]
Thus, emergent evolution and “sociobiology” represent further
extremes. There is a middle ground, which includes each extreme as
a possible special case, according to which biogenetics determines
much, and in which a significant portion of the determination,
especially that of socio-cultural traits, is of constraints or potential
In some sense, each level of evolution offers freedom, but within
constraints, from the earlier levels. The earliest level is the material or
natural level and hence the freedom is, in significant measure,
freedom from the natural environment
Thus, while “natural” selection is the chief selective mechanism for
biological evolution, it is not the primary selective mechanism of
socio-cultural evolution; here selection acts on the group and its
mechanism of bonding and interaction. This is one theory [P. Munz,
Our Knowledge of the Growth of Knowledge] and one type
[Encyclopedia Britannica, “Social Structure and Change”] of cultural
change
3-87
Irrespective of which theory of social change that is adopted or
true,100 it seems that there is progressive freedom from the
environment in levels of evolution, and in later stages of cultural
evolution. The situation is so well within environmental, material,
biological constraints of the past101 that most of the change is due to
socio-cultural factors. At the same time, there is biological change
that may be due to environmental selection, which now includes
52
cultural factors; this change must be much slower than cultural
evolution and is different from selection of culture. The interaction of
these two elements and the question of biological determination of
social behavior is, to me, an open question but within the following
general observations: [1] pre-social [chemical, biological] evolution
determines human potential in much of social behavior, and [2] a
wide range of potential and plasticity seems to be one of the
fundamental adaptations of humankind
The more independent the levels of evolution are of the environment,
the less they bear its signature; thus we should be able to tell more
about the environment from human biology than human culture
except, perhaps, for the phase of cultural development in which
knowledge is de-mythicized [see 3.5.2.1] and even then it is only
certain types of knowledge. Therefore, through knowledge,
humankind can re-exploit nature...and the universal
The change from less to more freedom from the environment is:
physical evolution and chemical evolution before reproduction: perfect
constraint, no trial and error, systems are the environment 
reproduction and biological evolution  natural selection, systems
provide incomplete information on the environment  cultural
evolution: environment has little effect on cultural evolution in so far
as it is not a selection mechanism - in most modern theories the
mechanism of culture is to provide a bond and it is the groups that
are selected;
3-88
since the function of culture is the bond, culture is selected for its
cohesiveness and not its content. This theory contains elements of
truth but seems somewhat simplistic. Certainly the content of culture
in Level II cultures is selected for content [se3.5.6.1 - though the
selection is still not natural]
11. Tropic Principle
I am not convinced that this principle has content. However, I include
it because it seems to have relevance to “evolution of evolution.” My
reading of its content: results of evolution are due to mutual
constraints of systems and environments that condition and
determine the direction of evolution
3-89
Language of Evolution
▪ The language should reflect the mechanisms. Physical evolution?
Variations and selection...? Emergence...consciousness, plan, design?
[See General Statement, Preface, parts of 1, 2, 3, 5.]
▪ Reflecting existence or otherwise of ultimates
▪ Metaphysics of description; synthesis and balance
3-91
Thus it may be that knowledge can never be fully “ontogenized”; i.e.,
synchronized. The reason is that knowledge is so deeply interwoven
into the chemical-bio-psycho-social structure of organism-society.
Synchronization, especially into consciousness, of knowledge requires
too much explicit structure and diachronism overcomes this act:
diachronism may not seem “optimum” but it may in fact be the only
way to emergence, to complex organic structures and knowledge
systems. Rational knowledge can aspire to overcome the barrier of
pre-cultural, pre-linguistic and pre-rational origins, but rationality has
its own limitations
Even the learning of an individual includes pre-rational and a-rational
elements of cognition and affect. This includes the type of intuitive
knowledge involved in the direct expression of thought and action
without the intermediary of symbolic processing. Some intuition is
pre-rational, some is a-rational [kinesthetic, for instance]. Some is
post rational: the development of intuition of the structure and
process of rational thought: this makes learning of knowledge as a
whole and creation possible. The evolution of individual learning and
its relationship to phylogenetic learning is interesting and valuable
Can intuitive knowledge be complete? Intuition involves an ability to
function in absence of “complete” knowledge. Recall the four
“definitions” of knowledge - in 3.3.2 - one definition was adaptivity to
a “purpose”: this does not intrinsically require completeness o
certainty. Intuition provides holism by recognizing this fact; i.e.,
intuition provides holism without certainty or completeness. Now
rationality, too, can recognize this “fact” - by itself, through
introspection, through study of evolution and by reference to
intuition. It is not an aspect of rationality to seek completeness,
certainty, or security. This is an aspect of a certain type of psyche or
a certain type of culture
3-92
▪ In an ultimate sense how = what
▪ As a framework of evolution, diachronic reality, culture, value,
knowledge
▪ As a framework for the history of the universe [which is recorded in
cosmic “fossils”]; and the history of the substructures
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3.5.6.1
3.5.6.1.1
though not necessarily an insurmountable one, to the ability of
rational thought to fathom its own foundations. Further, there are
pre-rational forms and instruments of knowledge. In a sense, prelimbic and emotional types are pre-rational instruments - although
they develop along with cognition and rationality. Instinct is a prerational form. Such pre-rational forms and instruments developed, not
in response to learning of an individual, but in a culture [tradition], a
race, a species...a kingdom and so on, as “learning” over its own “life
time.” Such pre-rational [or rational] learning, when it occurs over the
life of a species [and is biogenetically encoded, tradition not included]
is “phylogenetic” learning, and the resulting knowledge is
“phylogenetic” knowledge. Knowledge that is learned by an individual
is “ontogenetic.”
Evolution as a Framework for Knowledge...and Method
Value of such a framework
Because the structure of the universe, nature, life, culture, value
includes diachronic elements, change builds on existing structure and
is not afresh for each existing structure; i.e., not synchronic. Evolution
must be included in study for otherwise structure cannot be
understood. Because change builds upon existing structure, evolution
does not produce what would be the “optimum” organism for a given
circumstance. Knowledge without evolutionary study is incomplete
Knowledge itself is diachronic. New knowledge builds upon existing
knowledge. Rationality includes an attempt to overcome the
limitations which knowledge has as a consequence of it diachronic
nature. However, this attempt is limited by the diachronisms,
sometimes predating culture and recorded thought, of the
instruments of rationality: mind102 and language whose unrecorded
and unremembered origins are pre-rational. This sets a barrier,
Now this does not imply that security is undesirable. There are certain
areas in which the drive to completeness and certainty is valuable. It
is the excess dependence on such security that is undesirable, [1]
because it takes the culture out of evolution - static and decaying; [2]
because it is probably based on evolution of the nature and objects of
knowledge only relatively realizable - despite success in logic and
physical science. What is probably desirable is balance: the right
range of security in which culture can thrive - evolve and survive
Diachronism gives us a chance to overcome the implied limitations of
synchronic thought: all experience is a part of knowledge: no one will
deny that realism, idealism, choice are valid - not psychedelic aspects of experience. However, there are contradictions in our
descriptions of these experiences. Pre-evolutionary philosophy has
overcome some of these contradictions by eclectic synthesis [which
includes discarding]; others by seeing them as different aspects of
reality - not actually contradictory. Only superficially so; and he
remaining by understanding them as due to incompleteness in
knowledge and not in nature itself. Some of these remaining
contradictions and incompleteness will be overcome by understanding
and revealing reality as diachronic
Use of an evolutionary framework does not exclude form and
structure and process, holism and interaction, unity in structure,
process, and unfolding; but rather enhances understanding of true
nature.103
53
3-93
3.5.6.1.2
3.5.6.1.2.1
Nature and evolution of knowledge
Role of knowledge in culture
We recognize two levels of socio-cultural evolution beyond origins of
social process:
3.5.6.1.2.1.1
Level I: Mythic Cultures
Pre-critical stage: “knowledge” invented, created by mythic
speculation. There is no criticism of knowledge - or criticism has been
abandoned. The function of knowledge is group bonding, perhaps.
Knowledge is maintained by “contract” and cultural indoctrination
beginning at a pre-linguistic and pre-rational stage of individual
development and reinforced by the structure of individual psychic
needs. Such “knowledge” and “thought” can be called mythic
knowledge and mythic thought. Individuals not biogenetically
different from individuals in post-mythic cultures [see below] and
therefore, occasionally and or for periods, there will be “rational”
developments, but such development does not become
institutionalized. Selection of knowledge is by fate [selection] of
group-culture
3.5.6.1.2.1.2
Level II: Post-mythic Cultures
Critical stage: Knowledge created by similar processes; criticism of
knowledge possible [see 3.4.43] and selection by critical process. This
overall process = variation and selection = evolution = social process
applied in encapsulation to knowledge itself104. Process now
applicable to study of knowledge itself and to other design. Similar to
selection by falsification: selection by eliminating invalidated
knowledge; Popper “Our ideas die instead of us”; reproduction of
successful ideas by education, use of established principles; bonding
by other means, including areas of “knowledge” not yet subjected to
criticism: aspects of value, religion, areas of thought not important to
adaptation; acceptance by overcoming attempts at invalidation and
by success105 in helping individual and society negotiate “life”;
critically “accepted” areas as relatively good representation
[signature] of society and environment
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3.5.6.1.2.1.3
Actual Cultures
As implied by the foregoing discussion, all cultures incorporate
aspects of mythic and post-mythic thought. In mythic cultures
individuals-groups occasionally “break out” of mythic thought but this
does not become institutionalized. It becomes part of the norm in
post-mythic cultures. In post-mythic cultures [1] mythic thinking
remains a part of actual rational thinking, [2] there are areas of
thinking which remain mythic [often, though not always: dogmatic
religion, value] but which may be given a rationalistic dressing. [3]
There are areas that are and should be mythic or validly retain
elements of mythic thought [art, ideal religion]. [4] Mythic thought is
a phase of growth. [5] Some individuals and groups remain immersed
in mythic life; this is sometimes valid. [6] Such thought and life
remains a valid and potentially powerful part of the experience in the
life of each individual.106
So what is the difference between mythic and post-mythic? The
essential difference is, no doubt, in state of being-mind. Possible
measures are [1] extent to which criticism is a habitual reflex in the
mass of people, [2] extent of institutionalization of critical function but not in absence of valid mythic experience and institution. Also:
expression of life, joy and being cuts across the mythic divide as does
expression of death, denial and decay
3.5.6.1.2.2
Further comments on evolution of knowledge. Models
of change
The following will be in telegraphic form
3.5.6.1.2.2.1
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3.5.6.1.2.2.2
Origins of knowledge
Levels and processes: goes back through cultural, psychic, biological,
down to chemical level; nature and unity-diversity of knowledge [see
3.3],
origins
of
feeling,
differentiation
into
emotion,
cognition...symbolic...forms
Changes in the process or mechanism
knowledge at the socio-cultural level
of
This is more or less the transition from mythic  post-mythic
thought; also see 3.2, 3.4]: random association  introspection
[include rational process, which does include contact-abstraction from
data]  observation and comparison  directed, controlled, designed
experiment  historical and evolutionary study [old elements are not
eliminated in the  transitions] . . .knowledge frees itself from mere
subservience to cultural pattern . . .as pointed out above [“actual
cultures”] this process is never complete in areas of “fact”-science vs.
value. There is a duality [psychic need-factual persuasion] in
individual psychology in relation to “reality” and further this duality
has relations to social-individual interaction. There is a tendency to
objectify, make concrete, theoretical constructs, to place them on the
level of intuitive-organismic knowledge; there is a cycle of confusion
in these associations and the consequent refutations
3.5.6.1.2.2.3
Changes in socio-cultural knowledge
Two mechanisms according to changes in cultural pattern at levels I
and II [mythic and post-mythic]; actuality is a combination of mythic
and rational creativity [creative imagination as enhanced by its
association with creative-critical thought] and selection by cultural
and critical selection
3.5.6.1.2.2.3.1
Models of change at level I - mythic thought
Social evolution, social interaction, social contract...theories; at this
level, the mythic traditional level, and according to an increasingly
accepted body of theory,107 the “survival” function of knowledge is
formation of social bonds and cohesiveness - whether the knowledge
refers explicitly to such cohesiveness, to the gods, or to nature. It
should be remembered that actual cultures are a combination of
levels I and II
3.5.6.1.2.2.3.2
Models of change at level II - post-mythic
thought
Mythic thought is not absent - this is not linear progress. Rather,
post-mythic thought is superposed on mythic thought. This is not to
be thought of as negative. First, this is not an axiological issue. More
importantly, the proper integration of the two phases of thought is an
efficient response to the construction of modern culture in a world
that remains rooted in nature
Theories of history and history of knowledge [including art, ideal
religion [which is open to but not dominated by rationality]], history
of science; concepts of pro-knowledge; Marxist theories of history and
knowledge as ideology; Wittgenstein-types of knowledge as absolute
within their own spheres; models of change; theories of Whitehead,
Nagel, Feyerabend, Popper, Lorenz, Delbrück, Kuhn, Lakatos...
Whitehead and speculative philosophy;108 generalized speculative
method; Popper on selection [selection as a generalization of Popper's
idea of falsifiability as a criterion and a selective mechanism];
creativity, culture,
3-96
world and universe as sources of variation [and types of variation],
mythic and organic accounts of creation and phenomena and other
sources of archetypal behavior; “optimum” combinations of variation
[and types] and selection [and types] [relation to liberalism and
conservatism in cultural pattern]; relation to psyche: variation,
creative imagination as optimistic, extravert, selection, critical thought
as pessimist, introvert, combinations [wheels within wheels], balance
and balanced psyche: variation and selection, imagination and critical
imagination and criticism and imaginative criticism
3.5.6.1.3
Further comments on the selection or evolutionary
theory of knowledge and science
Karl Popper109 has presented the following model of advance:
P  TS  EE  P
Problem  Tentative Solution  Eliminate Errors  New Problem.
“Eliminate Errors” includes selection and falsification
54
How does falsification-invalidation work? To simplify, consider a finite
sequence of numbers. Our problem is to discover a rule that
generates the numbers. In simple cases, especially if we have
experience at rule induction, we sense the result immediately. Let us
suppose that sequence is sufficiently complex that we need to
proceed systematically: we can analyze the process. We guess at
rules and if a single instance does not satisfy the rule, we reject the
rule: it is falsified. [Falsification is not as simple in science-knowledge
where the data are potentially the data of experience and
interpretation.] If all instances satisfy the rule, we accept it: it is
verified. The first observation of interest is that rules are not unique:
actually they are in the sense that the sequence = the rule but the
expression, or formula is not unique. On the manifold on which the
sequence is defined, all valid formulas are equivalent. Off the
manifold110 they are or may be different. The simpler rules will be
easier to falsify or to verify. Rules can be guessed haphazardly or by
“heuristics” or “algorithms.”
3-97
In nature, the collection of instances is effectively infinite; heuristics
[but not algorithms] are still available or can be created, discovered.
Guesses [i.e., hypotheses] or candidate laws-theories can now be
tested against the data. The data is all of experience. It is not
possible to check guesses against the whole data. Thus, theories and
laws can never be verified by checking against data. They can only be
falsified by observation and experiment. More generally, they can be
invalidated. When a theory passes many attempts at falsification, it
grows in stature. Also: falsifiability provides a test of realism: if a lawtheory is, in principle, falsifiable by the outcome of an experiment, or
more generally in relation to the manifold experience-of-reality [as a
unitary concept], this informs us that the law-theory does in fact say
something about nature beyond the obvious, beyond tautology.
Further, the easier it is to falsify a law or theory, the fewer are the
excuses-evasions permitted and the simpler is the law or theory. This
is a very brief summary of Popper's falsifiability notion of science and
scientific method. Science [and knowledge] is open
In addition to the criticism of 3.4.3.1, there are further criticisms [and
some replies] and comments
1. Falsifiability is not a theory or understanding of creativity, or of
motivation - but it is not intended as such. Nor is falsifiability a theory
of the nature of invalidation. However, falsification is difficult and
many theories are never actually falsified. They are merely discarded,
forgotten. Popper has generalized the notion of falsifiability to that of
selection. As an outline of the evolution of science, and this is only an
outline, this needs to be enhanced: selection  variation and
selection. Further, as a general “paradigm” of evolution, we should
recall that variation and selection is probably approximation
An evolutionary paradigm is no longer to be thought of as implying
either gradual or uniform growth
3-98
The punctuated equilibrium model of growth [which need not be
inconsistent with gradual growth] may be on its way to becoming part
of a universal vocabulary of evolution [bifurcation, catastrophe
perhaps]. The question of gradualism must be subject to further
consideration as regards birth of theories and “paradigms” in
individual-cultural context; must be divested of subjective measure:
appropriate time scales are required [time to learn a theory, say]. T.
Kuhn has provided some thoughts along these lines but a preliminary
reading among philosophers and historians of science and scientists
shows a tendency to reject Kuhn, accept Popper's outline [not all
scientific revolutions are paradigmatic; evaluation of thought in
between “revolutions” as puzzles is subjective and inaccurate in that
it is more than mere search in a space of instances - there is search
for concepts.] The revolutions are the punctuations of equilibrium.
Further analogy with bio-cultural evolution may be valuable
2. Falsification-falsifiability supposedly groups knowledge into four
categories: [1] false, [2] without content, [3] science, and [4]
tautology. Tautology includes syllogism, logic, syntax [essential or
supra-conventional syntax such as subject-predicate form]. The
question arises: are science and tautology truly different? In syntax
the universality of the subject-predicate form has never been
universally verified and is therefore open to falsification-selection. The
theory of logic is open to falsification-invalidation as happened in the
crisis in the foundations of logic and mathematics c. 1900. The
problem with such criticism is the degree to which language and logic
are ingrained and the fact that the object and instrument [i.e., one of
the set of instruments: language, reference to “reality”] of criticism is
the same. Nonetheless language [syntax] and logic, i.e., special
cases, are subject to falsification by [existential-observational]
experiment. To distinguish science from logic based on selectionfalsification criteria we need to classify modes of falsification...Science
is selected
3-99
by “scientific” experiment; language, logic by existential, experiential,
observational experiment; organismic, instinctual, race, traditional
knowledge by phylogenetic, cultural experiment
3. Selection theory does not answer the question of what is science.
That was not its intention. Approaches to what is science: language
[s] of science, types of concept, types of heuristic, modes of variation
and selection [hypothesis and deduction-criticism-experiment],
characterization of content, levels of paradigmatic assumption [order,
mechanism, causality, uniformity, etc.], cultural influences
[rationalism vs. anti-rationalism,111paradigmatic models, etc.]
4. Popper criticizes verifiability. On the other hand the logic of
falsifiability has been criticized as being “equally” problematic as the
logic of verification: if a theory T involves hypotheses T = H1 and H2
and ... and T is falsified, we do not know which of H1, H2, ... is
invalid. However, [a] we do know that T is falsified if it is falsified and
that logic is pretty simple, and [b]
it is in principle possible to discover which elementary hypotheses are
valid by constructing enough “theories” and performing appropriate
critical experiments. On the other hand, a scientific theory can never
be verified by any logic. Popper, Feyerabend, Lakatos, Kuhn have
been called irrationalists. However, it has been fashionable to regard
science as irrational since Hume.112
Is science truly irrational, truly unverifiable? Is the space of potential
experience horrendously infinite; is nature so essentially inscrutable?
We have evolved with nature, are of nature, knowledge is nature.
But, our evolution is in a phase of nature, not all of it. And, nature
must have some essential structure to permit, in its womb, its selfknowledge, and so on. Rationality and irrationality are the temporal
constructs of an imagination that we do not fully understand
3-100
The universe has not yet revealed its own signature – rational or
irrational – yet
In the meanwhile, lacking final intimation from the hearth of creation,
we may generate temporal notions of verification113 and verifiability.
We must be careful to allow that these notions be in principle
verifiable and falsifiable. First: we must have a theory of what science
is that is separate from how we test a theory [otherwise, falsifiabilityverifiability is neither falsifiable nor verifiable - nor even quite
understandable, become screens behind which the drama plays on
unperturbed]. But even before we inquire what science is, we must
ask what is knowledge [3.3.2]? If we require the certainty concept of
knowledge [justified true belief] we are led at once to the notion of
knowledge as an essentially pessimistic114pursuit and falsifiability as
the criterion of scientific theory. If we adopt the adaptive,
evolutionary notion of knowledge then science is a progressive
adventure, balanced between undue pessimism and undue optimism;
verifiability is a measure: as in an idea that “clicks” giving birth to a
theory which has a finite life span before it dies - part of the
progression of science and knowledge. In this notion, scienceknowledge is not intended as complete, valid forever; nor are we
clenching our teeth in fear of the death of foundations
Perhaps the psychological background of the selection language is the
pessimism of completed-certain knowledge [or in biological evolution
the notion of progress]. I need here to separate the mythicpsychological-cultural components from the adaptive components.
55
There are also distinctions to be made between biological and
cultural-institutional [including science-knowledge] evolution
3-101
5. Could we agree that Newtonian gravitation-mechanics is an
excellent approximation over the solar system [no scientific theory is
“known “ to be better than an excellent approximation?? Yes. Except
as that leads to a static concept of science. So here is an implicit
requirement: science may be dynamic, evolving
6. Is there no limit to increase of knowledge-science? Maybe, but we
have not reached it yet. Science, as we know it, and as an adaptive
mechanism will reach some limit [probably] at which time equilibrium
or decay or new radiation may occur - by use of an evolutionary
metaphor
7. What does invalidation-selection and scientific-rational analysis say
about phylogenetic vs. ontogenetic learning - an open question?
“Invalidation” occurs at different levels and has different mechanisms.
Again, selection says nothing on this - it was not meant to do so.
Study of form and structure, process, and evolution are best done
together. However, selection-invalidation does bring out the analogy
of the evolutionary mechanisms
8. In light of the “irrationalism-falsification” hypothesis, why do many,
not all scientists believe in “reality” of theory? Is this a combination of
scientific knowledge with naïve realism?
9. Falsification is in some sense a theory [a theory of scientific
theory]. Should its criterion be applied to itself; i.e., is falsification
falsifiable?
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3.5.6.1.4
Relation of evolutionary framework to the question and
nature of a priori and synthetic knowledge115, 116
Analytic [by reason [analysis] alone] knowledge is, classically,
“knowledge” that is true by analysis of language, by tautology: e.g.,
“a black cat is black.” In this sense, analytic knowledge is a priori:
before empirical observation-sense perception. A synthetic judgment:
a judgment relating a subject concept with a predicate concept not
included within the predicate proper. The validity of such a judgment
depends on its “ground.” Kant's central [epistemological] question
was: “Are synthetic a priori judgments possible?” Kant's answer was
that synthetic a priori judgment is possible [in mathematics and in
intuitive principles such as causality, as examples, which cannot be
derived from sense data and must be logically a priori to the materials
that they relate]. Such synthetic a priori elements are
“transcendental” which means that, while they are indubitably in
experience viewed as a connected whole, they transcend sense
materials in status
We can also argue that analytic knowledge [which is necessarily a
priori] is transcendental; i.e., real. There is a real content to the
statement “The black cat is black.” This is suggested by the fact that
the black cat will probably remain black - and a cat - for at least a
moment. One will not have to look around every moment to see if it
is still black - or still a cat. More accurately, the universe is such that
perception of black cat is possible. Even better, the universe, the
world, has become such that perception of black cats and
propositional expression of such perception is possible... The even
simpler phrase “The cat” has similar content. There is its syntactic
and semantic content of course, and there is content implied by its
syntactic form. In addition, there is content implied by its expression
that is over and above the content implied by mere expression of a
phrase
3-103
Without this observation, analytic truth seems to be true in a way in
which the synthetic a priori cannot be true. Analytic truth is
linguistically true which is at a higher level of generality than logical
or mathematical truth of the synthetic. That is why the truth of the
analytic seems to be inaccessible to the synthetic. However, this is at
most apparent. The problem is that “The black cat is black” is a
linguistic expression of the proposition “The black cat is black.” The
symbol for the proposition and the linguistic expression are identical.
The symbolic object and the instrument of analysis are the same [by
sight and sound]. However, the proposition is not merely its symbol,
nor is it merely its linguistic expression. “The black cat is black” has
an intuitive [perhaps natural language] meaning prior to [symbolic]
language. We could regard language as purely symbolic. In that case,
the phrase “The black cat is black” would be a convention to be
empirically verified. In this case, we must ask, “What is the origin of
the convention?” In either interpretation - meaning is conventional or
intuitive - the phrase “The black cat is black” has an a priori character
In general, the separation of verb and noun is not so clear as the
concepts seem to be. Likewise the subject-predicate form: analytic
knowledge refers to a phase of experience. This phase of experience
is the a priori. However, it is not obvious to what it a priori. Likewise,
analytic knowledge is transcendent but it is not obvious what it
transcends
The simple “deduction,” “a black cat is black,” should not mislead us
into believing that all analytic knowledge is trivial. Some analytic
deductions may be highly complex, provide new
3-104
information by no means explicit or anticipated from the initial
information. However, the relationship between the premises and the
conclusions are contained in the background universe. That there is
factual content, albeit of a very general nature, follows from the
linguistic [and logical paradoxes]. This falsifiability of analytic
knowledge implies, not that it is scientific, but that it is about the
structure of a certain phase of reality that includes knower and known
Thus in numerous ways: significance, transcendence, being intuitive
knowledge of some phase of reality, the analytic and the synthetic a
priori are of similar type. In either case knowledge or reality has been
coded into symbolic formulations...and this is open to selection or
falsification. For these reasons, the rational foundations of language,
logic, mathematics are never complete. However, there is a phase in
the development of thought in which analytic and synthetic a priori
are not open to analysis and therefore the a priori acquires an
absolute, transcendental character
Such knowledge, the a priori, must have developed at some prerational, perhaps pre-linguistic phase - perhaps even before the dawn
of thought. It must be encoded in to the body - perhaps into
elementary perception and neural structures. If the knowledge is prior
to thought, it is not synthesized through thought - though it may be
discovered and expressed through thought and language. If it is prelinguistic, it is not easily amenable to linguistic
3-105
analysis; if it is pre-rational it will seem necessary to or contained in
logical analysis. We should look to evolution of organisms and their
universes for the origin and structure of a priori knowledge
There is a certain permanence to the structures of the earth, which
permit organisms to have organismic knowledge and human
organisms to have - in addition intuitive knowledge - evolutionary and
experiential knowledge. Rocks and lava, which have properties today,
had many of the same properties at the dawn of geology: the
potential to be perceived in colors, as massive, as fluid, and so on.
These potentials represented actual qualities and the ability to
perceive them was built into evolving organism. Organisms, objects
and qualities are all real in that they are part of the world...even while
the concepts of “organism”, “object” and “quality” are relational. The
perceptions are composites of perceiver and perceived, but it would
be adaptive for certain permanences and stabilities to be built in to
body, perception, and language...”The brown rock over there 'is' over
there, 'is' brown.” This is analytic knowledge116
There are levels of organismic knowledge, which have to do with the
special circumstances of our biological and social evolution but are
not in the general character of the total or even immediate universe.
Thus, such knowledge does not have the apparent character of a
universal or a universally expressed truth. However, cognitive,
cultural knowledge may communicate with this organismic level
through feeling, selective experience rather than through direct
empirical evidence. The actual situation may be complex with both
intra-organismic communication and cultural selection being involved
56
3-106
This may include origins of the synthetic a priori. Some “values” may
be examples. Rational and rationalistic analysis may be an example.
Causality may be an example. Causality would “look” very different to
a virus, an elephant, a galaxy, a universe
Some knowledge grows out of individual and social processes which
are remembered; other knowledge of cultural type is of obscure origin
but these origins can be deduced - at least the fact of the origin. All
such knowledge is synthetic and non a priori: it is or has been based
on empirical and factual information. Nevertheless, knowledge with
obscure -traditional and other - origins may appear to have an a priori
character
Knowledge learned by an individual through life experience is
ontogenetic; knowledge learned by species, life, and so on is
phylogenetic
Analytic knowledge depends on certain features, predating even
[perhaps] geological evolution: uniformities and stabilities of the
immediate universe. However, sufficiently far back in race, species . .
.physical evolution - possibly among a universe of local universes these features crystallized into evolving order. Such information may
predate rationality and may or may not be encoded into rationality:
rationality is incomplete; may predate and may or may not be
encoded into language, intuition: language and intuition are
incomplete. However this information is coded into existence and
“being” which may, and does, communicates to and is searched out
by rationality, language, and intuition. When encoded into rationality,
language, intuition, these instruments of understanding
3-107
do not originally reflect the evolutionary origins of stabilities and
permanences in structures, fluxes and relations...and do not need to
have done so. Hence the apparent a priori natures of rationality,
analytic knowledge, and aspects of intuitive truth. However the
absolute distinction between a priori and empirical [synthetic a
posteriori] truth is not an ultimate distinction, although it did seem
ultimate to Kant. Conventionally, synthetic, empirical knowledge is
learned by individuals directly: this is ontogenetic117 knowledge: from
the individual being. What is learned by the culture as a whole: myth,
tradition, what is learned by the species...in organic evolution
[instinct, autonomous regulation]: is phylogenetic117 above knowledge
Knowledge that seems a priori to the individual may be empirical to
species and physical evolution. “Knowledge” that is a priori to species
may be empirical to life [DNA coding] or physical evolution [evolution
of atoms]. However, the a priori, even the deep a priori, may be
recognized, understood and found to have a context called a
“limitation” by the pessimists. There is a sense, in which all selfknowledge of creation - which is not distinct from its being - is both a
priori [or necessary] and synthetic [or empirical.]
3-108
3.5.6.1.5
Relation of evolution to other aspects of knowledge
I mention some further aspects of knowledge which can be
understood better within a framework of evolution or which have
implications for an understanding of evolution of knowledge and its
relation to other levels of evolution. Details and development are left
until later. The aspects are:
Accidental knowledge,
Social theory of knowledge,
Relation between cognition and emotion,
Science and religion
3.5.6.1.5.1
[1] Accidental knowledge
I have suggested that no knowledge is truly a priori. In order for
knowledge to be a priori, it would have to be true without reference
to experiment or observation. There is such knowledge but it is either
traditional-mythic or phylogenetic. Such knowledge is empirical in a
more general sense than personal experiment. Rather, the
experiment is performed by the culture or species...as a whole. Also,
such knowledge is true [known to be true] only to the extent
“tested.” Of course, based on the previous discussion, we find
significant doubt regarding the “certainty” notion of truth - as a
unifying theoretical concept and as a practical notion. Within the
framework of the more appropriate notions of the a priori - even
though stricter than Kant's - and of truth - less strict but perhaps
more appropriate than the certainty notion - it seems possible to find
actual examples of a priori knowledge: knowledge which is true or
applicable by accident
There is a sense in which all evolution has the character of an
accident. This is the sense in which variations [seem to] not prefer
order
3-109
However, there are occasions when some complex evolutionary
structure developed in one environment has adaptation in a new
environment: limbs for walking and climbing become limbs for
manipulating. Of course the transition requires some adaptation but
much less than a direct development for manipulation. In the same
way, knowledge developed in one setting is applicable to others.
Examples are language, logic, and mathematics. These are examples
of symbolic knowledge
There is a fair amount of accidental knowledge. Mathematical
applications provide some famous examples; language and logic also
have many unanticipated applications. Two outstanding examples
from mathematics are the application of matrices in quantum
mechanics and tensor analysis in the general theory of relativity.
These two examples are often called applications of pure
mathematics. It should be remembered, however, that matrix theory
has origin in the theory of linear transformations and tensor analysis
has its origin in the analysis in non-Euclidean and Euclidean
geometries; e.g., in the theory of surfaces. Linear transformations
and non-Euclidean geometry have origins in linear equations and
generalizations of the Euclidean framework. While it is true that
mathematicians, not scientists concerned with the physical world,
developed these new mathematical concepts, it should be
remembered that the origin of the concepts is not pure creation but
creative abstraction from direct representations-approximations of
real structures and phenomena. The frequency of application of
mathematics, logic and language implies [1] a value of the
independent development of these disciplines, [2] a certain difficulty
in rationally deciding how independent the theoreticians and the
scientists should be of each other [this is not the same issue as
communication; variety is a possible approach], and [3] at some level
of abstraction the number of basic118 structures of the universe are
fewer than might be expected
be expected;
3-110
hence the importance of classification. Much of mathematics is
concerned with classification of its objects. Such classification is not
trivial and is often based on deep properties. Objects within a class
are similar. These classifications can equally be regarded as
classifications or potential classifications of natural structures and
phenomena. One basic classification is into “linear” and nonlinear”
behavior. Linearity is well studied. Nonlinearity is extremely diverse
but there are convenient classifications of nonlinear behavior. These
are not complete. One approach to qualitative classification of
nonlinear phenomena is through Rene Thom's singularity theory. This
discussion is a scratch on the surface of classification in mathematics.
However, because of the historical connection between symbolic and
natural structures, we can have some optimism for a structuralmathematical outline of the processes and objects of evolution
The existence of archetypal categories in the universe, science and
knowledge is confirmed by the unanticipated applicability of symbolic
systems such as language, logic and mathematics and by the
frequency with which analogy can be employed. Examples of analogy
are provided in knowledge, often through the symbolic systems:
linear and nonlinear systems, and are provided in nature, often
through evolution: within biology and through evolutionary
convergence across levels of evolution; e.g., biological, social and
57
cultural. The existence of archetypes does not imply that all
archetypes have been discovered
Tentative conclusions: 1. Archetypes of behavior in the universe of
nature and knowledge exist and have frequent use; 2. the accidental
discovery of a common archetype in nature and symbolic [or other]
knowledge is the only true a priori knowledge; 3. as pointed out in
3.5.6.5, such a priori soon enters a process of evolutionary
convergence and change and so loses its initial a priori character
3-111
3.5.6.1.5.2
[2] Social theory of knowledge119
Cultural relativism asserts that the norms of each culture are
independent of the norms of other cultures and that “value
judgments” have no rational foundation. The social theory of
knowledge, due to Karl Mannheim, extends this relativism to
knowledge including science and philosophy
Two observations can be made: 1. Culture relativism has often been
used to deduce the equality of all cultures [as Ruth Benedict has]. In
fact, no such deduction can be made from cultural relativism, which
implies: no comparison. For this reason, cultural relativism has also
been responsible for enhancing continued injustice by implicit appeal
to irrationality of value judgment
2. For the distinction between cultures to not extend to differences
between individuals, it must be assumed that culture, in addition to
having a pervading influence over individuals, has primacy over
individuals
It is true that a significant portion of human knowledge [especially
meaning] is fictional. In relation to the fictional portion, it may be
asked: 1. What is its relation to the social theory of knowledge? 2. Is
knowledge form-criteria or function?
Further, the existence of fiction and relativism in culture and
knowledge does not imply that all knowledge is relative. The
resolution of this question may be in three parts: 1. Careful analysis
of nature and aspects of knowledge - see [3.3.2, 3.4.3, 3.5.6] 2.
Careful analysis of individual psychology to assess the individual's
capacity to transcend cultural fiction; a difficulty in transcendence lies
in the pre-rational identification with meaning,120 cultural influences to
maintain such meaning: approval, acting out of differences of
meaning on a trivial level and avoiding depth [this is institutionalized].
As an example: we laugh at the competitive advertisement among
toothpaste brands, but we all buy toothpaste. 3. Careful analysis of
actual meaning implicit in language and behavior and evolutionary
convergence of such behavior
3-112
3.5.6.1.5.3
[3] Relation between cognition and emotion
Both cognition - including - perception, and emotion are feeling...or a
development of feeling. Cognition: structures and transformations;
emotion: qualities, intensities and transformations. Cognition and
emotion are not pure; “emotion-affect” generally includes the effect
and accompaniment of thought, and cognition is usually accompanied
by feeling and emotion. Further, being unitary, neither is intrinsically
better, all being necessary in individuation and in integration in
society and corresponding in their emphasis to different types
Cognition and knowledge, emotion and symbolism, feeling, intuition,
instinct, organismic knowledge are all elements of the individual and
social order and hence the natural order. These affinities and unities
may be understood through an evolutionary framework
Cognition and emotion have origins in feeling. Many approaches to
definition of the interrelations are possible. One possibility: feeling is a
sustained internal stimulus; feeling specializes along the dimensions:
intensity, quality, structure; emotion: an integration of intensity and
quality; cognition: integration of intensity, quality, structure; locations
of emotion and cognition in body-brain are different
3-113
3.5.6.1.5.4
[4] Science and religion
Religion in mythic cultures includes primitive science. The function of
this religion is multifold: social bonding and perhaps navigation;
individual navigation of natural, social, personal and universal realms.
In post-mythic scientific society, the central functions of myth do not
disappear. Science navigates in natural [physical and life], social and
personal realms. Science emphasizes structure and certainty, its
institutions imply a continuity of its realm into the universal. Ideal
religion emphasizes quality of personal experience: emotionalcognitive: the sacred is an emotional and a thinking experience. A
scientist may find his or her religion in science. But the true sacred
provides an additional function: the freedom to contemplate the
universe and actual and symbolic universal possibility. This as a
source of personal freedom and as a source of truth and an insurance
against tyranny of institutionalized knowledge
The free individual weaves with creativity, criticism, freedom, and
wonder, not caring whether science or religion is being done. The
attitude of science is one of openness to truth and understanding; the
attitude of religion is one of openness, wonder, and being in this
truth. True science and ideal religion weave together a full and rich
fabric of reality
These functions exist, in less differentiated form, in mythic cultures
All cultures incorporate, in different degrees of balance, “freedom”
and authority
Understanding of the origins of myth, religion, science and definitionunderstanding to an ideal fabric of science and religion can be
approached through historical and evolutionary study
3-114
3.5.6.2
Evolution as a Framework for Social Process121 and
institutions of society
The process awareness  plan  action has both logical and
evolutionary origins. We would like to “derive” the process from both
types of foundation and others. We are interested in optimal and in
necessary conditions. I will also consider the more extended
awareness  knowledge  plan  design  act  evaluate and its
variations and applications to institutions
I am interested in level I [mythic] and level II [post-mythic] processes
3.5.6.3
Evolution as a Framework for Consciousness
...and concepts...and personal growth
Action; essential nature of action - first, selective and second, as a
generator or inhibitor of variation in absence of meaning and
knowledge; psychological need
I have yet to see a complete discussion of consciousness
3.5.6.4
3.5.6.4.1
Evolution as a Framework for Design
Evolution in designs
Essential role of action, mistakes in improvement; similar role in
knowledge
3.5.6.4.2
Evolution in design methods and capabilities
Problem solving and creative design; choice and, value...just as
knowledge has both ontogenetic and traditional-mythic roots, so has
design and value
Social process; culture: culture is basis of social development beyond
bio-psychological human development: agriculture is culture; the
subject matters of “natural” science are not culture, but science is
culture; art and religion are culture; and others
Evolutionary design
Design as evolution or evolutionary; evolution as a case of design… it
is recognized that this rings of teleology but it is not here being
regarded as a fact but as something to consider and, even if in
refutation, learn from it
3-115
3.5.6.5
Evolution as a Framework for the Universal122
By “universal” I refer to all universes of actuality, possibility [which
the rationalist hates to contemplate], and the unknown; and actual
and potential relationships among these. Included are universes of
being, universes of thought, all as part of the same natural order.
Whereas the materialist dogma hates to contemplate the possible, the
unknown, the open spirit welcomes all possibilities and potentialities
58
along with the actual but does not exclude discrimination. It labors to
exclude only ultimate excesses of hate and fear [nor the hateful and
fearful in themselves], but not the significance of hate and fear
resolution of contradiction, paradox and meaning of axioms [and
assumptions: assumptions  abstract  axiom?] is to be found in
these ideas
In view of a multiplicity of meanings,123 levels of knowledge, the
distinction between the actual and the potential, between known and
unknown is neither static nor clear
3-117
The openness of spirit is the openness to the sacred. The essential
meaning of the sacred is the incompleteness of all actual meanings. It
is a private acceptance, an emotional, cognitive acceptance of the
powers of the universe as transcending the powers of men. In view of
the openness, and unknown in the future, it is a source of power
against the tyrannies of dogma, institution, and humankind. The
sacred is a power against insecurity and defeat and against
temptation to self-indulgence and oppression. Understanding and
living in the true meanings of the sacred will be found - again - to be
practical
If all facts or all necessary facts were known, speculation and
criticism would be unnecessary. Theory would have no role. Without
progression from unknown  known, without change, then science,
theory, abstraction, formulation are without implication, meaning, and
content
Here, in the locating of assumptions, formulating axioms, locating
contradictions and imprecisions - all transient; in interacting with
environment and variation into new levels and regions of existence
and understanding do we find potential, amid our own existence, for
universal evolution
3.5.6.5.1
On Universality
“Assumptions” and “contradictions” in our knowledge [or language,
rationality] and culture are not assumptions or contradictions of
nature. Nature itself has no assumptions or contradictions. Even mind
itself, as a part of nature, has no assumptions or contradictions even
as it subjectively formulates assumptions and finds contradictions.
Assumptions point to incomplete acquaintance with origins [hence
axiomatics]. Contradictions in cultural-mythic and symbolic-rational
knowledge point to incompleteness and continuing evolution.
Contradictions in our “nature,” among the different types [and
disciplines] of knowledge - including formal-contradictions, refer to
different aspects of superposed evolution and contrary tendencies
among the same. In saying this, reference is made to the contraries
among “natural” [and socio-cultural] evolution and evolution of
knowledge and their interactions: these levels are seen as part of the
natural order. The same type of consideration applies to systems and
environment. It is rationality which in understanding and expressing
these contraries [lacks, and incompletenesses] “finds” contradictions
among its own elements, and in understanding and expressing
“origins” needs axioms and assumptions among
Evolution begins in the universal, in the unity of original being, as far
as is known by 1987 Western science126 in physical nature: but this
does not imply an origin. Evolution remains in the universal but the
differentiated aspects of the atoms of evolution do not necessarily
manifest or realize this
these elements
Evolution; levels
3-116
Design; levels
The existence of paradoxes [and other contradictions] in language,
logic [rationality], and knowledge is not surprising. Let us assume
that language has its origins in survival. A hiss is a signal occasioned
by a danger and the response is: scatter. Even in this simple situation
there are “epistemological problems”: the initial observation may be
in error [a shadow is mistaken for a predator]; even though there is
danger, the response may be inappropriate or inadequate [in
presence of a compound danger]. But, as language itself becomes an
object of analysis, reality is summarized by rules of grammar, logic
and so on. The summarization process may be in error [contradiction]
or inadequate [incompleteness]. There is an analysis of the biological
and cultural foundations124 of language, logic [rationality] and
knowledge to be done along the lines implicit in this discussion. This
would include: origin of primitive signals: hisses, whistles, aspirations,
grunts and visual signals as occasions for a response; diversification
of signals: pitch, harmonics, sounds, signs and combinations for
diverse occasions: message  action; proliferation of occasions and
messages; complex occasions and origins of language; relations
between occasions and knowledge: actual occasions  knowledge of
nature, symbolic occasions  knowledge of symbolic relations [i.e.,
syntax and logic], actual and symbolic occasions  origins of science.
Knowledge is part of the natural order
Choice, materialism, determinism
In summary: nature itself has no assumptions - it has origins; nature
has no contradictions - it has contraries
Contradictions are contraries of symbolic systems in transition;
axioms are speculations of abstracted reality coded in symbolic
systems in transition
Perhaps, when a concept is recognized and named, there is an act of
creation - a symbolic saltation but the relation-object so abstracted
originated in physical-biological-cultural evolution; and the concept
evolves: converges125 [under appropriate conditions]. Perhaps a
Atoms of evolution seek out universal elements as transcendence of
the differentiated and transient aspects of their nature: in movement,
perception, cognition [symbol and language]; in mythic thought and
religion; in philosophy, art, science: in emotional, cognitive and
feeling states127; and, finally, perhaps in biological and physical being:
for, it is reasonable, perhaps, that any approach to the universal
would go back down “the” stages of evolution
The biological and physical stages of approach will not be without
risk. They could occur through “blind” evolution or through
technology
3-118
3.5.6.6
Consistency among the Frameworks and Points of View
Mechanisms for
Eastern viewpoints; other views
3-119
3.5.7
THE OPEN PROBLEMS OF PHILOSOPHY128
For early life, the immediate universe of self and environment is very
simple. Life, self, environment becomes diverse; capacity for
ontogenetic learning increases, species Homo sapiens emerges.
Knowledge grows and diversifies; activity proliferates. Philosophy
emerges from mythic thought as a self understanding of this
diversity. Unity is inherent in such understanding: unity of the realms
of: being, knowledge, motivation and action. A core of philosophical
knowledge and method is born
The open problems of philosophy derive from the ongoing interaction
of unity with diversity: of the enterprise and concerns of philosophy
with the specialized disciplines and activities. Therefore, to
understand the origin and meaning of the open problems - and of the
process of philosophy - we need:
▪ A conception or a set of conceptions - of the nature and enterprise
of philosophy: its concerns and core insights or knowledge, and its
methods - as they stand now and as they have developed
historically129. The central concerns of philosophy are metaphysics:
the nature of being-process, and epistemology: the nature and theory
of knowledge. These central concerns include or branch into the
philosophical concerns of the specialized disciplines and activities130
▪ A broad, encompassing view of the specialized disciplines and
activities: awareness; knowledge - its central and peripheral
disciplines; design and planning and their levels; motivation and
action
3-120
59
This provides a view of philosophy as the trunk, and perhaps some of
the major roots and limbs, of the “tree of knowledge” 131 growing out
of a “ground of being and mythic thought.”132 It is important to
emphasize that in this metaphor, which is akin to Quine's “seamless
web of knowledge,” the roots form a fundamental part of the
metaphor. In addition, the metaphor needs completions in that some
“philosophical limbs” rejoin the trunk, and, historically, roots join after
limbs branch out. Further, while the main connection between the
ground function - roots, limbs and earth - and the reaching out
function - branches, leaves, air and sun is the trunk, other links are
forged
The metaphor is complex and mixed. Apparently, this goes against
literary rules. Nevertheless, the subject is complex, the metaphor is
rich, and it would be interesting to fill out the metaphor sketch
provided here
3-122
3.5.7.1
Problems and Problem Areas in Metaphysics,
Epistemology, Design, Motivation and Action
Problem areas: a detailed definition will come later
3.5.7.1.1 METAPHYSICS
Problem Area:
Sources:
Descriptive metaphysics
Interaction
with
general
symbolic systems, language,
logic
[symbolic
reasoning
systems for], mathematics
Metaphysics, cosmology
Physics, evolutionary physical
cosmology,
evolutionary
biology
Metaphysics of ultimates
Eternal problems, interaction
with
special
disciplines;
existentialism
Here a brief legend:
Ground, soil
Source of being
unconscious
Soil nutrients
Dreams?
Roots
Grounding
Major roots
Origins of human being and philosophy
Trunk and main
limbs
Human being and knowledge focused in
philosophy and main branches
Branches,
leaves
Disciplines
Branches,
leaves as
whole
a
and
knowledge;
the
Reaching out to the universe, the circle loops
back to the source...analogy with nutrient
cycles
Table 5 Ground of Being and Mythic Thought
3.5.7.1.2 EPISTEMOLOGY136
Nature of perception and
knowledge, human learning
and abilities: individual and
social
Relativistic and space-time
physics, quantum mechanics,
evolutionary
biology,
psychology,137
cognitive
science138
in
general:
psychology,
artificial
intelligence, philosophy of
mind, linguistics, anthropology
and sociology, and neural
science; existential philosophy
Table 6 Open Problems of Philosophy: Metaphysics and
Epistemology
3-121
There are senses in which the important problems of philosophy
remain open. First, in the sense that philosophy includes an account
of humankind's contemplation of the central mysteries of being and
knowledge - our centering in existence133. In this sense, philosophy
has religious and motivational value: we see our own existence as
great because we are part of the greatness of the cosmic rhythm:
universal being pervades our being134. Second, because of ongoing
discovery in the specialized disciplines and activities, philosophy and
its central concerns remain open to new meaning and interpretation
thus, while clarification and unification of metaphysics and
epistemology and the special issues remain to discovery and
development
The open problems, arising out of the interactive and historical
elements, fall into the following areas: Continued development and
new learning in:
A. Core areas and methods in philosophy: in metaphysics,
epistemology, motivation, design and action;
B. Philosophy and human enterprise as a whole. These open
problems are, perhaps, more significant but better understood after
those in item A;
C. Fundamental problems of humankind. As an extension of item B,
philosophy includes consideration of fundamental material, social and
existential problems. Philosophy remains open to reality;
D. Philosophy and criticism of the special disciplines.135
60
3.5.7.2.1.2
3-123
3.5.7.1.3 MOTIVATION AND ACTION
New learning about meaning, living, motivation, design and
action through interaction of these activities with specialized
knowledge and philosophical attitudes.
Problem area:
Sources:
3.5.7.2.1.3
and
related
philosophy of
Philosophical psychology
Meaning, motivation; religion,
art;
epistemology
and
metaphysics; Eastern religion
and philosophy
Human
personality;
psychology;
existentialism;
epistemology and metaphysics
3.5.7.1.4 DESIGN
Philosophy of evolution and
design
Design as transition between
motivation, meaning, thought
[r] action; levels of design and
analog-identity with levels of
evolution; epistemology and
metaphysics
Table 7 Open Problems of Philosophy: Motivation and Action
[3] Motivation, value, psychology and religion
In item 2, motivation is represented by value. This is to be
supplemented by psychology and religion;
3.5.7.2.1.4
Existential
philosophies;
action
[2] Synthesis of all modes of knowledge
Synthesis of all classes of knowledge, reason [logic], perception,
philosophical method [critical and speculative - as archetypes of the
“methods” of knowledge], being and process: this amounts to a
foundation in which the natural order includes the orders of
knowledge - and value. This would be done to the extent possible;
[4] Design and action141
Design and action are incorporated, beginning in social process and
proceeding to universal evolution;
3-125
3.5.7.2.1.5
[5] A study of unity and diversity
A study of unity and diversity; meanings of unity: forming a set of
similar or identical entities or processes; forming an essential whole;
having interconnections. Unity can be analyzed through structure:
identity or similarity; behavior - as a whole; by showing the
interconnections - either of the parts or of the processes, especially
when the processes form a [feedback] loop; showing the common
evolutionary origins or origins in a homogeneous state
3.5.7.2.1.6
[6] Equivalence of metaphysical and epistemological
systems
Equivalence and interrelations of the different metaphysical and
epistemological systems [especially in view of evolution of
knowledge]; or synthesis-syntheses, possibly eclectic, or the systems;
or demonstration that they are different aspects of or different ways
of looking at the same reality; to the extent that these objectives are
possible
3.5.7.2.1.7
[7] Structure of knowledge142
...in terms of the discussion of Areas 2 and 3; also the questions:
3.5.7.1.5 PHILOSOPHICAL METHOD
Critical philosophy
Criticism
in
the
specific
symbolic
and
natural
disciplines; philosophy
Speculative philosophy
Imagination,
critical
philosophy; generalization of
the [creative] “hypotheticodeductive”139
method
of
science
to
philosophical
inquiry; mythic thought
▪ Can the branches of knowledge be arranged in linear, hierarchical,
circular, or spiral-helical orders: value, logical, epistemological, and
historical-evolutionary...?
▪ Do the branches of knowledge form watertight compartments, or
are they a “seamless web”; are there multiple criteria of truth; are the
sciences and humanities essentially distinct?
3-126
Table 8 Open Problems of Philosophy: Philosophical Method
3-124
3.5.7.2
Problems and Problem Areas for Philosophy and Human
Enterprise140 as a Whole
Based on the insights from the tradition of philosophy and religion,
and on the new learning from cosmology, epistemology, motivation
and action which is, in part, based in interactions of philosophy,
relativistic and quantum physics, cosmological, biological and socialcultural evolution, we begin to see:
The subject matters, and hence the disciplines, of metaphysics,
cosmology, epistemology, motivation, design and action as a whole,
as an interacting unity
3.5.7.2.1
3.5.7.2.1.1
Problems relating to unity
[1] Foundation in physical cosmology
Founding the origin and nature of being in physical cosmology - to
the extent possible; need for metaphysical cosmology, perhaps
The Foundation of the Unity should be based on logical empirical
ground. Since the structure of the universe “is” diachronic, logical
empirical approaches need to be based in a resolution of the
elements of form and structure into their evolutionary origin: the
foundation of unity [with its psychological, epistemological
advantages] is to be based not only in structure and its descriptionmechanism but also in evolution and history [as best understood]. In
the historical evolutionary view, analysis starts at some time: the
origin of the known universe and goes further back into the
“unknown” and beyond into “unknown” or “universal.” The
benchmark for the unknown or universal could be the findings of
cosmology, physics, biology, or some transcendental or imaginative
approach. Below, it is cosmology; the concept is similar in either case.
In between the levels of the universal, nature and knowledge, and
design form a part of the natural order: the following is shown as a
sequence but is, in part, parallel:
The universal
Known origin; physical cosmology, geology
Origin of biology and action in the “middle dimension”143
Perception; ontogenetic learning in “middle dimension”
Human origins, cognition, motivation, design
Symbolic systems, society, history; syntheses
Going beyond “middle dimension”; universality144
61
3-127
3.5.7.2.2
3.5.7.2.2.1
Problems relating to evolutionary origin
[8] The philosophic, open outlook
One of the fundamental tasks of the philosophic, open outlook is to
remind us of the finitude and incompleteness of the variety of ways in
which we understand the world-universe and act in it
3.5.7.2.2.2
[9] The universal in the particular and the symbolic
Another, and related task is seeing behind or in the particular and the
symbolic ways; this includes the notion of unity [items 1-8] and the
notions of universality discussed in 3.5.6.5, in this sub-area, and in
Area 2, especially 2.6.3-4, 11-14 . . .provision of an attitude and a
framework which will act against potential-closing dogmas however
successful. Such attitudes and frameworks will support individuals and
cultures through their psychologies and social structures in the
understanding and acting out of universal elements in and through
the particulars of their own existence. What is wanted is a philosophy
of the universal. [This includes the questions of actions and attitudes;
and is different from the somewhat technical “problem of universals.”]
In this is one foundation of freedom
3.5.7.2.2.3
[10] Evolutionary foundations of philosophy
...and of its divisions and special disciplines and applications.145
Origins of philosophy in awakening of self-critical attitudes of mythic
thought [mythic thought provided the original creative [speculative]
ideas]; synthesis of creativity and criticism; breaking off of the welldeveloped and definitive areas of study into the sciences, resolution
of philosophy into a core and special disciplines; growth through
continued interaction of: sciences and other particular areas of study,
special philosophical disciplines, the philosophical core, and new
information, knowledge, ideas, syntheses and criticisms or evaluations
3-128
▪ Foundation of philosophical knowledge in evolution: philosophical
knowledge comes from ontogenetic [including social] as well as
phylogenetic [evolutionary] sources; but ontogenetic nature has
origin in evolution; this applies to all knowledge and aspects of social
process. A value of evolutionary foundation and study is that things
commonly thought of as separate [e.g., life and matter, life and levels
of knowledge, a priori and empirical knowledge] are shown to
interconnections. These things are essentially interacting and
therefore can not be fully understood in themselves. Further,
evolution builds upon existing structure and so the products of
evolution show the signs of this process: sub-optimality, adaptation of
structure with one function to another, and so on. The result is that
the universe and its subsystems can not be understood as
constructed from a perfectly planned blueprint [but could, perhaps,
originate from the blueprint of a less than omniscient [all knowing]
planner that would use an evolutionary approach to design-plan
formation]. Evolutionary study includes evolution of form, structure,
and process
Note that we can never know all the details of history and evolution.
But this is precisely one reason why evolutionary theory is valuable: it
provides trend and mechanism in evolution and history and so helps
fill in the gaps of knowledge
One of the outstanding open problems of philosophy is to work out
the evolutionary implications for itself and knowledge, generally, and
design, action, and evaluation. This includes some of the essential
unsolved problems: consciousness, meaning and purpose
3.5.7.2.2.4
[11] Development of a philosophy of evolution and
design
Problems inherent in 3.5.6
3.5.7.2.2.5
[12] Foundation for a sequence of philosophies
Being  process and becoming  interaction and evolution?
Divestment of superstructure
3-129
3.5.7.3
The Fundamental Problems of Humankind; the Value of
Philosophical Perspectives
Here, I consider an extension of philosophy. In addition to the core,
problems of philosophy as expressed in Areas 3.2-5, there are certain
situational problems of humankind. These include the crucial, acute,
pressing ones as well as long-term concerns. The general
understanding and questions of resolution of these fit within a
philosophical framework. Additionally, the situational problems are
intricately related to the existential questions and all real resolutions
must include elements of each
Philosophy and philosophical attitudes and approaches are valuable,
essential in knowing and resolving the fundamental problems because
[1] clarity and accuracy of vision are encouraged and enhanced.
These include the notion of truth, of understanding and eliminating
errors, tacit and unwarranted assumptions and biases; and value of
reflection and thought in knowing truth [3.4.2.2]. This leads to careful
identification of the essential problems and factors, for philosophy
retains its original role as synthesizer and critic of mythic and
imaginative thought. [2] Courage and color of vision are encouraged
and enhanced: philosophy does not reject the power and vibrancy of
pre-mythic being and mythic thought: it adds to them the element of
criticism of their excesses. This function leads to creative solutions
and new concepts in solution. The critical function can then be
applied to the potential solutions of creative thought. [3] Wholeness
of vision is encouraged and enhanced: philosophy retains an
integrated whole of mythic and creative thought: even as specialized
disciplines and activities branch out, they remain connected to and
interacting with philosophy: even when the disciplines become
isolated in practice. The essence of philosophical meaning requires
and includes the interconnections and interactions. The wholeness
required by the dynamic, holistic vision of philosophy includes:
multiple facets of the human situation and unity with the “context” environmental, universal; fullness in the levels of reality, dimensions
of being, process and needs: integration of reality, value and style
[action and emphasis]; vision of problem, solution and approach as
one phenomenon: separation of this phenomenon into “problem,”
“approach,” and “solution” has elements of disintegration. The value
of wholeness is clear; included are perspectives otherwise neglected,
interactions and resolution of otherwise difficult fragmentary
problems.146 [4] Further, philosophy [when it integrates 1987 learning
[3.5.6]] encourages and enhances these ideals, not as absolutes, but
as adaptive elements
3-130
Thus, philosophical attitudes encourage and enhance accuracy,
imagination, and wholeness of vision in a way that is adaptive to a
chosen context. There is also need for special disciplines and sources
of information, special approaches. Further, the whole process occurs
within a social framework: the realities of this framework must also
be included. But, also, philosophy encourages understanding and
vision of this system and of essential environmental and universal
elements as an interacting unity. Even when philosophy is not
formally present, it is often present in the attitudes of some
individuals. Practically we may say that organic integration of
philosophy and the framework of fundamental problems is an aspect
of top  down design [3.1.3]. This does not mean that philosophy or
knowledge are secondary to design
3.5.7.3.1
On Problems and Solutions
Living in the world we become aware of problems: 147 acute
problems: hunger, suffering, inequity, injustice; loss or lack of selfrespect and dignity; loss of human vitality in over technologized, over
urbanized,148 over cultured civilization; war, nuclear threat; decay of
values and loss of meaning, purpose, and heroism; alienation;
growing populations and dwindling resources; paralysis of human
psychic reserves by fear and the flight from fear, from death itself, to
the desperate search for security; long term problems: careful design
of society and social institutions, and of individual life patterns and
attitudinal possibilities, for resolution of acute problems, evaluation
and enhancement of long-term values
62
What is the nature of these problems of which we are immediately
aware? Are these the real problems? If so, let us understand and
describe them more carefully: what are their “origins,” interactions,
unities? If such origins can be found, perhaps these are the
problem[s]. What are the other immediate problems? Perhaps the
problem types considered are symptoms. Philosophy encourages us
to see problems clearly and truly, as unitized as is valid, and in
relation to some objective or circumstance: an adaptation. Further,
such values are to be integrated, as far as is reasonable, in the
structure of the world, and evolution, from which the problems arise
3-131
That is, see the real problems and in their proper aspect. See their
interactions, common causes and origins and the most appropriate
points in the chain of causation at which to act. This is in itself a
philosophical attitude but also necessitates understanding of the
world through conventional philosophy - epistemology, metaphysics,
and value. Additionally the solution approach is to be integrated and
applied to the whole context in its appropriate extension and
dimensions and levels of being. Seeing the structure of the problems
and their relation to the truth of existence is a creative act that opens
realistic approaches to resolution
It is not the purpose at this point to provide a complete identification
and definition of the fundamental problems and resolution but an
initial insight into understanding and definition of the problems and
development of proper resolutions. I will take up four considerations
suggested by the foregoing discussion:
3.5.7.3.1.1
[1] The human situation must be seen and felt in its
full context
We are of nature; the complete context is humankind-andenvironment and universal existence. So the real problems are not of
humankind in isolation, but - even if our motives are “selfish” - of
humankind and its complete environment. Thus, as an example,
hunger is not merely a problem of feeding hungry individuals or
showing how every nation [why nation?] can feed its people. These
are short-term attitudes. More importantly, hunger is an aspect of
development of natural systems. Over extension of natural resources
is a real problem, not an imaginary one. It is true that culture and
society provide a shelter from the “rule of nature,” but only within
constraints. The problem of resources is a question of balance: of
population, consumption, style and resources. We can respect this
balance, or ultimately suffer certain consequences. Resolution of
acute problems is a short-term approach. Restraint and balance
provide a long-term basis of material problems
3.5.7.3.1.2
[2] On choice of values
The context [context º determinants] of value formation includes
human nature, biological and psychological, origins of and
interactions within the society, interactions with other societies,
environment and universe. Creative and selective
3-132
forces are from these elements. Thus, although rationality, or even
human psychology, is an element in value formation, it is but one of a
number of elements. Value formation in society and in the individual
is not under complete control of rationality-psychology. Moreover,
since rationality-psychology is bounded, this situation is appropriate.
It is rational to accept the limitations of rationality-psychology
Even so, we are faced with value choices. Changing circumstances,
incompleteness, and ambiguity of values and value frameworks
frequently occasion need for interpretation. Less frequently, due to
significantly changed circumstances, shifts in values and or value
types [paradigms] become important. These changes are from among
the determinants149 and context. Human nature remains relatively
constant while society, culture and institutions, environment, concepts
of the universe and of the universal change. One approach to choice
can be the following: [a] Choices should be made, as is appropriate,
or possible, to the situation, in full light of knowledge of the
determinants, i.e., of the total context, of value. These include
sociological, naturalistic, universal and evolutionary knowledge. We
are interested in the extent to which values are based in evolutionary
biology. [b] Choices should be made, as far as is appropriate, or
possible, in full knowledge of changing circumstances. This implies a
kind of evolution of values. The creative function is served by
imagination, historical example, and so on. The selective forces
include rational and other elements. Generally, the selective value of
rationality will be limited by the finiteness of cognitive understanding.
[c] Since knowledge and rationality are incomplete and bounded, we
recognize that risk is associated with rational choice. The level of risk
of actual choices and values should be compatible150 with the level of
risk of alternative choices and values. The latter includes as an option
conservation of existing values. Note that evaluation of risk is not a
completely rational operation but involves elements of value. In
addition, a level of compatible risk includes positive benefits, and
detrimental effects, among its determinants
Social values, their determination and change-evolution [item c
above] are and should be based, in part, in evolution of the whole
context [item b]. Social values should be examined in the full light of
evolutionary knowledge
3-133
What does this mean? It does not imply discarding tradition; but it
does imply examination of traditional values as they have become
counter-adaptive to changed circumstances. Nor is it implied that
biology does or should determine values. Evolution is more than
biological development. I have shown significant examples of
understanding the nature of culture from its basis in evolution. Such
understanding will shed useful light on our value systems and
possible constraints on value determination and possible constraints
on solution approaches from material and existential points of view.
To what extent are we constrained by our evolutionary past and our
present in determining appropriate-adaptive value and meaning and
to what extent are we free to create meaning and value?
An instance: We can recognize that the call of the environmentalists
and the conservators of “nature” is much more than an appeal to
naturalistic romance, more than provision of a playground for psychic
healing of over urbanized humankind, more than a resource
hinterland for the cities, more than a buffer against future population
growth. Knowledge, design, planning are never perfect. Cultural and
social processes are “experimental.” The world: humankind, Earth
needs space so that such experiments are possible. A variety of
ongoing small and medium scale experiments is essential because of
the incompleteness of knowledge and design. Space is necessary for
variety. In this way failure - which is necessary for enhancement,
even maintenance [because of degradation], of life - is not
catastrophic. The space and the variety are necessary, not only for
independence of the trials, the experiments, but because they - space
and variety - are the context, the ground, of evolution. It may be that
we can design and build efficient cultures to support a large
civilization, but at risk of inflexibility
Variety, diversity, variability, space and low interaction levels are thus
evolutionary values. Multi-culture is a value. These values respect the
past and enhance the future of evolution. Design and planning [i.e.,
at cognitive levels] may overcome their own intrinsic limitations by
allowing151 a context, allowing space for failure and development. This
is freedom, enhances freedom
3-134
3.5.7.3.1.3
[3] Humankind and environment in balance in
relation to a full spectrum of needs
Considering humankind and environment in balance, including
universal context, in relation to a full spectrum of “needs” will provide
a basis for more comprehensive understanding of human, social and
environmental [includes life] contexts - a complete or more complete
context152 - and problems, and a prospect for balanced and selfsustaining design. Philosophy, with evolutionary knowledge, provides
insight into the levels of existence or dimensions of being which each
have certain expressions and “needs.” I have identified the
dimensions of being153 and expression as natural, social, inner,
universal. An alternate labeling is natural, social, existential [inneruniversal]
63
Different cultures, based on different circumstances and insights,
have evolved or chosen different expressions and balances. In some
cases, the results have been grotesque imbalances. The stereotypical
Indian imbalance is toward the existential; the Oriental [Confucian] is
to the social; the Western to the natural-material. The grotesque
aspect arises because humankind, by nature and from structural,
societal and evolutionary need, or require a balance. Provision of
appropriate balance makes for a self-sustaining structure. In lack of
balance, there is a consumptive attitude to one type of need:
consumptive spiritualism, consumptive materialism. The consumptive
situation arises because material or existential emphasis is used in an
impossible attempt to satisfy the other type of need
3-135
3.6
CONCLUSION
There is significant potential for expansion, inclusion, reorganization,
and divestment of superstructure in all philosophy and artifactual
processes. This will not be easy because of the cognitive problems
and because knowledge and artifact are not completely free: they are
bound by history and some evolution into the psycho-social structure
of institutions; and, further, the institution and psychology of
“rational” knowledge [post-mythic] do retain valid [adaptive - from
the point of view of the entire social-environmental structure]
elements. However, the potential remains for a powerful new
understanding of a unified world of “natural” and “artifactual”
processes, in which nature and artifact are basically of the same order
of existence. Such a view of humankind, philosophy, knowledge
emerging from “nature” will include and be philosophy. The idea is
not a deterministic one; it shows possible merging with and among
evolution in many senses: levels, constraints, immediate, long time,
universal
3.6.1
Emergence of a new naturalistic view of cognition,
emotion, philosophy, knowledge and design
A new naturalistic154 view of cognition155 and philosophy is emerging
as follows. In the context of universal being there is an evolution: 156
space-time-matter157  cosmic, geologic structure  chemical
structure, life  humankind  society  mythic thought and mind
[...  mythic action  ...]  ...culture  elements of rationality 
philosophy  rational [...  science  ...]158 and mythic knowledge,
mind  rational and mythic design  rational and mythic action 
universal thought  ...  universal being
It seems inevitable that elements of rationality would have arisen in
mythic cultures as a result of speculation on mythic thought and
knowledge as independent entities, or in the context of the thinker
and or object of thought, and that the results of such thought would
have been integrated into the body of mythic knowledge. However,
the process of rational thought did not at once become
institutionalized. Indeed, there were strong cultural safeguards
against the emergence of a rational activity that would displace
mythic knowledge. It is valid to point out that modern “post mythic”
culture involves a combination of mythic and rational thought. As
pointed out above, this has validity [adaptivity]. Undoubtedly there
are counter-adaptive areas of mythic thought in modern 1987 culture.
The existence of these and the strength of our attachment to them
are evidence of mythic thinking. Even attachment to rationality is or
can be a mythic function and therefore destructive. This applies
equally to non-attachment, or to attachment-non-attachment to
emotionality
3-136
knowledge. Philosophy has roots in, maintains connections with, and
includes elements of all items in universal being: space-time-matter
 ...  universal being. The developing “method” or institution of
rationality and the existing phenomenon of mythic-creative thought
are incorporated, contact with all elements of being [material, cosmic,
natural, life, psyche; emotion, intuition, cognition...] and action are
maintained. As development occurs there emerge spheres of coherent
activity within philosophy. Some are peripheral in that they are
specialized and or definite. Knowledge accepted as definite is called
science. Of these some become separately institutionalized disciplines
and continue largely independent activity and development. There
remains a core of philosophical content and method and activity. Thus
the original field of philosophy  core and periphery and independent
disciplines: knowledge
In the culture of the West this sphere of activity is more restricted to
the faculty of thought: mythic [includes religion, and all aspects of
psyche] and rational. The activity is significantly academic. For
vibrancy of this domain of Western knowledge, contact is maintained,
or should be maintained, between [the necessarily developing] core
and periphery of philosophy and independent disciplines of
knowledge, especially at the point of conceptual development. The
independent disciplines, science included, require the input of
philosophic doubt as well as mythic-creative imagination. The
integrity of the entire body of knowledge needs occasional
“protection” against pervasion by the nature of special disciplines
3-137
These remain the concerns of philosophy. They are also the concerns
of the special disciplines. Philosophy also remains concerned with
development of its own core, for which it necessarily maintains
contact with reality and the independent disciplines. The content of
Western knowledge is and reflects a unity
Design, action approaching to universal being are occasionally
incorporated with philosophy, philosophic attitudes [and the whole of
knowledge] in the West. Examples are Socrates and Henri Bergson.
However, this is not institutionalized. The Western tendency is away
from this. Western philosophy and knowledge are highly academic. In
Eastern, and to a degree in existential philosophies, incorporation
with all elements of life and evolution is the classic way. This
necessarily excludes “excess” institutionalization. Hence in Eastern160
and existential philosophies the boundaries between philosophy,
religion [as an aspect of mythic thought], between the core,
peripheral and independent disciplines is not so clear. Philosophy in
this ideal is a part of, an expression of, and a unity with universal
being
3-138
3.6.2
TRANSITION to the Realm of Knowledge
Philosophy has been included as providing some foundation for
knowledge and social process. Also in the development there is a
sequence [details in 3.6.1]: evolution  knowledge  action. In this
scheme a foundation as well as principles of organization of
knowledge are provided. At this writing the full implications [as I have
realized them] are not incorporated in Area 4
3.6.3
FUTURE work for the Realm of Philosophy
I plan to continue development of Area 3, and its application and
integration with other areas, especially Area
4-1
Properly concerned ideal thought 1987 is a blend of mythic and
rational-critical thought. I have discussed this in detail [3.4.3, 3.5.6].
It should be pointed out that introduction of rationality does not
eliminate error. [In a synchronous model of knowledge this does not
matter, but rationality does not completely eliminate the diachronic
nature of knowledge-artifact.] Also, the introduction of certainty and
definiteness accomplished by the introduction of rationality is
detrimental to power [not physical power]
As the self-criticism [rationality] of mythic thought becomes formal,
an institution, philosophy159 emerges as the body of rational
64
4
KNOWLEDGE
The Object of Study is Symbolic Knowledge and its Systematizations
The primary object of study here is symbolic ontogenetic knowledge.
The object of such knowledge includes non-symbolic and
phylogenetic learning. It must also include, as an object, the nature
of knowledge. These aspects of knowledge, while not avoided are not
especially sought out. The nature of knowledge in general; the topic,
experience and phenomenology of non-symbolic knowledge, relations
among the modes of knowledge, especially as these are important in
themselves are the province of Area 3 and its specialty sub-sections
and other studies. Here, because of its special status as the repository
of recorded and communicable knowledge, symbolic knowledge and
its systematization are considered
Knowledge as an Adaptive Element in Nature
A number of concepts of the nature of knowledge and its foundation
have been considered [Area 3]. The central one for the present
purpose is that knowledge [knowing] is an adaptive element in the
natural order. This concept can be related to all others. This is not to
imply that all other concepts of knowledge can be derived from this
one
Relations of knowledge vs. its “functions”
It is a presumption to name some specific “purpose” of knowledge as
the function of knowledge. However, the role of knowledge as an
adaptation indicates its role as a dynamic aspect of social-cultural
processes. Knowledge is used in design. However, it is not proper to
say that the purpose of knowledge is design. Knowledge is an
element in the larger socio-cultural design - or evolutionary design in
the case of phylogenetic learning. Nor is it valid to assign knowledge
a material-practical “end” - in the conventional meaning of what it is
to be practical or pragmatic. Knowledge has material and existential
relations. Roughly: material, practical, definite knowledge is science;
existential knowledge is humanities, which includes social analysis, art
and literature, religion, and history. It is clear that this division is an
approximation. Philosophy incorporates material and existential
aspects. I incline and subscribe to a view in which the existential
aspect is most general: the existential includes the material.
Therefore philosophy and the humanities cover the whole of
knowledge and science within which science is a topic. In this view,
the split between the “two cultures” is due to the ignorance and
prejudice of thinkers
The position of knowledge as an adaptive element in nature implies
that there is a development of knowledge. This development, in
evolution, is considered in 3.3.2, 3.5.6.1, and 3.6.1. Evolution in
general and development of knowledge in particular provide a
principle for organization of the disciplines of knowledge
4-2
Outlines of Area 4
[1] System theory of knowledge:
States and processes of one system [say A] map or model states and
processes of another system [say B]: i.e., A has knowledge of B. A
and B can be the universe or any of its subsystems. There is no
necessary restriction on A or B161 or their relationship. There is no
restriction on the type of knowledge. It could be symbolic,
organismic, abstract representation, and so on
[2] Knowledge as an adaptation
This includes the idea that knowledge, and the potential for
knowledge - for an organism to learn - arises-arose in evolution and
or through learning. Knowledge and the occasion for knowledge arise
together. Knowledge is created as well as discovered. These two main
considerations lead to a number of more specific ones
[3] Potential knowledge
...Especially in the sense that there are potential occasions for
knowledge which have not yet arisen and therefore appropriate
adaptations have not developed
[4] Knowledge includes information
...But, also, condensed information - representation and potential
representation of patterns. This is built into the structure of the
perceptual-cognitive systems of organisms as well as into the
structure of symbolic knowledge
[5] Ontogenetic knowledge
...Learned by an individual or by individuals; includes learning,
discovery, creativity, and empirical knowledge
[6] Phylogenetic knowledge
Phylogenetic knowledge includes the a priori
Phylogenetic knowledge is “learned” by species, life,
during evolution; seated in individuals, but transmitted
interacts with ontogenetic knowledge: includes capacity
and perceptual development. For ontogenetic knowledge
individual, for phylogenetic knowledge A = species, etc
and others
genetically;
for learning
system A =
4-4
[7] Cultural knowledge
A = society or subsection. Expressed through institutions and or
individuals. Expression may be ritual, symbolic-linguistic. As
expression, such knowledge is mythic. Mythic refers to a type of
thinking, not content. Mythic knowledge includes aspects of
mythology, religion, tradition, value, and is distinguished by the fact
that it is culture bound: it is selected-”invalidated” [falsified] as the
culture is selected-dies. In fact, one of the functions of mythic
knowledge is the adaptivity of group cohesion
[8] Rational knowledge
Concept Outline
In §4.1, I briefly consider some adaptive functions of knowledge; in
§4.2, I discuss some principles of organization of knowledge; and in
§§4.3 and 4.4, I present an outline of knowledge based in these
principles
4-3
Brief Topic Outline
First, immediately below, I will review and summarize some concepts
of knowledge from Area 3. This will serve as convenient summary and
a foundation for Area 4 and subsequent work. In §4.1, I will briefly
consider some adaptive functions of knowledge. These are drawn
from the summary discussion of the nature of knowledge below. In
§4.2, I will discuss principles of organization of knowledge. These
have basis in the adaptive-evolutionary including design “function.” In
§§4.3 and 4.4, I present an outline of symbolic knowledge that has
foundation in the adaptive basis. In §4.5, some open problems are
mentioned. In §4.6, I consider an encyclopedic compilation
Nature of Knowledge
A number of concepts of the nature of knowledge and its foundation
have been considered in Area 3. These include
...Rational knowledge is selected by “its own” criteria: validity, truth
[including empirical truth], meaning, verifiability-falsifiability, and
aesthetics. Criteria for rational knowledge may be rational - or mythic
- irrespective of the nature of these criteria. Rational knowledge may
still serve a mythic-cultural function [and therefore, “unfortunately”
an anti-cultural function].162 Rational knowledge can prove to be
counter-adaptive to society-culture. The full truth of this negative
judgment is as follows: it is the total cultural system [including
rationality] which can be adaptive and counter adaptive
Knower and Known
One of the consequences of these conceptions is that knower and
known, mind and universe, are of the same natural order
Knowledge and evolution: Status of Integration
After Charles Darwin, it became acceptable, according to reasonable
rational, empirical, and cultural and consensual criteria [but not to all
factions], to consider life as having evolved. Darwin's The Origin of
the Species appeared in 1859. Today in 1987, evolution in biology is
well established - although development and criticism continue.
Therefore, evolution is well integrated into the body of biological
65
knowledge. Physical evolution is more remote, and remotely
understood. Social evolution remains disputed but is becoming better
understood. Non-biological evolution is not yet well-integrated into
academic-consensual knowledge: This is reflected in the organization
of knowledge today 1987. At this writing, the integration of evolution
into knowledge of nature will be supplemented through Area 2
4-5
On Evolutionary Epistemology
In formulating an evolutionary epistemology, i.e. an evolutionary
foundation to knowledge, it is not enough to seek an evolutionary
foundation for existing knowledge and conceptions of knowledge, but
we must be willing to revise our conceptions of knowledge itself. This
is a general principle: in seeking to incorporate new information and
ideas into a conceptual framework, we must be willing to modify the
framework itself
Thus, in the case of knowledge, we should, in relation to concepts
such as, “Knowledge is justified true belief,” be willing to alter this
definition or to alter concepts of justification, truth, and or belief. In
line with the notion of evolution being a mutual trial and error process
of systems in an environment, we must be willing to give up aspects
of certainty and universality in the context of knowledge and truth.
Further, we need to understand that these concepts of certainty and
universality are not even desirable as actual elements - although they
may stand as motivating factors and ends, especially universality. We
also recognize the limitations of empirical justification in that certain
intuitive163 aspects of knowledge have basis in evolution itself
Alternative conceptions of knowledge as adaptive information or
adaptive information generation [such as intuition, instinct,
concept...] may be appropriate to an evolutionary framework
At this we may object that such concepts of knowledge are not
adequate and that certain features of the modern era [1600-2000 AD]
have made the certainty and universality conceptions possible and
hence necessary. To this I reply [1] what certainty and universality
there are have to do with our evolutionary relationship with a certain
phase of the universe in “space and time.” [2] The belief in such
certainty and universality has to do with creation of appropriate
psychosocial conditions [although the belief in the knowledge itself is
not founded merely in such conditions]. [3] In the larger picture, and
in truly formulating an adequate framework for knowledge, the
certainty-universality conception may be counter-adaptive
As long as we cling to our old contexts [knowledge as academic
knowledge based in psychosocial interaction of public knowledge c.
1600-2000A.D.], we will
4-6
not want to make a transition to new concepts. We may think of such
new concepts as valuable metaphors and similes that enhance and
add meaning to the old. I see the situation as the reverse. The old
concepts are a psychosocial phase of the new. This does not mean
that the content of modern knowledge, e.g. modern physics, is
wrong. It does mean that our attitudes toward the universality and
certainty, the psychology, the value and use of this knowledge may
be inappropriate
One appropriate new context for knowledge is to see it as part of an
unfolding evolution.
Original Being unfolds through many stages
 Awareness 
Knowledge  Design  Action 
Evaluation 
Evolutionary design includes the following: A type of thinking and
action or, more appropriately, a design or plan based in and for a
type of thinking and action somewhere between satisfying our
evolutionary natures [which includes environment: particular and
universal] and living within evolutionary and natural164 constraints
while developing our evolutionary and occasional future as we wish
and have “freedom” to do so: using our true freedom
One role of evolutionary epistemology is to understand knowledge in
this evolutionary design context and provide knowledge and
understanding of the context: understanding evolutionary natures,
constraints and providing a style of thinking appropriate to the
intended development
4-7
It should not be forgotten that one role of epistemology-philosophy is
to guard against the pervasion of endeavor by a single slant. Even
though a general concept of evolution as implied here is much more
than a single slant, epistemology has the additional and related roles
to play: to question and to sharpen the conceptions being forwarded
4-8
4.1
ROLE OF KNOWLEDGE IN EVOLUTION AND DESIGN
Turning Points in Development of Knowledge
Beginning with replicating molecules [and undoubtedly earlier - it is
interesting to see how far back this goes], biological evolution
involves adaptation. Environment and life co-evolve: the systems in
this mutual co-organization have coded into them the natures of their
selves and their environments. [The environment of environment is
the system[s] inhabiting it.] This clearly satisfies both system and
adaptive concepts of knowledge. The faculty of knowledge clearly
goes back at least to the origins of life. This original knowledge does
not involve learning165 over the life of the individual. At some point in
evolution, learning by the individual becomes possible
This point is clearly a divide, for the burden of perceptual attunement
to a complex environment is no longer solely genetic. Genetic coding
can provide the rough adjustment and the potential for fine-tuning.
Fine-tuning occurs during development through interaction with the
environment. An example is stereoscopic vision.166 There are
undoubtedly examples that are more primitive: non-instinctual or
combined instinctual-non-instinctual learning. The divide involves two
factors: [1] It allows an enhancement of behavioral or organismic
complexity with less extra, additional genetic complexity than would
be needed if entire development were genetically controlled, and [2]
by such enhancement an evolutionary niche or environment is
created in which the new development can rapidly develop in level of
performance and complexity, a type of punctuated equilibrium that is
different than adaptive radiation. It is interesting to identify other
critical divides of this type
There are other divides of this type in evolution of learning. A key one
is memory, which leads to elementary perception of “time.” With
memory [and sensory imaging - which is a primitive memoryreconstruction], perhaps, is the origin of cognition. The world and
images of the world, and images of images, play side by side.
Knowledge becomes highly independent of environment, flexible,
aware of “knowing,” conscious. Images can be manipulated leading to
symbols. There must be many stages in this development. Abstract
symbolic development is certainly an important stage. Symbolic or
linguistic learning [and communication] confers such advantages as
to significantly enhance learning and behavioral capability without
corresponding increase in genetic or anatomical complexity as would
be required without symbolic-linguistic learning and communication.
Further, this opens new possibilities that make further, quantum, and
enhancement of the “recent” [neo-cortical] development adaptive
4-9
Table 9. From Being to Social Design
Relation between Evolutionary Epistemology and Evolutionary Design
Subsequent evolutionary “breakthroughs” of this type, in learning
beyond elementary sensory imaging [knowledge], learning and
communication include vocalization, abstraction, elaboration of
symbolic systems, language, mythic thought, elementary writing,
alphabetization, rationality and empirical analysis [as institutions],
self-reflexive rationality, historical and evolutionary analysis
66
Symbolic and Artifactual Knowledge
4-11
In Area 4 the knowledge that is of concern [artifactual; technology
expands the scope even to the phyla-organismic], and that is the
object of study, begins with symbolic-linguistic thought and so
includes [1] symbolic systems of all types, [2] language, oral
traditions insofar as these are known, [3] writing, [4] mythic thought,
[5] rationality and philosophy: core and periphery, [6] humanities, [7]
sciences. In short, all knowledge that begins with language. We are
also concerned with all existing civilized knowledge and thought,
whether linguistic or ritual. Other types of knowledge [which I intend
to incorporate later] are relevant insofar as they relate to the present
object: either formatively or as content. These concepts are included
within the notion of adaptation, or expression of an adaptation
Symbolic and Artifactual Design
167
Design has a number of meanings. These are discussed elsewhere.
Here I am interested in the following concept of design: ability of
evolved structures - societies and organisms - to modify the
environment168 to meet some need or adaptation. Clearly, life, species
and organisms do this to or with environment8. Societies and cultures
as wholes do this without necessarily being aware of it. Conscious
design undoubtedly begins very early, in its primitive form, with
memory. In Area 5 I will be primarily concerned with conscious, at
least partially, design and or learned [verb] design that is based, at
least partially, in symbolic systems [and imaging] and the enhanced
manifestation of symbolic systems mentioned in the previous two
paragraphs. In short, I will be concerned in design that is at least
partially based in the symbolic, linguistic, civilized knowledge of Area
4. Thus, the design of Area 5 is based, at least partially, in the
knowledge of Area 4 and in the philosophy of Area 3
I say that this basis is only partial because, except in trivial cases,
design necessarily appeals to organismic and intuitive knowledge, and
rational design is incomplete and so must involve trial and error not
only of prototypes but also of application. These comments apply
equally, with appropriate interpretation, to rational knowledge
4-10
Thus, design of artifacts is embedded in a larger process: the social
process, which, in turn, is embedded in evolution. This social process
involves design [and planning] and evolution. This is the secondary
meaning of design of Area 6. It is design, and involves elements of
conscious design. This overall process is the social process that forms
a major part of the outline of this work. Areas 4-7 are knowledge 
design  action  evaluation
Evolution and Design
The two types or levels of design just considered are: [1] Design of
artifacts of objective design - so called because, in the case of
“simple” artifacts, objectives are relatively clear, and [2] social design
in which the “real” objectives can not be perfectly clear.169
Both of these types of design involve actual evolution [interspersed
with conceptual evolution]
There is hesitation, for scientific and cultural reasons, in calling earlier
levels of evolution design. [The issue has been discussed before.]
However, the reasons are not compelling. They are “lack of
evidence.” Therefore, design may be appropriate in an actual or
“latent” sense. Certainly, the essential definition of design [the ability
of evolved structures to modify the environment to meet some need
or adaptation] is applicable to species, etc. Rudimentary consciouslearnable design probably goes back to the point in evolution where
consciousness-learning [memory including flexible or ontogenetic
memory170] originate
Detailed and careful tracing of co-evolution of design and knowledge,
at various levels, will make an interesting story
On Objective Design
Objective design seems to involve conscious purpose that involves
“free creation” within a conceptual scheme. Both conceptual scheme
and individual designs evolve. Objective design, then, goes back to
origins of consciousness in memory
On Fine Tuning in Design
We have seen how the origin of learning consists in a genetic
program that determines rough development and potential for finetuning during development through actual performance
We can make an analogy with objective design. The design or plan is
the genetic program. The system being planned is designed so that it
can be fine tuned in operation after being built. This concept is built
into many actual designs. It is interesting, and natural, that this
concept has evolved [aided by conscious design or invention] in many
technologies. It is a useful design concept to build or evolve this
approach into designs and systems; i.e., designed systems
However, there are differences between the fine tuning of
development of an evolved organic structure and of a consciously
designed system. [1] Because of evolutionary depth, the fine-tuned
development of organic structures can be based on extremely fine
structure, at the same time very intricate and very simple. Designed
systems tend to have primitive and coarse structure of tuning
mechanisms. There is, however, no reason to believe that designed
systems can not be designed or evolved-designed to evolve in this
way; [2] in either type of system the fine tuning can be selfregulated; but, in the case of organic evolution, self-regulation
includes conscious learning
In addition to the direct-practical value of these concepts in design,
they may also give insight into tuning of designs with evolution and
organic evolution as a source of design principles, concepts, ideas and
value. However, while it is valid to understand and use “evolutionary
values,” organic or cultural, I believe it is a mistake to think that
these are, or should be, the only values
4-12
4.2
ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE
Principles of organization of knowledge cannot be independent of the
nature of knowledge; and, in turn, effective organization enhances
understanding, development and use
In 4.2.1, I consider some principles of organization of knowledge.
These include: concepts of the nature of knowledge; organization of
the “word” - seen as a unity or continuity - which is the “object” of
study171; conventional organization; and general principles of
classification
Since my conception of knowledge is much broader than the
conventional one, there is a necessary problem of where to begin, of
demarcation. As pointed out [4.1, p 4-9] earlier, I follow a
conventional approach [possibly to be modified later] in making
restriction to symbolic-linguistic or ritualized knowledge and
knowledge that is expressed by civilized culture as a whole. There is
also a concern with verification. This distinction is somewhat natural:
we focus on that knowledge which is an expression of civilization.
This is “communicable”172 knowledge expressed in symbol and ritual
Within this partly conventional demarcation of knowledge, we can
describe and express other types of knowledge [and conventional
knowledge itself] as phenomena. There are problems associated with
linguistic expression of knowledge that is emotive, intuitive,
phylogenetic, and so on. One resolution of some of these questions is
through art. The symbols of art are closer to the phenomena of
existence [and human existence] than are the more abstract symbols
of language. Not all language is abstract, in this sense; hence poetry
is spoken and acted for full effect. A related resolution is contained in
the observation that some phylogenetic knowledge is woven into the
structure of language and communication as the a priori. These
resolutions are discussed in 4.2.2. Similarly the content of ritual and
cultural tradition can be analyzed and expressed in anthropological
study. However, such study is not a substitute for ritual and cultural
communication of such knowledge. This reminds us that
understanding, communication of expertise in the symbolic forms
needs a cultural context and, therefore, the textual expression is
insufficient. However, in these forms, symbolic expression is essential
to representation and communication
67
4-13
In 4.2.3, I mention some standard classification systems
In 4.2.4, I present a system that incorporates features from the
introduction to 4.2 and from 4.2.2-3
In classification, there is a question of fineness of subdivision. This
question is resolved by providing hierarchies or organization: a broad
one in 4.3 and detailed ones in 4.4
4-14
4.2.1
PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION
As pointed out in the introduction to 4.2, principles of organization of
knowledge must be related to its nature. These are discussed in
4.2.1.1. Other principles are considered in 4.2.1.2-4
4.2.1.1
4-16
Concepts of the Nature of Knowledge
4-17
I will consider two concepts:
4.2.1.1.1
Function is an example of adaptation. This suggests the distinction:
material vs. existential or practical-science-technology vs. humanities
[art, history, philosophy, social analysis]-religion. This is an
approximate division. Any distinction material-existential will be
imprecise, and have elements of relativism. Also: we can see the
existential as containing the material aspects: humanities as
containing the sciences. The sciences are not non-human but are a
part of humankind, of existence. Science is the repeatable, definite
aspect of existence.174 [Use of the word “humanities” is somewhat
alienating in this context.] Science has existential consequences, not
just through its practical consequences, but also through its
conceptual and instrumental explorations of the elements of existence
- of creation
4.2.1.2
System Theory of Knowledge
This concept asserts that knowledge is a representation of states and
process [or classes of these] of one system by states and processes
of another. This is essentially a naturalistic theory, implying that
knowledge is not other than nature, but is an aspect of nature - being
based in the organization of a system. We can get into arguments
about the reality or naturalness of the types of state-process. We can
circumvent these arguments by requiring that knowledge be an
organization of states and processes that are of the same type[s]173
recognized by knowledge
An Ideal Organization of the Object of Knowledge
The separation implied by this subsection and the previous subsection
is not a complete one; 4.2.1.2 implies a synthesis. Ideal is a
purposefully chosen word
An interpretation is:
An Organization based in the Known Structure of the Universe
This concept is complementary to:
4.2.1.1.2
Adaptive-Evolutionary Theory of Knowledge
Evolutionary theory suggests a number of levels of knowledge as
discussed in the introduction to this Area 4. These include
phylogenetic, cultural-mythic, and symbolic-linguistic. We restrict
explicit knowledge to that which is symbolically expressed. This
knowledge is of the natural world. Since my philosophy is monistic,
this includes all of existence. We now recognize that “a priori” [i.e.,
what has been called a priori] knowledge is also knowledge built up
through phylogenetic and cultural evolution. This knowledge is, in
part, woven into the structure of symbolic expression, but also, in
some other parts, into the organism, ritual, and so on. These remain
a priori until we recognize them, study them and express them symbolically; if we wish to include them in symbolically expressed
knowledge. We can recognize and study these forms of knowledge
and incorporate them into symbolically expressed knowledge.
Evolutionary concepts are essential to full understanding; especially to
criteria for knowledge-truth, also to “fiction” which could be “fiction”
in the sense of “experimental” or ongoing, or in the sense that we do
not understand the adaptive context;
4-15
also to removal of the circularity in using informal, intuitive, or ad hoc
formal criteria for deciding what constitutes knowledge. If knowledge
recognizes evolution, then, by the principles at the end of the
previous paragraph, knowledge must be an element in evolution. This
is not contrary to “fiction” ideas. Evolution is rich in “fiction” - maladaptation, neutral adaptation, incomplete adaptation, “freedom”
provided by new levels of organization. We see symbolic capacity
being born of natural systems sufficiently complex and efficient to
make symbolic expression largely, but not completely, independent of
natural law
This discussion suggests a distinction between knowledge of symbolic
systems and knowledge of natural systems [both expressed
symbolically]. This corresponds roughly to the distinction a priori vs.
empirical-experiential-existential. However, the distinction is losing its
absolute nature as a priori knowledge is brought in the empirical
domain [through paradoxes] and is shown to be empirical in the
phylogenetic and cultural senses. We recognize that natural systems
and knowledge are part of the same natural [evolutionary] order and
therefore knowledge of this is a spectrum and continuum. However,
the initial distinction of this paragraph is a rough practical one based
on a level of evolution
68
Here is one organization of nature and corresponding disciplines. The
scheme corresponds to a set of evolutionary levels:
Universal being →
In this connection, note the complementary natures of metaphysics
and epistemology176
Metaphysics - unified sciences
Material →
4-19
History, science, and technology
Existential →
evolutionary-adaptive, “justified true belief,”... and related concepts
of justification, truth and belief
4.2.1.4
General Principles of Classification177
4.2.1.4.1
Logical principles
Practically, compromises must
theoretically necessary-justifiable
Art, religion, ethics
be made and
are sometimes
1. Two classes should have no elements in common
Cognitive →
Epistemology
and
epistemic technology
which
includes
symbol systems
2. All elements should be included
4.2.1.4.2
Material principles
1. Natural vs. artificial
2. Essential vs. empirical
Table 10 An Ideal Organization of the Object of Knowledge
In this scheme: [1] knowledge is part of the natural order. [2]
Philosophy is not a separate discipline; rather it is distributed among
the four areas as metaphysics. Philosophy of the special “disciplines”
[history...religion], ethics, epistemology
4.2.1.3
Conventional, Practical and Cultural Factors
3. Pragmatic vs. ideal, etc
There are senses in which these distinctions are artificial [e.g., 1 and
2 depend upon theory, ideology]; I have endeavored to show this as
true; nonetheless there is a practical and conventional effect of these
concepts on traditional classifications
4.2.1.4.3
Dependence on domain
Nature of object vs. class being classified. Relevant criteria are 4.2.1.3
These factors also affect concepts of knowledge
Conventionally, practically: metaphysics, epistemology, ethics... form
philosophy. Practically: symbolic disciplines come first. There is some
educational value to this. An outline of the resulting modification of
4.2.1.2:
▪ Symbolic disciplines
1. Morphological [system structure]
2. Genetic [adaptive]
3. Mode of expression [4.2.1.3]
4. Exactness
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General, intermediate and natural, special and formal purpose
4.2.2
▪ Natural disciplines
Philosophy
4.2.2.1
Humanities; related artifactual disciplines
PROBLEMS
OF
LINGUISTIC
EXPRESSION and of ART
Consider that there are:
Knowledge is seen as somewhat separate from nature
4.2.2.1.1
4-18
Our concept of nature and our concept of the structure of knowledge
should be related if we believe knowledge and nature to be part of
the same order. Further, even if we do not adhere to this epistemicmetaphysical principle, there will be a natural psychological tendency
to relate the two. Should we regard this tendency as an epistemic
problem or a confirmation of the principle? I do not attempt to
answer now; probably, both aspects are present
In 4.2.1.2-3, two broad organizations of knowledge [symboliclinguistic] have been presented. The first, being based on existence
[or a concept of existence] as a whole, lends itself to a philosophy of
realism. The second, giving a primary character to a mode of
awareness [or a concept of such a mode] lends to idealism
If we believe that mind, knowledge and nature are of the same order
of existence, then realism and idealism can be understood as
complementary descriptions of experience. Neither can be complete
as long as evolutionary convergence is incomplete
However, idealism and realism lead to different attitudes [and derive
from such attitudes and psychological states] to ourselves, others, the
universe. They lead to different behavior, action. Which shall we
choose? If they are complementary descriptions [perhaps
necessitated by incompleteness of organismic, perceptual, cognitive,
cultural “apparatus”], then it may be unnecessary to choose. Both
may be useful
To the extent that they are projections, it is retrogressive to reify
these attitudes and then “choose” from between them
It will be valuable to interpret these comments in terms of different
conceptions of the nature of knowledge: system- naturalistic-
POETIC
Modes of Human Experience with Preliminary Discussion
of Art
Science; artifactual disciplines drawing from science and humanities
Structure of Knowledge and Nature; Realism and Idealism175
and
[1] Levels of existence
Some correspond to known evolution of the universe as is described
in science; these occasion the development of science. Behaviorally,
the modern twentieth century [1987] world seems satisfied with this
development. Such development is by no means internally or
externally complete; hence the occasion of metaphysics
4.2.2.1.2
[2] Levels of experience
Feeling, ritual-hierarchic behavior, emotive, cognitive. The content of
linguistic expression is to large degree cognition or other experience
translated into cognition. This includes the rational-critical and the
imaginative-creative. The later is the occasion of poetic expression,
linguistic expression of experience that is more than cognitive.
Science, therefore, contains poetic expression in addition to poetry.
Although the urge to certainty and security tend to negate explicit
poetic expression in science; hence, the desolation of some views of
science and the views of some scientists. Poetry also includes
expression through sound, form, and allusion [allegorical, cultural,
and so on]. Thus, poetry is not a purely linguistic-symbolic mode of
expression but symbolic language is one of the vehicles of poetry. In
this, I am following the twentieth century convention. This is different
from the conception of Francis Bacon for whom poetic thought was
imaginative thought
The general term for symbolic expression is art. Thus, art does not
exclude cognition-rationality. Conventionally art refers to expression
of experience that includes significant non-cognitive elements. I do
not distinguish art from religion. However, I do distinguish art from
dogma in religion and the dogma in creeds. Such dogma has a
mythic-cultural role [which may be adaptive and or non-adaptive] but
is not art [in this concept art ≈ existential expression]. Of course, the
object of dogma may have artistic content
69
4-21
The non-cognitive content of art is expressed symbolically. Symbolic
modes include language. Nonlinguistic modes may be “translated”
into linguistic, or the original experience may be translated directly
into language. Such translation may be incomplete and inadequate.
However, generally, translation among any mixed or hybrid modes of
experience and expression may be incomplete and inadequate.
Translation of cognitive experience into symbolic-linguistic expression
may be incomplete-inadequate
Such actual or experiential incompleteness and or inadequacy need
not be ultimate. Attention may also be paid to criteria of adequacy
4.2.2.1.3
[3] Levels of consciousness and levels of cognition:
Rational
Intuitive
Instinctual
4.2.2.1.4
[4] Symbolic modes of representation:
Type of unit out of which experience is coded:
Pure symbols178
Sense symbols: color, tonal, tactile... kinesthetic
Iconic symbols
Complex unitary symbols and symbolic complexes
4.2.2.1.5
[5] Modes of coding, expression, communication:
Representational: based on similarity and analog
Graphic and
mathematics
dramatic
art,
pictographic
language,
geometric
Symbolic: based on convention
evolve [d] in mutuality. The final survivor will be [is] the mutual
situation in which respect occurs by validly containing mutual
[adaptive] knowledge: knowledge that appeals to individuals at deep
personal levels and enhances respect. This holistic approach to
symbolic knowledge, in which the whole mutually knows itself, and in
which this knowledge is expressed symbolically, is potent compared
to some definition such as “justified true belief” which, though it has
value as an element of the whole cultural system, is incomplete, since
it isolates knowledge from its role in [total] social process, and
necessarily
4-23
becomes circular in its conception of justification - and of truth and
belief. By contrast, the cultural system as a whole - the culturalhuman-environmental system is not one to which justification
necessarily pertains. The system as a whole is a phenomenon. Within
this whole, the cultural system has elements that are phenomenal
and elements of justification. Within the system of culture,
knowledge, as an element in itself, has criteria of justification - these
criteria serve to tie knowledge into culture and to isolate and, further,
both functions are valid. However, there is a circularity, an
approximation, inherent in the common notions of justification: first,
in that knowledge provides its own criteria of justification. This is
commonly recognized as a “limitation” of knowledge. I do not
recognize this as a limitation because it is based on the idea of
knowledge as an institution in itself. Second, in that justification is not
the only bond between knowledge and culture, nature. As just
implied, criteria of justification are tied into the cultural system and,
further, knowledge is tied into the whole system. This is understood
through an adaptive framework as opposed to an absolutist, merely
self-referential framework for knowledge
What is art?
Symbolic language, logic, algebraic or symbolic mathematics
Religious, artistic, meaning symbols
Mixed
4-22
Therefore, although language is a basic form of representation,
expression and communication, it is not the most effective or truthful
mode for a number of dimensions of experience and existence.
Perhaps, by focusing on the linguistic mode, well suited as it is to
function as a medium of information, civilization has neglected
essential aspects of humankind or nature. These excluded aspects
belong to “nature” and to humankind. The existential-nonmaterial
modes of experience, properly understood, art and religion, and
various modes of art are appropriate expression of truth in all its
dimensions. These include compound forms such as interaction of
sound, tone, language, and sequence on meaning
Why does music speak to humans with such depth? Perhaps
development of biology [insofar as symbolic-tonal creativity and
sensitivity], culture, aspects of music occurred together in a social
and environmental context. This development may include elements
of religion and the sacred [attachment of existential value to universal
elements - adaptive in view of over-materialism]. This complex of
cultural elements may induce in men and women, mutual respect for
oneself, others, environment, creation. This clearly has adaptive
value. In this sense [but not only this sense] art, religion, and culture
include knowledge of a mythic-rational in type. This is what is lost by
focusing on knowledge as knowledge, science as science, religion as
religion, art as art, politics as politics...thus art in modern society, as
an independent institution, even though it has value, is a fraction of
true expression and experience
Art is the universe of symbolic and representational expression as a
whole. Cognition is included as is emotion, intuition...and especially
their interaction. Thus, while art does not include organismic
knowledge [as a mode - art can express organismic knowledge], it is
more likely to communicate effectively with the full dimension of
individual being than is linguistic expression, and through deep
communication with the individual, art conveys the message of
nature: “mutual respect.” For, art, individual, society and environment
At this point, a fuller characterization of art will be valuable. This will
include drawing together some of the strands of the previous
discussions. We recognize that in seeking to characterize art we are
dealing with an actuality and a concept. For full understanding, we
appreciate that the actuality and the concept are interdependent,
interactive in their relation and mutual evolution. The actuality
consists of the universe of human activity in general, as a background
and, specifically, as it pertains to various notions of art. However, we
are not merely concerned with this actuality and certain conventional
patterns of thought pertaining to its nature. We are also concerned
with what art is - or can or should be: the concept of art. These two
aspects, the actual and the conceptual, or the real and the ideal, are
neither complete in themselves. Nor are they complete as a static
unity. The only “completion” is recognition that actual and conceptual
vs. real vs. ideal come together [do not have truly separate existence]
as a dynamic, interacting evolving unity.179 The ideal of art, as
understood here, is the integration of individual and group knowledge
in relation to the universe as it is and as it is possible. This art is not a
completed issue but a developing, adaptive one
From the “real” world art is an expression of the full dimension of
existence. From the “ideal” world art integrates the disparate
symbolic and existential faculties
4-24
4.2.2.2
The Elements of Art
Art can be seen as involving three elements. The fourth element is an
implication of the first three:
4.2.2.2.1
Art is expression of experience
1. It is expression of experience, not just experience
4.2.2.2.2
Art contains existential elements of experience
2. It contains significant existential - more than cognitive - elements
of experience
4.2.2.2.3
Art is a form of knowledge
3. Art should be knowledge, not mere fact. There is an integration of
the elements of experience, which are expressed with through “their”
patterns and unities instead of through mere reproduction of
information. This is inherent, generally, in the nature of knowledge.
70
This implies that elements of universality, integration, adaptation,
creation, criticism are included in art. In the realm of meaning art
observes, finds essence, and creates
4.2.2.2.4
Art integrates the modes of human being
4. An implication of the existence of evolution, in view of items 1, 2,
and 3, is that art integrates levels of evolution as formulated in
knowledge and as reflected in modes of being, experience and
expression
This concept does not imply that art is formal, academic, and an
institution, of itself, large scale, programmatic, entertainment,
necessarily expressed through technical skill and virtuosity...or not
any of these items. But a tendency to segment cultural functions in
the twentieth century developed world has created, to a significant
degree, institutions for the production of such functions, with internal
criteria for excellence - isolated from the actual world. This tendency
in art has over-emphasized the formal, academic aspects. This has
made for an over-emphasis of art created by institutions-academiceconomic...emphasis on art for sale - the selling of existential modes.
This is to the detriment of the diffusion of artistic expression and
communication among the roots of existence and experience. This
does not deny the existence of universality, greatness and
significance in art. As a human activity, art need not exclude the
notion of creation from evolution
This discussion has not addressed issues of significance and
greatness in art. However, the four elements above provide a
framework for these issues
Art is not the complete world, but one of its “functions” is integration
of the symbolic worlds of awareness, knowledge, design, and action
in meaning
4-25
4.2.2.3
Art and Global Design
From the discussion above the role of true art in speaking to material,
social, individual and existential needs of individual, society,
environment, is fundamental. True art is an integrating factor in
evolution, knowledge, design, and action
4.2.2.4
Analysis of Language and Logic and Relation to Art
Practical, Design Oriented
Retrieval: alphabetic, chronological, natural
Administrative: includes retrieval, cataloging
Special purpose: oriented to some special project, design
Comment: At a general level design is natural; differences occur at
specialized levels
Mixed, Hybrid
Mixed: different principles coexist
Hybrid: different principles are combined and fused
Actual
Most actual organizations necessarily employ mixed, hybrid principles
Additionally, the diachronic, evolutionary element is significant
4-27
184
Examples of these principles will now be given. I will consider, for
now, only the most important:
4.2.3.1
Natural and Chronological Classifications
4.2.3.1.1
Plato [428-324BC]
Plato's system of instruction for the future guardians of society, as
presented in The Republic, is interesting as an instructional concept
for the whole human
Childhood and youth
Gymnastics; music; language, reasoning and argument
Here music is roughly equivalent to Francis Bacon's concepts of
memory and imaginative ability
Young Adult [20-30]
Mathematical thought
Maturing Adult [30-50]
Experience in human affairs, affairs of state
Maturity
Dialectic - ideas and first principles
The fact that aspects of phylogenetic and mythic knowledge are built
into the structure of language and logic in an a priori180 way means
that analysis of language and logic is valuable181 but also without
complete foundation in itself, for the tools of the analysis incorporate
a priori elements. Supplement from existential and artistic domains is
essential to fuller experience. This too is incomplete: evolution itself
remains in progress. [This opens the question of “ultimates” in
evolution. Even if we discern no actual ultimates, there could be
potential ultimates.]
4-26
4.2.3
Suited to special topics: evolution, history
AN EXTENDED CLASSIFICATION OF PRINCIPLES OF
ORGANIZATION OF KNOWLEDGE WITH EXAMPLES
Included are thoughts on ethics and politics
4.2.3.1.2
Aristotle [384-322BC]
Language and logic
Use of words, analysis of statements, reasoning, methods of science
Devices of argumentation
Comment: these are the contents of the Organon
Theoretical knowledge [in ascending
mathematics, and metaphysics]
order:
natural
Natural sciences
Physical science [philosophical - on the nature of change]
Principles of organization based on the nature of knowledge [logical]
and based on the nature of the universe being studied [material]
have been considered. This distinction is analogous to the distinction
mind vs. matter. I believe this distinction to be false. Classical
concepts of mind and matter can be disparate, but concepts and
understanding evolve. Knowledge is an aspect of the natural order
Astronomy [empirical-observational: celestial motions]
In addition to organization based on natural order, other principles
are used. A list-classification of such principles follows:
Mathematics
Natural182
Metaphysics [also, first philosophy, theology]
Based on a natural order183
Logical
Material
Comment: the logical and the material interact as in concept-actual
and ideal-real interactions
Chronological
Comments: Related to natural: evolution
sciences,
Biological [empirical-observational]
Classification, procreation, anatomy for plants and animals
Psychology - Aristotle's Treatise on the Soul, A Bridge to Metaphysics
4-28
Numbers and figures as objects of thought
Practical knowledge
Ethics
Economics
Politics
Productive arts
Fine arts
Useful arts
71
I omit accounts from Catholic-Medieval thinkers Augustine [354-430],
Thomas Aquinas [1225-1274], and Roger Bacon [1214-1292], but
note their effect on thinkers of the modern period starting with
Francis Bacon
4.2.3.1.3
Francis Bacon [1561-1626]
Distinguished three modes of thought: memory, imagination and
reason. These are the dominant categories of thought in the three
main divisions of Bacon's classification: history, poetry, and
philosophy. I follow Adler's use of modern nomenclature:
History
Applied sciences - five divisions
1. Experimental philosophy
4. Natural history
Institutions and events of Christianity
Physiology, crystallography, geology, mineralogy, botany, zoology
Literary history
5. Applications of natural history
Social and cultural history
Anatomy, surgery, materia medica, pharmacy, medicine
Poetry185
The whole of imaginative literature: all forms of narrative fiction,
dramatic and epic [plays and novels] whether in prose or verse
4-29
Philosophy [Bacon's use of this term is broader than modern use]
Division III
History, geography, biography
Division IV [followed by an alphabetic index of the whole]
Lexical, gazetteer type articles; arranged alphabetically
4-31
Philosophia prima
Special disciplines: classified according to object of study
God - Natural theology [as distinct from sacred theology]
Comment: Bacon's first philosophy and natural theology are roughly
equivalent to Aristotle's metaphysics
Nature - Natural philosophy
Includes sciences and mathematics
Humankind - Human philosophy
Coleridge's classification and ordering were somewhat modified by
the publishers of the Encyclopaedia Metropolitana: The first eight
volumes were topical or systematic; the remaining twenty were
alphabetical. The first volume appeared in 1818. The Metropolitana
failed, whereas the Encyclopaedia Britannica, arranged alphabetically,
has survived since 1769. However, subsequent editors of alphabetic
encyclopaedias, including Britannica, were influenced by Coleridge's
main categories
4.2.3.1.7
Individual
Andrė Marie Ampere [1775-1836]
Ampere, French scientist philosopher, published a classification of
human knowledge: mathematics, physics and other natural sciences,
medicine, the branches of philosophy, literature and pedagogy,
ethnology and the political sciences. The interest here is the modern
ring to these branches and their ordering
Includes psychology and ethics
In aggregate
Sociology, economics, politics
Social and behavioral sciences
Comment: human philosophy includes Bacon's famous work on the
logic of discovery: on induction, in Novum Organum, in distinction
from Aristotle's Organon
French Encyclopaedists: Diderot and d'Alembert
Diderot and d'Alembert followed Bacon's outline closely: the major
change was to ignore the distinction between human and divine
knowledge; they included sacred theology under philosophy
Immanuel Kant [1724-1804]
Kant's major contributions were the distinction of the rational and
empirical disciplines; and introduction of epistemology which, since
Kant and including Kant, has rejected metaphysics [as did Kant] and
replaced it as the reigning regulative discipline
The rational, a priori disciplines: mathematics, rational science or
philosophy of science, ethics. The empirical: the sciences
4-30
[1772-1834]
and
the
Coleridge was also deeply impressed by Francis Bacon's scheme, but
did not follow it as closely as the French Encycopaedists did. In 1817,
Coleridge drew up a table of arrangement for his projected
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana approximately as follows:
Formal sciences
Mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, optics, astronomy
Agriculture, commerce, manufacture
Ecclesiastical history
Division I: Pure sciences
Mixed sciences
3. Useful arts
Biographies, chronicles, history of political institutions and affairs
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana
Division II: Mixed and applied sciences
Poetry, painting, sculpture, architecture
Civil history
4.2.3.1.6
Metaphysics, morals, theology
2. Fine arts
Histories of nature, arts, sciences
4.2.3.1.5
Real sciences - sciences of reality
Magnetism, electricity, chemistry, light, heat, color, meteorology
Natural history
4.2.3.1.4
Universal grammar or philology, logic, mathematics
4.2.3.1.8
Auguste Comte [1798-1857]
Comte was a French sociologist, philosopher, and positivist. He
recognized three stages of knowledge: [1] mythology or superstition,
[2] metaphysics or speculative philosophy, and [3] the modern era of
empirically certified, positive knowledge
To me Comte's view and positivism in general is a step into a desolate
and fantastic arena of certainty. Knowledge is possible but its nature
is not positivist. Comte's main divisions of “genuine” knowledge are
mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, physiology, and
sociology
Comte's views can be criticized on many grounds. The great, and in
my opinion negative, significance of his work is the omission, on
principle, of speculative philosophy [metaphysics], and practical
philosophy [ethics, politics]; and the omission, without stated reason,
of political and cultural history, poetry, fine arts, the liberal arts of
grammar, rhetoric, and logic. The system is too narrow to be the
basis of a systematic view of knowledge
The cultural significance of Comte's views are their lasting influence
among academics and the public, as a sort of worldview. Personal
reasons such as power, ignorance, fashion aside these views are a
function of culture, the ignorance of success, in which the mass,
academic or otherwise, is swayed by the great achievements of
science, not seeing or not regarding the vast infinity186 of ignorance
beyond the domain of science and of human knowledge. [I am by no
means implying that
72
4-32
Positivism has been the only worldview.] It is only recently that the
failure of imagination and the grasping for security that Positivism
represents has become known. The forces of this transition have
been in the clear inadequacy of determinism in science: shown up by
quantum mechanics and relativity187 in physics, the disproofs of
gradualism188 and orthogenesis in biology, the incompleteness of
behavioral and social sciences - especially in political philosophy; and
in the demonstration, first in biology and now, tentatively, in physics
of the force of history as a factor in explanation and prediction
4.2.3.1.9
Wilhem Dilthey [1833-1911]
The major significance for the modern period is Dilthey's division of
knowledge into two broad divisions: natural sciences, non-human and
human; and the humanities - which included history and biography,
economics, politics, and law, moral philosophy or ethics, religion,
poetry, architecture, and music
In its original meaning, humanities or arts, signified learning in
general and sciences were included. Perhaps as a consequence of the
[alleged] positivism of science - or as a reaction to Positivism - the
humanities have come to signify whatever subject matter is not
included in the mathematical, natural and social sciences. This
unfortunate split results in C. P. Snow's Two Cultures. They do not
speak each other's language. The positivistic school regards the
humanities as metaphysical nonsense, and the humanities regards
the sciences and technology as barbarian. These descriptions are
caricatures, but the split is unfortunate
4.2.3.1.10
Twentieth-Century Efforts
Adler discusses three twentieth-century proposals for classifying
library books based on organizations of knowledge:
Classification, Theoretical and Practical, E. C. Richardson, 1930
The Organization of Knowledge and the System of Sciences, H. E.
Bliss, 1929
5. Conflict between levels of detail, sophistication, completeness related to item 4;
6. Conflict between use as a ready reference and use for learning
For marketing reasons, it was decided that the fifteenth edition would
be arranged alphabetically. It was decided to organize the work into
five parts:
4-34
1. Propaedia or outline of knowledge according to philosophic
principles - one volume
2. Micropedia - a set of volumes with short informational articles
arranged alphabetically
3. Macropedia - a set of volumes with long articles on the subjects in
all fields of knowledge; also arranged alphabetically
4. Alphabetic index of topics in detail
5. A set of year books with new-modified articles; year and world
information
This resolves a number of issues and conflicts - by including multiple
principles
4.2.3.1.10.1.1
In preparing for the fifteenth edition, the Board of Editors [which
included Robert Maynard Hutchins as Chair until 1974, and Mortimer
J. Adler] considered transforming the Britannica into a topical
encyclopaedia organized according to philosophic principles. However,
the experience of such encyclopaedias [the nineteenth century
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana and the twentieth century Encyclopėdie
Français] showed certain problems associated with topical [vs.
alphabetic] encyclopaedias:
1. There appeared to be no sizeable market for a general
encyclopaedia not arranged for ready reference; i.e., alphabetically
of
Four Human life
Five Human society
Six Art189
Nine History of mankind
Ten The branches of knowledge
Adler points out that the organization was not to be thought of as
hierarchical [ascending-descending] in any order based on what is
fundamental, simple, logical, or pedagogical. Such ordering would run
counter to the intellectual heterodoxy of the twentieth century.
Instead, the divisions
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were to be regarded as arranged in a circle of learning, with any one
or none at the center
4.2.3.1.10.1.2
Discussion of the 15th Edition of the Encyclopedia
Britannica with Logical Modifications
However, this idea becomes open to Adler's, and general, criticism of
works not arranged according to a philosophic principle. What is the
structure of the sequence six to nine?
In fact, there is a structure to the organization. If we redefine a new
area six = as the current versions of six and seven and eight and
nine190 and current area ten = to be artifacts of human society, then
we have a modified ordering according to evolution191 and or,
roughly, degree of complexity. Within this paradigm, improvements
are possible: the entire arrangement of six-ten; inclusion of evolution
of physics as related to atoms and elementary particles in one;
relocation of the sections on human biology vs. psychology
There are also problems with the organization of areas nine and ten:
2. In progressive construction, it seems impossible to maintain the
original course as the work proceeds volume by volume
Nine The history of mankind
3. The problem of philosophical principles of ordering;
Logic
4. The conflict between natural, philosophical or logical, and
pedagogical principles;
Outline
Three Life on Earth
Eight Religion
Fifteenth Edition of Encyclopaedia Britannica
Topical
Two The Earth
Seven Technology
4.2.3.1.10.1
Detailed
One Matter and energy
Adler finds the organizations in these books to be useful but lacking in
being derived from explicitly stated philosophical principles. Such
principles are unifying: they show the structure of knowledge as a
whole and the interrelations of the parts, such
holistic principles are essential to proper learning, understanding of
the world and universe in which we live, of understanding the proper
balance for rewarding living for individual and society. In fact, Bliss'
book on the organization of knowledge contains certain ordering
principles but these are not sufficiently broad to meet the needs of
twentieth century knowledge. Such principles and organizations
existed in antiquity [Plato, Aristotle], the Middle Ages [Thomas
Aquinas, Robert Bacon] and modern times [Bacon, Kant, Coleridge].
These works have insights and distinctions that are still relevant but
none of these is wholly appropriate to the twentieth century
A
The Propaedia, the innovation of the fifteenth edition, is of special
interest. The ten major divisions, or “parts,” follow. All other
arrangements are mine
The Organization of Knowledge in Libraries, H. E. Bliss, 1933
4-33
Propaedia Knowledge
Ten The branches of knowledge
Mathematics
Science
History and the humanities
73
Philosophy
4.2.3.1.11
Thus one-nine are the study of the world; ten is the study of
knowledge. This arrangement is reasonable provided it is recognized
that knowledge [and artifact and history] are part of the world
Commonly the content of professional knowledge is regarded as
“know how” and the content of philosophic, artistic and scientific
knowledge is “know what and why and where to.” The two are
related but separation is valuable: [1] to professional knowledge, [2]
as a source of existential-universal knowledge, [3] knowledge,
creation and discovery are in themselves an aspect of design - a
higher design. This is not to negate the need for balance and
regulation; the question is what type and how much and by whom
4.2.3.1.10.1.2.1
An arrangement in super-divisions
An arrangement in super-divisions is possible, with A and B and C =
world
A. Nature
Britannica divisions one-five and nine
B. Artifact [also Nature]
Six, seven, eight, symbolic disciplines
C. The Branches of Knowledge [also Artifact]
General: Philosophy
Special: The special disciplines: sciences, history, humanities
4-36
In this arrangement we can study nature in general, as in “A” or in
one of the subdivisions of natural phenomena-systems; likewise,
artifact. The sequence A  C is clearly evolutionary192 and the
subdivisions are to some extent in evolutionary sequence. The order
of the subdivisions can be improved to bring them in line with
evolutionary order. However, such an ordering probably can not,
perhaps, be made completely evolutionary
Comments on Knowledge and Design
The system of knowledge and design etc. is part of a comprehensive
social process design: know-where to. This is not necessarily higher
than item 3 above, but provides foundation for items 2 and 3: [4] a
practical measure of the value of functions 2 and 3 above is the
existence of unknowns in the world. Existential knowledge and
independent knowledge have dual roles of providing emotional
centering in and practical orientation to an unknown future. An
example of the falseness of the polarization: existential vs. practical
4-38
4.2.3.1.12
Learning from the Historical Sequences of
Organizations and Their Philosophies: Evolution of
Knowledge and Organization
In the history of Western knowledge, with reference to the sequence
of outlines given in 4.2.3.1, we notice that change-progression occurs
by:
Adler points out a final deficiency in Propaedia. In an encyclopedic
treatment, philosophy considered is necessarily academic: a
treatment of doctrines and schools of professional philosophy - but
not of the great ideas underlying and uniting all fields, even life.
These ideas are provided in The Great Books
Modification and or addition: trial
4.2.3.1.10.1.3
Mythic thought = Associative thought [predominately] and cultural
selection
Great Books of the Western World; Syntopicon
The Great Books of the Western World, Robert Maynard Hutchins,
Editor-in-Chief, have been criticized by many; for lack of synthesis;
lack of relevance to the modern problems: as a solution to the
problems of modern humankind; in their lack of commitment to an
ideological-philosophical organization which would give [some]
meaning to their content in the modern context. In this sense, despite
the pluralism argument, Propaedia and Syntopicon fall short of Adler's
ideal and general ideals of organization. I myself would like to see A
Great Books-Ideas of the World
There is organization to The Great Books. The works are divided into
four broad areas:
Imaginative literature
Science and medicine
Reflection and criticism: selection
We find the organization to be an evolutionary system. We further
hypothesize that growth of organizing principles mirrors foundations
and at least approximately:
Philosophy = Mythic thought and rational selection
Classical science = Philosophy and empirical selection
As selection principles become enhanced, the subject matter becomes
restricted. Thus science, philosophy, myth are not opposites. There is
an inclusion at any time
Myth includes philosophy includes science
As creativity becomes enhanced, science grows, but this does not
necessarily reduce the content of philosophy [rather the new
knowledge may expand it; at the same time other knowledge may be
discarded]; rather there may be a change in focus. The relation of
philosophy and myth is similar
4-39
History and social science
4.2.3.2
Philosophy and teleology
As a directive principle to The Great Books, The Great Ideas Syntopicon was conceived. This is a collection of one hundred two
ideas of fundamental significance in the history of Western
civilization. There are two types of ideas: ideas about the world
4-37
and ideas about ideas. Ideas are special organizing principles in the
world, and so ideas about ideas are organizing principles for ideas i.e., knowledge. The resulting division of knowledge, again reflecting
the ostensible ideological neutrality of the Propaedia, are:
1. Theology and religion
2. Metaphysics
3. Mathematics, mechanics, physics
4. Logic
5. Political theory
6. Ethics
7. Economics
8. Psychology
9. Biology
Classifications Based on Practical, Design, and Special
Considerations
The natural conception of organization or of knowledge is based on
the idea of knowledge as existing in itself as an element in the natural
order. However, the natural order is an evolutionary order and
therefore knowledge is an element of this order. On a human scale
knowledge does have elements of the absolute: being beyond the
control of humans here and now. When we push, or contemplate
pushing, beyond the human scale, knowledge is “obliged to come
down from the heights of the a priori.”193 There is some danger194 in
this approach,195 but this is in the nature of evolution. This does not
imply a pragmatic conception of knowledge but results in an outlook
similar to it
The pragmatist concept196 [also: instrumentalist, experimentalist,
operationalist, and behaviorist are aspects of and related to the
pragmatist concept] of knowledge relates knowledge-justifies
knowledge by its ends. According to Pierce the meaning of a concept
is the sum total of its “practical” consequences. This is quite different
from the natural conception when consequences are known. When it
is recognized that consequences and ends are uncertain, largely
unknown, the distinction begins to crumble, as does the meaning of
“practical.” We begin to see the independent value of knowledge from
a practical point of view
74
The distinction between the essentialist [natural] and the pragmatist
conception of knowledge is ultimately nonexistent; and proximately it
is soft. Knowledge has a valid existence in relation to other elements
of culture, world, and in itself, where we find, again, echoes of the
actual and the ideal; and, importantly, in the necessary intertwining
of the two
Thus, on an immediate level, I respect the overt aspects of
pragmatism. For immediate practicality see comments under
“practical...” on a higher level of design and planning: educational,
pedagogic,
logical-natural
[4.2.3.4
is
concrete],
social197
considerations. As we begin to go beyond the immediate concerns to
further dimensions of being [existential; i.e., inner and universal] and
levels of design, the special distinguishing features of pragmatism
begin to disappear: practical [the actual]  ideal [the possible] 
existential [the unknown]
4-40
4.2.3.2.1
Some
Practical
Considerations:
Retrieval,
Administrative, and Special Purposes such as Projects
and fields of learning
Retrieval: Alphabetic, chronological, natural
Comment: The natural classification based on the nature of
knowledge is also valuable in retrieval; i.e., is also practical
Administrative: Includes retrieval, cataloging, inventory, and records
Special Purposes: Related to some special purpose, special project,
and particular field
of learning, design,
Comment: At a general level design is natural; differences are at
specialized levels
An Example - Design:
4.2.3.2.2
4.2.3.3.1
Actual Classifications
[1] Universities and academies
Modern, Middle Ages, ancient
Adler199 discusses the inadequacy of the organization of departments
in modern universities. He fails to comment on the higher groupings
into colleges-faculties, or to provide a balanced account of the forces
for and consequences of specialization
4.2.3.3.2
4.2.3.3.3
[2] Libraries
[3] Encyclopaedias
Adler discusses the organization of knowledge implicit in
encyclopaedias and libraries. Some of the forces influencing these
organizations have been discussed in 4.2.3.1. The primary forces are
“pragmatic.” This is to be expected when the patrons of
encyclopaedias, libraries, universities are the diverse elements of a
pragmatic society. Scholars and scholarship still exist in numbers as
great as ever. These are hidden among the proliferation of
information and practical disciplines. Organizations of scholars and
scholarship is valuable and can proceed despite the economic
orientation of knowledge. Without the economic base, the multitude
of large universities and libraries would not exist. Therefore, criticisms
should be along the following lines:
A. Is the general organization of learning and culture and society
conducive to good
B. Within the context of the economic, pragmatic orientations of
learning, there are recognizable effort devoted to independent
learning, analysis and development in knowledge, knowledge in its
widest sense, as justified by the uncertainty and large unknowns of
life and existence
4-43
Knowledge of design
The first level of design is problem solving, search, or objective
design. Objective design is perhaps simpler than problem solving;
however, if we allow implicit statement of objectives then, then
objective design and problem solving are equivalent. This is the
design typified by engineering design, but equally applicable to all
professions: engineering, law, medicine and health, business,
education, architecture; and to individual198 and other reasonably
well-defined objectives
The standard sequence of design and planning procedures that is
commonly used in formal, professional settings is:
Recognition of needs  problem definition or functional
considerations  performance or design specifications  synthesis 
analysis and optimization  evaluation  presentation and review
Interpretation, variations are discussed in Areas 5.2 and 5.3
4-41
4.2.3.2.3
4-42
4.2.3.3
Knowledge for Design
See Area 5.5 for “background knowledge for design.” Here we
consider design as an element in social process, a second level of
design:
Awareness
Values
Knowledge - design oriented
Design
Action
Evaluation
Learning and Feedback
Details of these aspects are taken up in Area 5.5. Knowledge as
considered in this list is oriented to application. Knowledge as implied
by the list as a whole includes understanding. When Area 3 is
included, knowledge expands to include self-referential knowledge,
understanding, and wisdom. These ideas are implicit in Area 4
4.2.3.3.4
[4] Knowledge bases
Example: The contents of Encyclopaedia Britannica exist as a
computer knowledge base. Progress is being made on making
knowledge bases more powerful and usable. Not enough attention is
being paid to unique roles in the forefront of research where the
researcher develops a dynamic relationship with the data system
Comment: See 4.2.3.4
There is potential to make the interaction between computer and
individual more dynamic
4-44
4.2.3.4
Design of a Knowledge Base
These are design considerations of an encyclopedic knowledge base.
A knowledge base is a system of information and knowledge that has
potential for application to a wide variety of situations
In discussing design of a knowledge base, I anticipate a part of Area
5, and recall 4.2.3.2. I will point out here that the standard process of
design-problem solving is a reading, a model, of everyday and
esoteric problem solving - mundane or creative. I believe [I have not
yet proved this in the framework of theories-models of evolution and
design] that such a model corresponds to a natural process. Designproblem solving is coming up with a way to proceed [or an explicit
plan to proceed, at least an improvement on explicitness] from some
state A to another state B. Creativity is involved in that even A is only
vaguely and incompletely understood; B is at best implicitly defined in
many situations, and the explicit nature of B unfolds interactively with
the process of transition. In design we may have A = vaguely felt
need, B = need resolved. In science and philosophy “A = current
knowledge and information” form a system with incoherence, B =
incoherence eliminated; here the designer is individuals and culture.
In poetry, B = visions of the possible obtained and expressed
4.2.3.4.1
Need
There is a variety of types of need: reference and learning in relation
to current [or dated, in special situations] data [almanacs],
information and knowledge on nature, world, universe
75
[encyclopaedias], symbolic systems information
systems], and knowledge [encyclopaedias]
[lexicographical
There is a variety of levels of knowledge: information, knowledge [in
the specific sense of coherent, summarized, pattern integrated
information] understanding, wisdom. It is not consistent with the
nature of wisdom200 to incorporate it into the structure of a
knowledge base though reference to wisdom will be appropriate in a
general or philosophical encyclopaedia
The occasion of specific need may be: introduction of a base to a new
group of people through their language; opening up of new
disciplines; updating old information; new conceptions of knowledge
and its organization; new media of knowledge and information:
writing, printing, mechanical, electronic, optical, photographic
[including holograms]; computer, symbolic modes of storage and
generation of information and knowledge
4-45
4.2.3.4.2
4.2.3.4.2.1
Functional Considerations, Problem Definition, Decisions
[1] General function and economics
The decision to consider an encyclopedic database has already been
made in the topic of this section [4.2.3.4]. To enhance the value of
the discussion, I select an encyclopedic coverage of both information
and knowledge; i.e., I am considering a class of readers whose
interests include convenient reference, reference in depth and
learning. Awareness of the economic environment of a project is
essential. The economic environment would include unit cost of the
information medium; market value of encyclopedic knowledge bases this will be affected by prestige. Economics does not mean
maximizing profit; simply, funds must be made available-anticipated
for costs
4.2.3.4.2.2
[2] General vs. Special Purpose
Select general or general and specific coverage
4.2.3.4.2.3
[3] Levels of treatments
▪ Comprehensiveness: providing both information and knowledge
gives flexibility. There is completeness on two levels: the higher level
can be very comprehensive
▪ Assumed background and sophistication of reader: provision of
knowledge and information means that a variety of read levels can be
catered. Within treatment of knowledge a variety of levels can be
catered by providing local outlines [at the head of each article],
introductory discussions, references
The utility of a general-purpose encyclopaedia is enhanced by making
it comprehensive in the domain of public knowledge and
information...and by building in flexibility
4.2.3.4.3
4.2.3.4.3.1
Performance or Design Specifications - Including
Format; Synthesis: Decisions
[4] Length - Estimate
This decision is based on economics, discussed above. There would
be some constraint on minimum length consistent with function and
on maximum length based on convenience
The desiccation is also based on storage density of the information
medium
4-46
4.2.3.4.3.2
[5] Principals of organization
The choices are:
4.2.3.4.3.2.1
Natural vs. Practical
Natural: Logical, material201 - Valuable in conceptual and holistic
learning and representation,
And or
Practical: Alphabetical, chronological - There are other choices but
these are the two that are consistent with a general-purpose
encyclopedic base. Of these two, alphabetic arrangement is more
convenient except when it is desired to construct an historical
encyclopaedia; valuable for general purpose reference
4.2.3.4.3.2.2
Single or multiple principles of organization
For a general-purpose encyclopedic base, it is desirable to have both
conceptual and holistic organization and organization of information
for convenient reference and withdrawal of information. It is possible
to select more than one principle and it will be excellent to use both
natural and practical principles - experience202 seems to dictate that
organization according to natural principles alone does not meet the
needs of many users whose interest is convenient reference. It
appears most convenient to select:
Natural Principles: Based on material-logical organization of universeworld-knowledge and Alphabetic Organization: For convenient
reference
How shall this be done?
4.2.3.4.3.2.2.1
Hybrid-matrix organization is one approach
This is not convenient for printed volumes whose natural
arrangement is linear. When access is indirect - as for electronic data
storage, this issue does not affect the user directly. In that case, the
choice is according to the preference of the system designer. For
printed material, hybrid organization is cumbersome. Alternatives are:
4.2.3.4.3.2.2.2
Unitary:
1. Multiple bases or encyclopaedias
Appropriate for libraries and library systems; not for single base
4-47
2. Dual, or multiple, levels of text
3. Multiple index systems
Again, for electronic storage, the choice does not affect the user. For
printed material, dual levels with an information level arranged
alphabetically and a knowledge level organized by logical-material
principles have been used, but without success [Encyclopedia
Metropolitana]. The alternative seems to be the use of an index - or
table of contents - to guide systematic [natural, i.e., logical-material]
organization of study
4.2.3.4.4
Analysis and optimization
Decision making principles for variables [choices] available to this
point:
4.2.3.4.4.1
General or general and specialized base?
Printed text: Except for multiple encyclopaedia systems, convenience
restricts choice to general coverage
Electronic: Both choices possible. Decision based on costs. General
and specialized coverage by: linking specialized bases or filtering from
a general base
4.2.3.4.4.2
Dual levels or multiple index systems - table of
contents system?
Both can be chosen. Convenient dual levels that enhance both
reference and learning-understanding-conceptual functions are:
4.2.3.4.4.2.1
Information level
Articles should be longest possible consistent with informationfunction and not so short as to negate knowledge function; alphabetic
arrangement is natural at this level; for smaller units of information: a
detailed alphabetic subject index
4.2.3.4.4.2.2
Knowledge level
Articles shortest, dual information-knowledge function consistent with
coherence; arranged systematically [or naturally] or alphabetically but
systematic arrangement detracts from reference; prefer alphabetic
arrangement in printed text systems if intent is to reach a wide
audience; knowledge function
4-48
enhanced by systematic topical index [incorporating information
level]-table of contents and by having both topical and alphabetic
index incorporate hierarchic-tree organization; knowledge and
information function enhanced by local table of contents for individual
articles
76
4.2.3.4.4.3
Systematic [natural vs. logical-material]
Alphabetic arrangement of knowledge level
vs.
4-50
▪ Macropedia: A twelve volume set of short information-oriented
articles; alphabetically arranged
The advantages of each are clear. Drawbacks are:
Systematic [natural vs. logical-material]
▪ Problem of organization; with alphabetic can have multiple tables or
contents corresponding to multiple systematic principles of
organization
▪ Macropedia: A seventeen volume set; knowledge in depth: longer
connected-coherent articles; supported by Macropedia, Propaedia;
alphabetic arrangement
▪ Index: Two volumes
▪ Problems of multiple conceptual frameworks for knowledge:
previous point
▪ Database: Britannica has an electronic database
▪ Problems of reference. Systematic organization is a powerful
reference tool but the “system”-concept must be understood
Britannica [15th edition] represents a compromise between
reference-knowledge functions. Earlier editions had interspersed long
and short articles. Two issues arise:
▪ Problems of changing understanding or emphasis during sequential
construction
▪ Problems of updating; knowledge seen as dynamic
Comments
▪ Question of separation of information vs. integrative articles
Alphabetic
▪ Optimal analysis and criteria for relative emphasis on shortinformation vs. long-knowledge
▪ Problems of overall coherence
4.2.3.4.5
It turns out that the problems of systematic-natural organization are
particularly troublesome - especially in light of dynamic evolving
concepts of knowledge. This is true of the editors-authors and of
knowledge itself. Some thinkers-philosophers believe there to be
“eternal” truths. There may be, and some philosophers believe these
to be realized in philosophic-humanistic learning. But I do not believe
these to be realized in Western knowledge. Whatever the actual
truth, it remains that static-fixed is a special case of dynamic-evolving
and that the latter covers innumerably many more possibilities
including approach to a final state. The problem of alphabetic
organization can be overcome by having a systematic-natural-logicalcoherent, material outline-index-table of contents or a number of
outlines according to a variety of general and special principles
With an electronic base, cross-referential and dual organization
systems are possible without the problems associated with printed
text
4-49
4.2.3.4.4.4
The Index
4.2.3.4.6
Cross reference systems
Update
Information articles: rapid
Knowledge: slower than information; subdivisions faster than
divisions
Index: the entries will be subject to rapid update; modifications to
structure will be slower
Outline: rate depends on subject and level of organization
4-51
4.2.3.4.7
Verification
Issues are:
The information-reference function is served by having a
comprehensive index of key words and concepts. This enhances
knowledge function. The knowledge function is served by having
hierarchic-tree [general-special] and cross-reference features. The
latter especially enhances information-reference function. These
features make an index larger
▪ Selection of authors for integration and reliability; coordinating
authors
4.2.3.4.4.5
These issues relate to how information-knowledge is stored in a
conceptual sense and how translated for use
The Systematic Outline
Knowledge203 function is served by a general outline, and enhanced
by detailed hierarchic-tree structure. The latter also provides special
purpose knowledge functions. Different concepts or approaches to
knowledge may occasion multiple outlines connected to a single base.
Special purpose, goal directed activities may occasion special purpose
outlines, provided such are able to employ the contents of a general
knowledge base
All indexes and outlines and the arrangement of the base itself are
indexes relative to some objective, including the [not exclusively]
neutral nature of the function of knowledge in light of uncertainty and
unknown - which are undoubtedly-probably much larger than the
certain and the known. In the case where the reader-user does not
access the base directly, the objectives are the system designers'
mixed criteria of economy and meeting the users' needs through
index-address systems. For printed material the structure of the base
is directly relevant to user-reader needs
4.2.3.4.4.6
Encyclopaedia Britannica - 15th Edition as a model
The Britannica is the primary model for my discussion. Detailed
information is available in another area.204 The 15th edition realized a
solution to a number of the issues of concern:
▪ Propaedia: One volume outline of knowledge focusing on the
Western tradition. The Propaedia claims to have avoided unsuccessfully, in my opinion - any specific hierarchy of complexity or
concept. Still, valuable and comprehensive, especially the 1985
version
▪ Cross checking among authors and editors for reliability
▪ Checking against other references and bases
4.2.3.4.8
Principles of generation
▪ Stored as a data base
Translation by reader-user who reads meaning from the original
meaning of author
Application: printed material and electronic data systems
▪ Stored as an information system
Translation includes compilation by various index-access systems.
Meaning provided by reader-user
Application: electronic monitor205-driven electronic database
▪ Stored as a knowledge base
A. Expert-AI system generates knowledge from primitive information
and knowledge units by appropriate principles of organization
Application: software systems; special purpose
B. Expert-AI-cognitive system generates knowledge from raw data,
primitive information and knowledge units by appropriate principles of
pattern-concept detection and organization
Application: potential [not actual]: software systems for the future
4-52
4.2.3.4.9
Evaluation and feedback: Presentation
There is an interesting discussion in Adler's book on the deliberations
and decisions leading up to the publication of the 15th edition of
Encyclopaedia Britannica
77
4-53
4.2.4
MAJOR DIVISIONS OF SYMBOLIC KNOWLEDGE
As pointed out in the introduction to Area 4.1, the phase of
knowledge that is of concern in Area 4 is symbolically expressed and
coded knowledge. In other words, we deal with knowledge that is
coded, expressed,206 and communicated symbolically. This should
include both oral and printed tradition. In the twentieth century world
culture, printed - or otherwise “permanently” recorded forms - take
precedence. By a slight expansion of the symbol concept, we can
include other phases of culture in the present concept of knowledge:
ritual. However, the present concept does not include organismicphylogenetic knowledge. Even so, it should be noted: symbolically
expressed knowledge, even when rational, is not independent of the
other forms. For example, the nature of rationality is, in part, an
element of mythic-traditional thought. All forms of knowledge are a
part of the universe and their content-nature can be coded and
expressed symbolically, at least approximately. Where this has been
done, this knowledge becomes part of the present concept. The value
of such knowledge is [1] utility, [2] existential, and [3] in estimating,
within the present context-concept. The relative priorities and
meanings of the different forms: empirical, rational, mythic,
organismic, and existential
4.2.4.1
Concepts from Evolution. Effect of Culture
Evolution: Symbolic systems and the expression-coding of knowledge
through such systems undoubtedly developed together, each
enhancing the success of the other, and in interaction with culture,
biology, environment. While knowledge “discovered” mythically,
rationally, empirically can be coded symbolically [and such coding is
instrumental in enhancing thought-discovery], mythic pre-mythic and
pre-symbolic-linguistic knowledge - ritual, organismic, etc. - is built
into the structure of symbolic convention: [1] through the
evolutionary development of biogenetic symbolic capability, [2]
cultural evolution-selection in which mythic-traditional knowledge is
maintained through culture- [a-cognitive] personality interaction and
[3] interaction of [1] and [2]. Such knowledge is outside the domain
selected here, to the extent that the encoding is a priori; but is
interacting with this domain. This is the basis of the two major
divisions below: knowledge of symbolic convention and knowledge of
the world and universe. Note that “convention” implies nothing about
the content of the knowledge but only that the manner of its
incorporation-being held
4-54
is by agreement - by convention. Of course, this convention can be
studied, understood as part of the world and incorporated in
symbolically coded “knowledge of the world.” This distinction is, in
borderline situations, unclear. Further, for convenience, it will not be
essential to maintain the boundary rigidly
4.2.4.1.1
Culture
I distinguish two related effects of culture: bias and emphasis. It may
be valuable to provide a balance to emphasis, but it is epistemically
correct to eliminate bias. An example of bias is the putative split
between the humanities and the sciences; an example of emphasis is
the relative emphasis on sciences vs. humanities. If we remove
epistemic bias, we then remove whatever bias in knowledge there is
for imbalance in emphasis
It is incorrect to assert that the biased [in my opinion] split humanities vs. sciences - is a universal feature of Western culture.
However this bias is an element of Western culture enhanced by
misunderstanding and specialization, or seeing knowledge as a mere
accumulation of disciplines, and originate in those aspects of culture
[among which understanding-control of material aspects of existence
is significant], which form the basis of power in the Western world
[since power is one source of psychology of reality]. We can obtain
some freedom through understanding from the sciences vs.
humanities split as follows:
We consider certain aspects of the evolution of thought and
emergence of archetypal patterns of thought:
TOWARD FREEDOM FROM CULTURAL BONDING
[This discussion is value free in that such freedom is not assumed
to be desirable or not]
Primitive and mythic thought with roots
in evolution or cognition based in
imagination; inherently capable of
rationality,
but
rationality
only
sporadically
and
spontaneously
manifests. Effects of such rationality
bonded into culture, but not rationality
itself; bonding into culture through
elements
of
personality
having
precognitive origin; survival of the
results of such thinking through cultural
selection.
MYTHIC THOUGHT
Institutionalization of rationality perhaps
originally
through
evolution
of
personality as based in biology and or
cultural selection including factors such
as writing and primitive empirical
science - in Greek civilization. Public
knowledge in all societies is probably
based on a combination of factors mythic, rational, and later, empirical.
The change involved is not a change
from one mode to another; it is a
change in which rationality emerges as a
significant institution in determining
public knowledge.
PHILOSOPHIC
THOUGHT
4-56
Institution of empiricism - observation
and experiment - sporadically manifests
earlier
is
but
not
bondedinstitutionalized - although results may
be - and later as a significant criterion
for public knowledge. Mythic and
rational thought are not eliminated.
They remain of value.
SCIENCE
Table 11 Toward Freedom from Cultural Bonding
Thus science is not the opposite of philosophic-rational thinking but is
in addition to the older mode - and provides a dominant new mode of
verification-selection. Rationality remains essential in science as does
mythic-imaginative thought, and just as mythic-imaginative thought
remains essential in philosophy and in society after the institution of
rational thought. However, the new criterion does not completely
replace the old. Rational thought [in which thought is reflexive] and
mythic-creative thought remain as valid thought patterns, generally,
as well as sources of validity, in appropriate situations. For example,
in situations where rationality and empirical thought are inadequate,
partially or completely, mythic thought remains of value. Tradition,
value, the nature of rationality and science contain mythic elements.
Philosophy is not possible without imagination, and science is not
possible without rationality or imagination. Also philosophy enhances
the mythic style; science enhances rationality and the mythic style
Therefore, we are led to an inclusive view in which science,
philosophy, [and the humanities] are not opposites. Imagine the
domain of awareness. Of this domain, certain elements are
78
understood in a mythic sense. Of these, some elements are
understood in a philosophic sense. Further restriction leads to the
domain of science. Outside the domain of awareness is the domain of
the potential or the possible. This, provided it is poetically
“acceptable,” is the domain of poetry-humanities. In its narrow sense,
philosophy is strictly concerned with manifestly rational and general
knowledge. This philosophic core maintains contact with all branches
of learning expressed through language. Such learning and the core
interact to produce their most effective advance
4-58
Metaphorically
Empirical
science
science
and
historical
Core philosophy and rational thought
4-57
There is a broader sense of philosophy that accepts as its subject
matter this whole domain of activity - except that it is not directly
concerned with technical and empirical details. There is an even
broader view of philosophy that sees philosophy as the entire
domain207 of interaction between a philosophic core and the domain
of the possible. This is not the dominant view of Western philosophy
but is the nature of certain Eastern philosophies of India and the
Orient and strands of Western philosophy such as existentialism
As pointed out above, the different types of thinking interact.
Likewise, the contents of the different types are mutually modified.
The content of mythic thought is affected by rationality and science.
Yet, there are domains within which mythic thought is an essential
mode: aspects of life and value which we do not understand, the
realms beyond science: the infinite and or the effectively infinite, the
infinitely small, the infinitely complex, and so on. As some of these
domains directly affect our lives, mythic thought is essential, as well
as the bonding that goes with it. Such forms are inextricably
interwoven with elements of rational thought and cultural evolution.
Universal myths beyond science are valuable for future development
of science, for universal possibilities. In these domains the narrow
view from science says: “Attend to immediate details, do not
speculate.” However, such a view is not science, but is an aspect of
cultural mythology. In the domain of mythic knowledge [1] where
science and rationality say nothing, mythic knowledge may be more
adaptive, actually and potentially, than no knowledge; [2]
contradiction is not undesirable for the net cultural system may still
be adaptive; and science as it moves into new domains can use a
multiplicity of conceptual possibilities to work with; and [3] there is
change which may be occasioned by imagination, cultural selection,
and rational-scientific invalidation. There are also [invalid] cases of
“scientific invalidation” of valid mythic knowledge
Thus: all types of knowledge interact and change. No category of
knowledge provides is complete and absolute truth [evolutionaryselection theory of science]; each category has a domain of
adaptability and each system or atom of knowledge has a certain risk
associated with its elimination - due to mythic content. There is an
inclusion: Eastern philosophy, existentialism, poetry and humanities,
the potential and the possible includes awareness, the broader
meaning of Western philosophy includes mythic knowledge includes
the core of rational philosophy includes empirical science; and there is
a movement outward of each of these domains208 through the
appropriate mode of creation and validation or invalidation: 209
Mythic thoughts and mythology
Humanities
Awareness and Western philosophy
Eastern philosophy, existentialism, religion, poetry,
art, the possible and the potential
THE UNBOUND UNKNOWN.
Table 12 Knowledge - from the Universal to the Acute
4-59
4.2.4.2
4.2.4.2.1
Main Divisions of Knowledge
Main Divisions of Knowledge - 1
This is closer to the practical scheme of 4.2.1.3, than to the ideal one
of 4.2.1.2
4.2.4.2.1.1
Symbolic systems
A priori knowledge210
4.2.4.2.1.1.1
[1] General purpose; descriptive metaphysics
4.2.4.2.1.1.2
[2] Natural systems: for art
4.2.4.2.1.1.3
4.2.4.2.1.2
[3] Special purpose: for science and technology
Symbolically coded knowledge
Empirical, experiential, rational and imaginative
4.2.4.2.1.2.1
[1] Philosophy; symbolic systems
4.2.4.2.1.2.2
[2] Humanities; arts
4.2.4.2.1.2.3
[3] Sciences; technology
Sciences include description and dynamics of systems - physical,
living, social. In case of design, we add imperatives
4-60
4.2.4.2.2
The Main Divisions of Knowledge - 2
As pointed out in detail [pp. 4-8, 9, 53], consideration here is limited
to symbolically expressed and coded knowledge of civilization
4.2.4.2.2.1
Symbolic Systems
Logical and linguistic paradoxes have shown that symbolic systems
contain knowledge in their structure. We also know this from direct
study and evolution
4.2.4.2.2.1.1
[1] General purpose symbolic systems-languages;
language of thought; descriptive metaphysics
Generally: “analytic” knowledge211
79
4.2.4.2.2.1.2
[2] Symbolic systems for arts and natural
languages;
generally:
phylogenetic-mythic
knowledge211
▪ Philosophy of the possible215 and the potential. Includes the actual
and infinite: Eastern philosophy213 Philosophy of synthetic thoughtexperience
4.2.4.2.2.1.3
[3] Special purpose symbolic systems for science
and technology; generally: synthetic a priori211
4.3.2.2
4.2.4.2.2.2
Symbolically Coded Knowledge
4.2.4.2.2.2.1
[1] Philosophy; knowledge of symbolic systems
4.2.4.2.2.2.2
[2] Humanities; arts
4.2.4.2.2.2.3
[3] Science; technology
Both science and art are applied in technology. Design for technology
- as in engineering and other professions - includes special
information, specialized knowledge, and design science. Design is
considered in Area 5, and is given a much broader interpretation
there. In Area 4, developed expertise and technique are considered
In a more complete analysis we would be concerned with all
knowledge in relation to: structure of knowledge, nature, bearers,
and origins in structure and evolution of the world. Such knowledge is
reflected in the present scheme as far as it has been symbolically
coded and expressed
4-61
4.3
A BRIEF OUTLINE OF KNOWLEDGE
The following is based on the discussion of Introduction to 4, of 4.1,
4.2, and the major divisions of 4.3
4.3.1
4.3.1.1
SYMBOLIC SYSTEMS
Generalized symbolic systems and descriptive metaphysics
Language and Related Systems
Natural dialects; evolution; written language; grammar; semantics
and semiotics212; symbols and information; symbolic information
disciplines as the shadow of human personality: arts and humanities
and their symbolic disciplines: information in visual, tonal-phonetic,
tactile, active-kinesthetic, mixed symbols: meaning through form and
structure in space and time
4.3.1.3
Special Purpose Symbolic Systems
Symbolic and information disciplines [especially in science and
technology]: logic in relation to truth-knowledge, design and
discovery; proof, algorithm and heuristic; mathematics - analytical
and geometric; other special purpose symbolic systems: programming
languages, flow charts and diagrams, technical graphics
4-62
4.3.2
KNOWLEDGE - SYMBOLICALLY CODED KNOWLEDGE
OF THE WORLD
This includes the universe, humankind, knowledge, and symbolic
systems. There is a correspondence between the subdivisions of
symbolic systems [4.3.1] and the subdivisions of symbolically coded
knowledge here [4.3.2]
4.3.2.1
1. History
2. Philosophy
3. Art and poetry
4. Science
5. Technology
General
Nature and evolution of sensory-perceptual processing [cognitive,
emotive], expressive [action, communication] phases of being. Origin
of information and knowledge. Preverbal communication of emotion
and cognition: gesture, posture, facial expression; laughter, crying
and non-word sounds. Evolution of thought: memory, imagination
and reason; communication and thought by signals, signs, symbols;
origin of speech and language; [phylogenetic-mythic] language of
thought and origins of logic; origins of writing; non-sensual vs.
symbolic and post-linguistic communication and thought
4.3.1.2
Humanities and Arts
Knowledge and expression of knowledge and experience in general;
by special, mixed, holistic modes; of any aspect or whole of
experience in nature, society, self, environment, and universe. Francis
Bacon classified knowledge according to the dominant mode of
thought: Memory, imagination, rationality [and my addition,
empiricism]. It should be remembered that any such classification is
according to [1] dominant mode. Other modes will be present in a
field placed in one class, and may be significant and [2] interpretation
of the fields. In addition, the Baconian scheme assumes that
cognition is the only factor in determining knowledge - public or
private. An approximate classification is as follows: memory: history;
imagination: art and poetry;216 rationality: core philosophy; rationality
and imagination: philosophy and ideal religion; rationality,
imagination and empiricism: science and technology; imagination and
mythic bonding: religion. Below, I list the essential fields of
humanities and arts in an arrangement that, approximately, permits
each “field” to depend on the previous:
6. Religion
4-63
There is an unavoidable artificiality to the distinctions implied by these
divisions. This reflects itself in the fact that the sequence 1-6 is one of
a number of reasonable sequences
The inclusion of science and technology among the humanities
reflects [1] the idea that science is not opposite to humanistic
knowledge but is a specialized aspect of such knowledge obtained by
adding a criterion of strong empiricism. The validity of the humanities
is that there are many other types of experience with are vital and yet
do not submit, or need to submit, to empirical experience. Such types
include phylogenetic, mythic, affective, rational, and intuitive. [2]
Technology is included in the humanities as it [especially “true”
technology] depends on art and poetry. In addition to science, and
[3] the following sections on science [4.3.2.3] and technology
[4.3.2.4] reflect the emphasis of the modern [1980s] world
4.3.2.3
The Sciences
These represent knowledge in coherent spheres of knowledge such
that definiteness is possible. Such definiteness consists in fact
[interpreted within the context of ordinary experience-language], and
in symbolic representation of the “elements”217 of experience such
that the totality of experience [within the restricted coherent spheres]
is reducible to relative simple “formulation,” hence the relative rigor
and sophistication
The fundamental-basic areas of science are:
▪ Physical: matter, energy cosmos; includes physics, astronomy,
geology and chemistry
▪ Life: in the universe218
Human and universal: psychology and cognitive science, sociology,
social and behavioral sciences
4-64
Philosophy
Philosophy, here, is taken as the most general knowledge and
according to the most inclusive criteria of human experience.213
4.3.2.4
Core philosophy [sample]: metaphysics, epistemology and logic,
philosophy of mind and symbolic systems - includes language
Technology is know how in the uses and transformations of matter,
energy, life,218 above information, society [human and social resources]
and culture, knowledge [as resource].219
▪ Philosophy of the actual: Western philosophy:214 value, actions,
social philosophy, philosophy of the disciplines. Philosophy of analytic
thought
Technology
For design, see Area 5, especially 5.3.7
Nature and development
▪ Elements
80
▪ Major fields
4.3.2.5
with application to materials, macro-technology, computers, space,
production, living cells, and warfare
Summary of 4.3.2
There are risks associated with these concepts. There is also the
potential for ontogenetic learning to affect phylogenetic experience to
a significant extent. Therefore, the approach to the universal has the
potential to go beneath the existential level of humankind. There are
risks and opportunities here
Philosophy
Core
Analytic
Synthetic
4-67
Humanities and arts
History
4.5
Philosophy
4.5.1
Art and poetry
See 3.3.1-2, 3.4.3, 3.5.6-7, and Introduction to 4, and 4.1-2
Theory and criticism
4.5.2
Literature
See comments in 3.5.7; see 4.2-4
Dramatic: theatre, cinema, and dance
4.5.3
Music
1. I plan to consider these as-when I consider these disciplines. 2.
See relevant sections of Areas 2-7 entitled “Problems of...” or “Open
Problems of...”
Architecture
Fine arts: sculpture, drawing, painting, printmaking, photography
Functional design and decorative
NATURE AND METHOD
STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION
PROBLEMS OF THE DISCIPLINES
4-68
4.6
Science
OPEN PROBLEMS OF KNOWLEDGE
THE ESSENTIALS
TREATMENT
OF
KNOWLEDGE
-
A
BRIEF
Technology
Future-Possible
Religion
1. The concept here rests upon a rejection of the notion that a
comprehensive grasp is no longer possible for one individual.
Certainly no individual can store in memory, in usable form, all the
available information
Science
Physical
Life
2. A comprehensive understanding will be based on:
Human and social
Universal
A. A classification of knowledge in a group of systems. Such systems
will correspond to the multitude of purposes
Technology
B. Additional hierarchical levels according to:
Nature
▪ Tentativeness of the “knowledge”
Elements
▪ Tentativeness of the utility
Fields
▪ Importance
4-65
4.4
DETAILED OUTLINES OF KNOWLEDGE
C. A pyramid structure to the learning of the individual
It is useful [regarding structure, learning, reference] to have outlines
at a number of levels:
Level 0: Area 4.2.4
AN ENCYCLOPEDIC COMPILATION
4.7.1
LEVEL II
A general plan of approach:
Principles of importance; basis in design [A]
The organization here will be different
See outline from Propaedia, Encyclopaedia Britannica, and the outline
and principles of division
4.4.2
4-69
4.7
Future-Possible
Level I: Area 4.3
4.4.1
▪ Ephemerality
LEVEL III
Logical outline [B]
Synoptic studies [C]
Plan-Design [D] [See 4.2.3.4]
Publisher-Committee
Again, the organization here will be different
▪ Philosophy, logic, mathematics and historical-philosophical study of
the branches of knowledge
Marketing
Estimation of topical emphasis [update rate]
▪ Physical, earth and life sciences
Invitations-specifications
▪ Human and social sciences
Editing
▪ Art, technology,220 religion
Verifying
▪ History
Coordinating
4-66
Printing
Comments on Technology
The references quoted do not mention molecular221 or “nanotechnology”. This is significant for technology of knowledgeinformation [and for materials, energy and life]. In this still largely,
but not entirely [1987], hypothetical technology, processes of
chemical disassembly of the fundamental molecular structure of
materials-life will be computer recorded and assembly will be
computer driven. This will lead to second generation [non-protein]
5-1
81
5
DESIGN
Origins of human faculties and social institutions in: awareness 
knowledge and value  design  action  evaluation and feedback
is through separation, specialization, of function in evolution.222 There
are two errors of thought [thought as generalized reflection including
appropriate elements of intuition, emotion, action] connected with
this separation: the first is that the institutions are essentially
independent [a universal dualism], and the second, perhaps a
reaction to the first, holds that there is and should be no separation;
for example, that all levels of design are completely interactive with
some specific problem environment. Neither of these views is
completely correct; nor is a happy medium. This can be discussed in
connection with:223
Origin of Purpose
The sequence awareness  knowledge  design  action 
evaluation and feedback is not meant to imply that the purpose of
knowledge is, or is not, design, and that the purpose of design is or is
not action, and so on. However, knowledge and knowing, design and
designing...are elements of culture, which form an interacting whole
that interacts with its environment. As a whole the sociocultural
system, initially at least, is a phenomenon - not an object of
awareness, knowledge and design. As the elements of the process
separate and become activities in themselves, either as faculties or as
institutions, they begin to acquire independence. The origin of
motivation and purpose is in holding the elements together as a
functioning whole
This does not imply that the purpose of knowledge is design although knowledge is an element in design. In terms of
understanding from adaptation, knowledge functions best by having a
continuum of objectives from externally regulated purpose to
independent standards and objectives. As stated earlier, this derives
from a continuum of needs in areas that range from understood to
unknown and unpredictable. In facing this dynamic multiplicity of
material through existential and universal needs, the institutions of
knowledge and design require multiple dynamic levels of interaction among themselves and with actuality
5-2
5.1
ROLE OF DESIGN AND PLANNING
I have pointed out a number of levels of design.225 I will now review
these levels:
[1] Objective design,
[2] Social process,
[3] Evolutionary design, and
[4] Design as evolution
5-3
5.1.1
ROLE OF DESIGN IN SOCIETY
We recognize a number of levels of design
5.1.1.1
Objective Design
Objective design is the simplest level: The objective of design is well
defined. Let us translate into operational terms. By design, we
understand: problem solving or search. Objective design requires that
the problem be well defined; i.e., the problem space or environment
is well defined, and the objective or condition of solution is well
defined. The simplest case is algorithmic search: search-solution can
be reduced to a well-defined, finite sequence of steps
Further Concepts of Design
Real situations may become complex: [1] people-designers may be
unaware of potential problems, the process of finding and identifying
needs requires focus. This calls for active design, [2] when needs are
not fully known-knowable - design for diversity is appropriate, [3]
when the problem environment is not clearly understood or defined learning, research are useful. [4] There is more than one solution
criterion and the criteria are not reducible to a single criterion - multiobjective design; [5] objectives are not clearly defined, or implicitly
defined and therefore explicit understanding unfolds as the process of
resolution continues. This is due to learning the structure of the
problem environment, especially in the vicinity of potential solutions dynamic design, trial and test, evolutionary problem solving apply, [6]
needs circumstances change - dynamic design [control], evolutionary
design [also: when designs are improved as a result of input from
use], [7] problem environment so complex that new design concepts
are necessary - creative design
The concepts of design just identified are:
Simple objective design
Designing and Planning Are Essentially the Same Activity
Active design
There are differences between the ways in which these words are
used, not having to do with the distinction between an activity and
the product of an activity [noun vs. verb], but the ranges of use are
such that there is value to regarding the concepts of design and
planning as the same. At a fundamental level, I will not distinguish
between the processes of design and planning. [Sometimes a
distinction will be valuable.]
Design for diversity
Scope and Detail
The degree of detail with which a design should be done will depend
upon many factors such as value of explicitness, total resources
available, relative importance of the specific project, balance between
cost of designing and cost of implementing
Design can be undertaken by any group or individual in relation to
any interest. Some interests are such that design is acceptance of the
moment. Others are such that design is controlled and rational. These
reflect the “Dionysian” and “Apollonian” modes respectively. Actual
design by humans is usually, if not necessarily, between the two
extremes and may include the question of appropriate balance[s] and
combination[s] of such activities
Role of Design in a Total Process or Achievement of Objectives
The role of design lies in the value of breaking up achievement of an
objective into design-planning and implementation - or thought and
action. The rational model breaks down, the objective is: thought [as
described above]  action. An evolutionary model:224 thought 
action  thought  action... and an interactive model: thought «
action. In evolutionary and interactive models, the notion of objective
has less significance than in the rational model
Levels of Design
Learning, research and knowledge
Multiple objective design
Dynamic design, evolutionary problem solving
Evolutionary design
Creative design
5-4
Static, objective design which employs knowledge and prespecification of objectives and employs a rational-systematic design
methodology, has been criticized226 as being too technical and too
loosely connected with the real problem being solved. Usedependence of preexisting bodies of knowledge [mystique] has been
labeled inappropriate, a technology of design. What is wanted, 5
instead, is a close interactive relationship between problem and
solution. Shön has criticized Herbert Simon's science of design,227 with
its basis in classical optimization, along these lines. Shön's notion of
design as reflection-in-action, as well as systematic bodies of
knowledge and systematic methodologies, are both useful and
included within the range of design levels considered here and
justified as a response to the range of needs arising in actuality. [This
does not justify every system-range-application of knowledge practically or ethically.] All such notions can be specified [but not
necessarily calculated - such specifications will include human
elements] within the framework of an appropriate optimization
formulation
This does not mean that knowledge and design are identical - only
that they can be understood within a common framework. Design
82
characterizes the type of thinking that is closely tied to application
and action and includes the highly interactive reflection-in-action.
Design-problem solving-interactive problem solving characterizes the
thought of the professional
Professions and Design
The professional is closely connected with practice. He-she can use
knowledge and systematic methodology, but such knowledgemethods have limits and so the professional must also respond
creatively-critically-reflectively to the needs of the problem situation.
This ability of the professional is not completely tied to each specific
problem as it arises. There are coherent, developed, areas of
professional practice, just as there are coherent bodies of knowledge.
There is a correspondence [though not one-one] between the
professions and the disciplines of knowledge: for example, law has
basis in ethics but ethics is by no means the only discipline which has
use in developing and applying law. Some of the professions and
corresponding disciplines are: Law [ethics], ministry [theology228],
medicine and health [human biology, psychology, pharmacology [also
a profession]], engineering [physical sciences], architecture and
planning [art, sociology], education, business [organization theory,
economics]
The professional acquires the appropriate body of knowledge, other
disciplines commonly useful in the profession, principles of practice
and codes of conduct appropriate
5-5
to the specific profession and general ethics. However, the designproblem solving skills that tie effort to specific problem environments
are essential. Such skills may be summarized as the generation and
evaluation of alternative. Generation includes ideas such as practice,
retrieval and use of information [replication], modification, creativity,
synthesis [variation]; evaluation -decision making [selection] includes
practice; analysis [satisfaction of natural law [includes test], use of
disciplines], comparison [selection, optimization, includes test] ...
such skills are acquired in university and apprenticeship education
Generalization
The discussion of design in this area, 5.1.1.1, has been keyed to
situations in which, because of simplicity and or practice, objectives
are relatively simple and well understood. However, even in
professional design, the situation is usually not so simple and
reference has been made to this [p 5-3: “Further concepts of design”]
Through these elaborations of the design concept, professional design
expands to embrace the full range of activities associated with
professional practice. A number of illuminating analogies are involved:
first note that the specific design process [see 5.2.3] [model]:
recognition of need  problem definition-functional considerations 
design specifications  synthesis  analysis and optimization 
evaluation [presentation], has some analogy to professional practice:
consider engineering: awareness  knowledge [academic, learning]
 technical knowledge [research, development]  design 
construction, production, operation  management  feedback, and
this has some analogy to a generalized social process: awareness 
knowledge  design [professional, public policy, planning, politicalpublic decision making]  action  evaluation  feedback
This leads to a generalized concept: social process is design. In this
concept, the objectives are discernible but diffuse. Society as a whole
is negotiating its internal and external environment
Society and Design
In an expanded sense, design includes planning, public policy, and
public-political decision making
5-6
5.1.1.2
Social and Global Design. Design for Diversity. Social
Process as Design
Social process is awareness  learning  design and planning 
action and control  evaluation  feedback...learning: discovery,
systematization, and transmission-education
Consider decisions at social-global levels. The situation is incompletely
known and understood, values only partially known and understood.
The decision making process is complex and not completely rational.
The circumstances being designed-planned for, the future, are
incompletely known. In this situation, variety of approach is adaptive.
Variety and diversity is a value. Rationality can be employed, to a
degree, in the choice of range of designs and implementations and in
the specific designs and implementations
However, the total situation is not under rational control [or human
control]. Acceptance of this is rational, for humans can understand its
limitations. The total process in which humankind navigates its future
involves an incompletely known arena and an incompletely
controllable system. Trial and error, not only of rational and human
process, but also of the total context is inherent. This is analogous to
the relations between rational knowledge [rational selection] and
mythic knowledge [cultural selection]. Both are present and each
contains in its content and processes elements of the other. In this
sense, social process is design. Rational and professional design
include cognitive treatment of aspects of the total process but retain
and interact with elements of the mythic
What is learned from this? At this point, a number of generalized
observations: [1] in rational design close attention will be paid to the
actual and conceptual problem environments. This corresponds to the
role of empiricism in science, but is not always feasible. [2] A balance
of rational design and other processes are desirable. These include
cultural institutions: professions, trades, art, religion and other
tradition.229 [3] Diversity is a value: ideas of action, play, rhythm of
nature [dance230] are relevant and reflected in human nature and
tradition. [4] These concepts are also applicable to complex cultural
institutions
5-7
5.1.1.3
Evolutionary Design
This concept is inherent in and applies to the design of 5.1.1.1 and
5.1.1.2. Design is evolutionary in the following senses: [1] The
conceptual process [or testing] involves variation and selection. [2]
The design itself is a “variation” and its implementation involves
selection. [3] The design process evolves as a result of rational and
circumstantial factors - including selection due to cultural institutions,
cultural selection [in the senses of elimination, dominance,
prominence]
The concept of evolutionary design shows professional design [also
knowledge] as growing out of social-cultural process and social
process as growing out of biological evolution [though not completely
determined by biology]
From the concept of design as an evolutionary process we learn: [1]
Rationality and other human faculties: emotion, intuition ... are
“incomplete.” [2] Acceptance of elements of insecurity, fate,
tradition... This is not fatalism for it does not imply unquestioning
acceptance, or acceptance of all aspects. However, it points to the
equal absurdity of the opposite of fatalism: complete rational control.
[3] Attempts, trials, risks are not only essential, but inherent in living
and in social process. [4] There are dimensions to design other than
the rational and empirical. [5] Design is based in biology [also
knowledge], and may be a [partial] basis for further evolution and
growth: in all dimensions: material-natural, social, inner, universal
5-8
5.1.2
EVOLUTION AS DESIGN
If we accept humankind's origins as in biological and then, merging
with the biological, social evolution, with both based in physical
evolution; then we accept the origin of design - our ability to design in evolution. Clearly, nature and [rational, conscious] design are
compatible. I have discussed some philosophical and epistemic
correlates in Areas 2, 3, 4 [and Preface, General Statement, Personal
Design]. The question: is evolution design remaining open in its
universal senses. Locally it is. I have begun to discuss some universal
consequences in these areas. These questions are of deep interest;
my reflections so far are incomplete
Here, I am interested in practical consequences of the evolutionary
nature and origin of design and possible identification: evolution =
design? Some considerations are [others in 5.2-4]:
83
1. What are the constraints of the pre-psychological levels:
environmental, physical, chemical, biological [cellular, tissue,
organ...], social...on psychosocial possibilities; what are the
implications of value and ethics
2. What possibility need and value is there for integrating the levels?
How to? Planning-design of design
3. We can see unity to the functions of life through evolution.
Detailed understanding of such unity of origin is valuable in
understanding interactive function. For example, action includes
emotion, cognition. The original processor of information processes
simultaneously with action. This continues well into the human use of
thought in situations such as hunting
Action = thought « action
This is design and there is no need for design as a separate activity
until thought-knowledge builds its own city. Then, design is the
element that connects thought and action:
Action = knowing « design « action
This is a basis for analysis of thought [knowing, design] and design,
and has been used in related forms
5-9
In Area 5, the focus is on objective design and professional design
[5.1.1.1]. There is consideration of social process [5.1.1.2] and
evolutionary design [5.1.1.3]. Evolution as design as an issue is
considered throughout Areas 1-8
Management of time recognizes need for: continuous planning and
planning horizons; planning for growth and, more generally, evolution
with circumstances; emergency planning
5-11
5.2.2
PRACTICAL MANAGEMENT
Management is the overall decision and control function, design is
problem solving; but there is an overlap. But for specialization, they
merge. Here, design will be regarded as fundamental and inclusive of
management. This is appropriate to individual or small group work.
The following outline is sufficiently general that it is an outline at
higher-complex levels:
Elements of Management and Design Functions
MANAGEMENT AS AN ELEMENT OF DESIGN
Project Operation231
Planning,
Design,
Implementation
And
Design
Management, Design
Management
entrepreneurship,
Management
Management
Policy,
Strategy
Implementation
of
Control
Management
Planning And Organization
5-10
5.2
PRACTICAL DESIGN
Role of Design in Completing a Project
This section is preliminary to the more detailed and formal treatment
of Area 5.3. It is also an outline of the methodological aspects of an
essay-book on practical design
Locating and
Resources
In achieving objectives, solving problems, there is a strategy that
conserves resources. It is to set aside time, reflect on and perhaps
come up with an approach or plan. Design is the process of coming
up with a plan:
Allocating resources to
Planning or Design of Design: Allocation of Resources
5.2.1
Administrating
Human
Financial
Technical
Project = design [planning to achieve objective] and implementation
How much time and resources should go to design? This question is
itself an aspect of design and depends on the total resources. This is
a good example of an interactive problem: it cannot be answered at
the start. For difficult and expensive projects, an approach is to begin
by looking at the problem as a whole and suppress the details. At this
level, there may be a number of possible solutions. The one is chosen
which, when design and implementation are considered, requires the
smallest commitment of resources compatible with quality. In novel
situations, this will involve guesses and estimation. Next, the full
problem is broken down into sub-problems and selection of solutions
follows the same approach as before
for
Policy,
Design
Implementation
Design
Design Method, Information,
and Knowledge
Design Method
Creativity, Evaluation
Creativity
Includes Disciplined Creativity
MANAGEMENT. Role of Management in Design
Management includes the best use of time and resources. Design and
implementation are not independent: a good design can consume
more resources but its implementation may consume less. The
questions of the previous paragraph, how to best use design
resources, is an example of management
In continuous operation-implementation. A function of management is
to set planning horizons and perform design and allocation of design
resources within this frame of time. That is:
Design = management = management and design
Management includes effective use of resources. In addition to the
question of allocation, this includes scheduling of projects,
organization, and creation of best circumstances for creativity and use
of human resources
Further
management
functions
include:
entrepreneurship;
development and use of financial and technical resources; integration,
interaction and feedback among the design-planning-management
phases
Figure 1 Management as an Element of Design
5-12
5.2.3
PRACTICAL DESIGN
Levels of Detail
I describe design in three levels of detail
Level 1
DESIGN = GENERATE
ANTICIPATION
AND
SELECT
ALTERNATIVES
WITH
Comments:
1. “Generate and select” correspond, approximately, to creative and
evaluative processes. However, there will be elements of evaluation
[includes a priori, heuristic, obviousness] in the primarily generative
phase. This prevents, through simple tests or built-in mechanisms,
generation of unnecessarily large numbers of alternatives. There will
also be elements of creativity in the primarily evaluative phase, by not
being completely specific in the generative phase, and by introducing
84
creativity into evaluation.232 “Generate and select” includes thoughtaction
2. The process “generate and select” is clearly analogous to evolution
= variation and selection. This is true whether we refer to design as
the pre-implementation phase, in which case the variation and
selection are imaginative, rational, empirical, or to implementation
and feedback for further design
The analogy with [biological] evolution goes beyond this elementary
comparison. The different levels and types of variation include:
reproduction [variation = 0], which corresponds to permutation of
design concepts and use of elements of other design concepts and
preexisting knowledge. Mutation - this corresponds to use of new
ideas and concepts. Copying mechanisms correspond to method that
also evolves:
METHOD  KNOW HOW  CREATIVITY  EVALUATION
Sources: individuals; libraries, literature [primary, secondary, and
reference]; academic; professional societies: office publications,
meetings; industrial and business, product fairs; government,
patents; networks
General-design perspectives: ideas,
background information and knowledge
concepts,
general
and
Specific-design data: known and standard designs and elements,
handbooks and catalogs
Define problem [1]: select criteria, objectives
Functional considerations:
considerations
specify
need
based
on
above
Design for function - objective design
Define problem [2]
5-13
Design specifications: translate function into performance
specifications. Make specifications as definite as is reasonable
The analogy with biological evolution is useful, but misses a number
of crucial features:
Generate alternatives - synthesis, creative and conceptual design;
“shape”
Rationality, controlled [directed] observation-experiment
Gather detailed information on known elements; use of preexisting
designs
Feedback
Random, heuristic
Planning, anticipation
Rationality and directed experiment are inherent in design. Their
result is to significantly reduce the number of variations necessary,
and the expense and risk of variation; and therefore increase the rate
of adaptation...but with risk of “over adaptation,” because of
freedom233. Feedback among the stages of design improves the
rationality of design by financing coherence. Feedback generalizes to
interaction among stages of design, between design and actuality,
and is also inherent in design. These elements are not shown
explicitly in Levels 2 and 3 below. I allow that feedback-interaction
occurs on an interactive-need basis. Planning and anticipation, also an
inherent aspect of design, are included below as “anticipate,
recognize need.”
Creative
Invention, variations
Formal [includes algorithmic]
Tree of alternatives; combinations
Systematic
Catalogues and inventories
5-15
Select alternatives
Test [analysis]
DESIGN = ANTICIPATE, GENERATE AND SELECT ALTERNATIVES
Rational: knowledge of reality - common sense, language, logic,
geometry, mathematics, science, etc., to eliminate the impossible and
to generate234 the possible
Anticipation
Experiments: to test parts of the system - if inexpensive
Recognize values and needs
Models: to test the whole system - if inexpensive
Gather information
Improving [optimization]
Define function
Selecting a good idea from the remaining alternatives
Generate alternatives
1. Based on primary criteria
Specify performance
2. Compare alternatives: within each design concept, among
concepts. Select according to criteria
Level 2
Generate alternatives
Evaluating
Select alternatives
Building and testing a preliminary version if needed
Test cycle
Make sure all criteria are satisfied; check with other people; permits;
persuade
Model and test
Improve and select
Planning complete
Use cycle
Use cycle [optional]: completing the evolution
Build and use
Build
Evaluate and feedback
5-14
Level 3
Anticipate need[s] - active design
Anticipate, become aware of existence of problem, need for “action”
[intervention, abstinence from action, reflection...]: active design
Generate criteria - identify problem parameters
Recognize values, needs, and dimensions: natural [material [physical,
chemical...] and biological], social, inner, universal
Values: resource, environmental, economic, aesthetic, ethical, safety,
cultural, human, life, universal
Levels: individual, group, cultural-special, global
Gather preliminary information
Use
Evaluate
Feedback
Further Levels of Detail
For complex systems, top-down design is an effective approach. [This
is not to deny the value and need for bottom-up; but bottom-up is
probably top-down according to some hierarchical principle.] This
introduces further levels such as market analysis, conceptual design,
preliminary design, detailed design, and testing, part of management
5-16
5.2.4
ENHANCING CREATIVITY
235
In the previous section we saw that design = anticipation and
generating alternatives and evaluating and selecting-decision making
85
[according to criteria of viability or excellence [“best”] or success...].
Creativity is commonly associated with the “generating stage” but,
actually, enters into all stages. Creativity in seeing the situation as it
is and as it could be, is involved in anticipation. Creativity enters
evaluation-selection in at least two ways: [1] creative approaches to
evaluation, selection and [2] leaving some of the generation phase
over to provide flexibility. Similarly, aspects of evaluation can be used
in the generation phase. This is a creative approach to creativity. One
way in which this can be done is: suppose there are three criteria, A,
B, C to be used in evaluation. Let us also suppose that it is very easy
to build any two criteria into generation. Then we choose the
combination of two criteria that eliminate, perhaps by estimation,
some of the other alternatives. Then the remaining criterion is applied
to the generated alternatives. There are many wrinkles depending on
how difficult the criteria are to apply, how best to apply them,
whether to apply them formally and so on. Often a not very well
considered, or perhaps a seemingly well-considered criterion will be
applied [formally or informally] and possible solutions will be
eliminated. This is one consideration to be aware of during generation
Creativity is considered further in Area 5.4.2.4.2. Further information
can be located on this topic
In general, CREATIVITY could be defined as the activity of minimizing
the effort involved in finding viable solutions through effective use of
the management, anticipation, generation and selection phases of
design. There may be value to extending this to include persuasion,
action [implementation and control] and evaluation [post
implementation] and feedback; that is, to social process as design
On Thinking-In-Action
The discussion above points to the creative potential inherent in
allowing interaction of the different phases of process. [There is an
intimate connection between thinking-in-action and change.] Aspects
of this are evaluation in generation, thinking [designing] and acting
and so on. Creative design is interactive design. Actually, this is
approximate. We have pointed out before the value to a hierarchy of
a number of levels of interaction. The problem is: include appropriate
levels
5-17
5.2.5
CONTROL
Rationality, knowledge are limited. Plans for execution of designs
cannot be perfectly implemented and knowledge and analysis upon
which such plans are built are inaccurate and incomplete. All
decisions have an element of uncertainty. This is the origin of the
problem of control
Control can be achieved:
1. By tightening rational analysis;
2. Judicious adjustment of criteria of validity to consonance with
actuality [understanding; natural criteria, value: evolutionary criteria,
value];
3. By close connection between thought and action: interactive
design;
4. Adjustment of action according to conformance with plan;
5. Adjustment of plan and design according to values;
6. Adjustment of expectations
A. Acceptance
B. Rhythm, flow
A range of levels of rationality and of control can be accommodated
in the schemes of Areas 5.2.3 and 5.3.4.1
5-18
5.2.6
APPLICATIONS
The difference between practical and formal [Area 5.3] design is in
the level of resources available, used for design. Applications of
practical design could be to any of the examples of 5.3.7: especially
the global and the individual categories
5-19
5.2.7
OUTLINE OF A VOLUME ON PRACTICAL DESIGN
1. Nature and origin of design
Evolution
Thought and action
Problem of control
Levels of control and interaction
Levels of design; origin of value
2. Value of design
3. Method; discussion of the elements
4. Applications
As issues of interest
As studies of method [as in 5.2.1-5, and 5.3.4]
5-20
5.3
FORMAL OBJECTIVE DESIGN: PLANNING AND DESIGN
The linear spectrum of design levels is defined by the degree to which
well-defined objectives exist
Objective design is the level at which the human designer has welldefined objectives
This merges with the next general level, which includes social process
Objective design and social design or process are similar
Consideration is therefore given to social design or process
Objective design is the level at which the human designer has fairly
well defined objectives, a reasonable degree of control in Throughout
this outline, a number of levels of design have been identified and
repeatedly emphasized. The distinction between the levels is based
on the degree to which objectives exist and are clearly identified;
control is possible; purpose and intention are possible and are
present; thought and action are separate. When the objectives,
control, purpose, thought are in individuals, there is a high degree of
compatibility among these indexes and they define a linear spectrum
rather than a multidimensional classification
implementation is possible, purpose and intention motivate the
designer, and design is separate from implementation. Of course, the
“ideal” case of perfectly defined objectives, full control, absolute
commitment and single-minded purpose, and complete separation of
thought and action does not, and probably can not exist and any
desire for such an ideal is fantasy, the fantasy of perfect rationality.
Also, the concept of objective design does not describe a discrete set
of activities but, rather, a continuum which merges with design levels
at which clear objectives, full control, separation of thought and
action do not exist
The levels of design have origins in evolution. The primal level is
material-biological level: at this level we do not discern, initially,
objectives, control, or conscious design. Debate may be had, whether
this level should be called design. Depending upon the system
identified, however, elements of design may be discerned at levels
previously regarded as mechanistic by major factions of both science
and religion. Debate is then possible: how early in physical-biological
evolution can elements of design be recognized, if not by empathy,
then by intellect, and for what system? The next level is of
information processing internal to biological organisms. This merges
into cognitive-emotive information processing of universal [internal
and external] stimuli, and into collective social process as design. At
this level, which is mythic at its highest development, overall behavior
is non-purposive and nature bonded, but elements of design originate
from within organisms. This is an evolutionary level. This merges into
social process as design with objectives - though such objectives are
partial. And, finally, the fourth level is objective design. Each level
coexists with and modifies, perhaps suppresses, previous levels. One
of the basic themes of this work is that the nature of life, humankind
and human institutions of awareness and insight  learning:
discovery, synthesis, transmission  design  action:
implementation and control  evaluation  feedback can be
86
understood in an integrated and connected way, without need for ad
hoc elements of foundation, than possible before
Area 5.2 is on the informal practice of objective design. This area 5.3
is on formal practice. Naturally these blend into other levels and have
especially strong interaction with social process. Therefore significant
elements of social process are
5-21
in Areas 5.3-6. The ideas of 5.2, which are formalized in this section,
are also applicable to social process in which objectives are only
partly known, since they are only partly inherent in their context. An
inclusive term for social process in which objectives, control, purpose,
separate thought are only partially inherent and objective design in
which objectives, ... are inherent to a significant degree, is planning
and design. In all cases in which objectives ... are not completely
inherent, are partial. There is partial freedom within evolutionary
constraints or limits. Progress-process-change outside of these limits
is by trial and selection. The issue is open, to what degree these
constraints can be voided by rational activity and to what degree such
constraints provide understanding of progress-change and value ...
within the constraints. For example, although the range of conscious
behavior and choice within the limits may be wide, not all choice
within this range will be equally desirable. To what extent may the
desirability of choices be consciously based in evolutionary nature,
fiction and future possibilities?
It is correct to recognize that objective design and social process
merge and the design and planning concepts and methods are, and
should be, perhaps, similar. To the extent that rational design is not
possible in given circumstances, an understanding of freedom,
constraints, rationality, and interactions - potential and actual - is
valuable. This includes, but is not restricted to exploration in the
dimensions: material [physical, biology in the realms of the
microworlds, macroworlds, and the world of the complex], social,
inner, universal
5-22
5.3.1
PHILOSOPHY OF DESIGN
The purpose of a philosophy of design is to provide: an understanding
of the nature of design and its foundation as an independent activity;
and an understanding of the relations of design to other elements of
human activity: natural, social, inner, universal. This has been done
to some extent in the areas cited below.236 An outline of this
foundation has been accomplished. Clarification, definiteness rationality and foundation and amplification remain necessary
Further comments and observations
Design has origin in action: action / thought  learning  change
 understanding change…
Comprehensive Anticipatory Design
R. Buckminster Fuller has emphasized the need for “comprehensive
anticipatory design.” This is impossible and, therefore, unnecessary.
It is contrary to the idea of design as an element of change and
evolution
from logic, reflection, cultural comparison, evolution, optimality ... or
combination;
5-23
design and action: design as transitions: thought  action and
relation to philosophies of action and being [e.g., existentialism and
primitive lives]; levels of knowledge and design: knowing that
[information], what [history, science, concept], how [art, technology],
why [understanding], wherefore [wisdom, value, purpose, design]
subject to clarification, modification, action; a priori and “empirical”
aspects of design and relation to a priori and empirical aspects of
knowledge237
Need for Philosophy of Design and Planning
A number of factors are responsible for the emergence of design and
planning:
1. Existence of large organizations has meant that resources are
available to invest in the study of organization. Such emergence is in
turn due to the power of large-scale technologies in using and
creating natural resources
2. Existence of a scientific methodology which could be applied to
study of design and planning. This has led to specialized tools for
analysis of large and complex systems: operations research and
systems engineering
3. Development of overall planning method in government, this has
been occasioned by growth in governmental programs, globally, in a
context of limited resources and growing interaction between political
entities
4. The growth of interaction has led to a need for global planning
There is a need to understand the nature of the process and its
interactions with other spheres of activity, and to provide a
foundation for the elements of the process in the context of the large
and complex sphere of activity. We would like to know that our
categories of understanding238 in relation to design and planning are
correct and complete - at least to a reasonable degree. This is the
function of philosophy of design in both technical and existential
senses. Philosophy provides a foundation for analysis: where, what,
how and how much to control
Another insight into the role of philosophy is that the philosophical
approach is consistent with the models of design presented here [5.23]. These models begin with reflection: what is the need? Philosophy
begins with reflection: is there a need to review the knowledge and
information [mythic or other] at the basis of human-social
organization and life? These questions and their answers are
necessary but incomplete. Action follows need and need must be
grounded. Here, again, philosophy provides a foundation. In a world
where the rational model of decisions and actions is the norm,
philosophy gives foundation and balance
5-24
5.3.2
MANAGEMENT OF DESIGN. PLANNING
Management and Related Concepts
Models Of Design and Integration
Management: Planning, controlling, organizing; integration of design
and implementation: resource analysis
The models of design presented “being,” “mythic,” “rational,”
“planning” modes - Dionysian, Apollonian and other - and integrating
modes such as D A D A or thought-in-action
Further Concepts: Design of the design process, planning, facilities,
personnel, generalized methodology; enhancing creativity and
productivity; equilibrium, period and emergency planning
Further Topics in Philosophy of Design
Management of one level occurs at the same and or another level
[see 5.3.4.1-4]
Localization and internalization of natural processes and evolution;
levels of being and design; knowledge, evolution, design; intention
and purpose: alternate futures and choice; integration of choice and
mechanism; causality and synchronicity in design; specialization of
objectives: basis in cultural or natural process and evolution: what are
objectives, values and their origins; what are the fundamental
problems of design and their relation to origins of design and global
problems; what is our approach to design and what should it be?
Foundations of design: showing how the processes [design: need 
function  specifications ... and social process: awareness 
knowledge and value  design...] can be derived in some sense:
Type Analysis
Determine type of design-style suitable: [1] Mode of decision making:
rational, interactive, Dionysian; [2] level or combination of
significance: material-natural, social, inner, universal; [3] model of
planning: developmental planning, incrementalism, economic model
of choice, ethical model of choice [see below]; for individuals,
societies, social agencies, technical systems [these possibly
overemphasize the rational model], other [5.2, 5.3.4, 5.3.6-7, 5.4]:
environmental, resource, wildlife
Models of Planning
87
See especially: Robert Mayer, Policy and Program Planning: A
Developmental
Perspective,
1985.
Mayer
advocates
the
developmental approach, but discusses some others such as
incrementalism, economic model of choice, ethical model of choice.
He does not include an evolutionary model explicitly, but discusses
evaluation, feedback, and spiral vs. linear progress. The model is
somewhere between my model of design [need  ...] and social
process [awareness  ...]
The similarity between Mayer's model of developmental planning and
my model of social process-change is evidence of the experiential
value of the models. This is an answer, in part, to the question of
justification. However, this is an empirical justification and provides
motivation, and perhaps insight, for philosophical, evolutionary and
technical justification
Mayer points out the origin of the developmental and related models
in government agencies during the seventies and further application
to large not-for-profit
5-25
organizations and advocacy groups. However, it is clear that such
models, with appropriate additions, deletions, modification, Apollonian
and Dionysian adaptations are applicable in a wide variety of
situations
approaches that are sometimes essential. Bottom  up design starts
with the details. The value is that it begins in the roots of the problem
and respects the reality of these roots. Designs avoid becoming top
heavy and there is a self-limiting aspect to bottom  up design
regarding size, complexity, and centralization. However, we can
generalize the notion of top  down: T  D is based on a priority: in
some sense global-overall considerations are most important; then
come the main systems, the subsystems, all according to some
hierarchy. An alternative to focusing on the hierarchy is to focus on
priorities
Therefore, an approach to design that is more general than simple T
 D, is priority design. A set of priorities is listed: P1, P2, ... and
design proceeds according to priorities P1, P2, ... When Pn is satisfied:
go to Pn+1. If during design for Pn, any set of previous priorities
becomes not satisfied: go back to the earliest, in real design: [1]
priorities could be determined dynamically, [2] the concept of degree
of satisfaction can be introduced as more flexible that the scheme:
satisfied-not satisfied; acceptable satisfaction levels for stepping Pn 
Pn+1, and necessary levels are going back to a previous hierarchy
could be preset and or determined dynamically
5-27
5.3.3.1
A Set of Global Design and Planning Levels239
Appropriately generalized, such models provide foundation for the
social process and its elements: awareness  knowledge and value
 design  implementation and control  evaluation  feedback
Global
Robert Mayer's Model of Developmental Planning
Consumable resources
This model is reproduced below from Mayer's book cited, for
comparison with my model of social process.
Environmental and natural
Regulating elements and permissible fluctuations
Environmental - land, atmosphere, water; material, energy, and bioSocial240
Public sphere: social organization
Political: decision making, execution, control
1. Determination of goals from values
Political, legal
Economic
2. Assessment of needs
Technology and technological systems
Industrial operations
3. Specification of objectives
System and product
Subsystem, ... component
4. Design of alternative actions
Service
5. Estimation of consequences of alternative actions
Cultural
Art
6. Selection of course[s] of action
Religion
Learning
7. Implementation
Discovery, synthesis, transmission
Private sphere
8. Evaluation
Individual [see 5.4.3]
Universal
9. Feedback – intermediate feedback not shown
5-28
5.3.4
Range of application
Design includes management. As pointed out above, there is
application, with appropriate adjustment, to a range of situations
varying in type and complexity
5-26
5.3.3
TOP  DOWN DESIGN: DESIGN AND PLANNING
LEVELS. PRIORITIES DESIGN
Top  down design is the name of a common sense procedure of
principle, which says: start design at the most comprehensive level
and work down through divisions or systems through subsystems, to
details. There is obvious value to this. However, there are other
Outline of Methodologies
Or, outline of design and planning methodologies for a set of global
to specific levels
There is a certain amount of repetition of the different design areas
and methodologies, especially in 5.2-4
The methods are variations of a single concept which is an
amplification of design = variation and selection = development and
evaluation of alternatives
An outline of design method was given in 5.2.3. In this area, I give
some variations of the basic method specific to different levels of
complexity and type. Neither the method of 5.2.3 nor the variations
given here are intended as absolute. There are feedback, interactions,
and possible additional elements. Nor are these methodologies
88
intended as substitutes for creativity: rather they are intended as
vehicles for creativity
The basic method is presented, in outline, in 5.3.6.1 “component
design.” Subsequent sub-areas contain additional considerations and
discussions, but not a repetition of the basic method. These outlines
are at present241 incomplete.242 The areas for which outline of method
- and some related considerations - is given are:
A. Components243 design
B. System design
C. Industrial operations
D. Business organization and planning
E. Technology and technological systems
F. Social, national and global design and planning
Feedback and Interaction among the Stages of Design
In general, any feedback or feed-forward of the design process is
possible. Thus, any interaction is possible. Obviously, feed forward
will be more in the nature of anticipation of “look” forward. The
standard sequence, developed for its natural organization of thought,
and its validation and growth in experience, is a first approximation to
actual design. A candidate for a second approximation [or a first
approximation to an interaction model] is Mayer's model [p 5-25]
89
5-29
5.3.4.1
Component Design - The Basic Procedure244
Design Phase
Recognize need [market analysis], opportunity; active problem recognition
Evaluate need, gather information
ANTICIPATION
Problem definition - functional considerations: goals
Design definition - design specifications
MUTUAL FEEDBACK
Synthesis-conceptual design and selection
Creation, invention
CONCEPT
Inventories, catalogs
Design for manufacture, function, life-cycle
Analysis and optimization - constraints and objectives
Geometrical, physical ... analysis
Functional, economic, ... optimization
ANALYSIS AND DECISION
Social-cultural
Evaluation
Prototype testing, review
Persuasion
PERSUASION
Presentation, illustration, communication
Production Phase
Production system design
Construction and fabrication
PRODUCTION
Production and production control
Use Phases
Implement [sell, advertise]
Evaluate
Feedback
USE AND EVALUATION
5-30
5.3.4.2
System and Subsystem Design
An example of system design is modern aircraft design [1940-1980].
The basic procedure [5.3.4.1] is implicit in the remaining sections
[1.3.4.2 - 6], with appropriate modifications
Phase 1 Marketing Analysis
Technical, operational, financial
Phase 2 Conceptual Design
Functional design, panoramic sketch;
Preliminary parametric optimization
Business Organization, Planning and Management245
Planning and management are applied in business and corporations.
However, much of the principles of planning and management are
applicable to other fields: education, professional and trade systems,
policy-economic, social, environmental, resource... public decision
making and politics. Similarly, principles from other arenas can be
employed in business; e.g. principles of appropriateness of scale,
public ownership, democratic management. None of this is to imply
the necessity of business or its management. Such questions would
be considered as part of public policy
Management Functions for Business
Studies; ergonomics - human engineering
General functions
Phase 3 Preliminary Design
Board of Directors
System performance and analysis; computer
Executive function
Modeling and testing
Functional strategies
Phase 4 Detailed Design
Marketing
Subsystems, components
Distribution
Phase 5 Prototype testing
Production
Performance, safety; FAA, CAA requirements
Finance
Flight testing
Social responsibility
Typical Times
In the aircraft industry, typical times for major projects are up to
fifteen years, depending on complexity, the political climate, and
availability of resources. For the phases, typical times are: months to
years for conceptual design, six to twenty-four months for preliminary
design, one to three years for detailed design, one year and up,
depending on unforeseen contingencies, for prototype testing
5-31
5.3.4.3
5-32
5.3.4.4
Industrial Operations
Industrial operations merge into business organization and planning.
See 5.4.2.4 for related considerations. The typical industrial
operations are:
Entrepreneurship
Management
Design and related activities
Construction and fabrication
Production
Operation and maintenance
Auxiliary
Design and Related Management Activities
Information gathering and synthesis
Invention [ties in with research]
Long-term market analysis
Pure research
Oriented research
Applied research
Development
Design
System and product
Production system and control
Design study
Development of design methods - research-management function
Management of design
See 5.2, 5.3.5, and 5.4.2
Allocation of resources over all phases and levels of operation and
design
Business ethics
Strategic planning; time and planning [see comment, p 5-11]
Planning and policy
Strategy, operations and innovation
Managing for the future
The functions can be adapted to non-production businesses as well as
non-business operations
5-33
5.3.4.5
Technology and Technological Systems
The two fundamental aspects are: use of technology-development
and design of technological systems [the first includes and interacts
with the second]; outline:
Technology and scientific policy
...On use and development - an aspect of public-social policy [see
5.3.4.6]
Technology: resource transformation and use originally in the sense
of material and energy resources; broadened to include life, society
and culture, information, knowledge. This brief concept of technology
is value free except as far as technology itself is a value or disvalue
Use of technology for development of military and economic
objectives including power
Conservation - in a broad sense includes wisdom in the
transformation and use of resources, recognition of values of
existential and material balance, and balance of material and
existential dimensions. Includes human, life and environmental values
Development and design of technological systems
Policies and management of development [see 5.3.4.4, 6]
Technique and art
Research; development
Technical design
Elements246
Complete systems - current and future, “values”
Evolved systems
Fields
Engineering
Comment: Correlate the fields of technology with engineering
disciplines; employ redefinition if necessary
5-34
5.3.4.6
Social Systems and Institutions: Global, Environmental
and Human Concerns: Toward Complete Specification of
Planning
Planning
Institutions grow in this process; and there is an effect from global to
national to regional and local levels
Levels and models of choice
Planning occurs at two levels: rational and mythic [see discussions
Areas 3, 4]. The rational level has been outlined in previous areas
within 5.1-2. These include:
Economic choice
U.N.
Tran governmental: United World Organization247
National
Mode
Democratic process and or
...Policy and planning organizations
Policy areas248 - economic, legal, political, social, urban and regional.
Environmental and resources: water, land, air, space...materials and
energy, life, human and psycho-social-cultural, information and
learning
Economic
Legal, political
Public choice [political process]
Social, urban
Ethical choice
Environmental, resource
Social choice
Land, air, water, space
Incremental planning
Developmental planning
Energy, matter, life, social-cultural, information, knowledge and
learning
Evolutionary planning: includes all above, integrated
Society and Individuals
Completion of the models
At the mythic level knowledge, planning serve bonding functions. The
entire culture is selected, actual cultures have both features, and
clear-cut distinction is not possible. Mythic includes rational without
institutionalizing it; rational serves mythic function - even when it “is”
rational. Rational planning merges into the mythic level with
evolutionary planning. This merger starts with the social process:
Awareness  knowledge and value  design and planning 
implementation and control evaluation  feedback  awareness
This process incorporates concept formation, conceptual review and
performance review. The entire cultural process is subject to selection
and arises out of prior evolution. As stated previously [5.3.1] and in
5.3.5, it will be valuable to “derive” this process from evolution. Note
the simpler version of the process: action  evaluation  knowledge
 design  action, or awareness  knowledge  design  action
 awareness
These processes complete the “modeling” of choice
5-35
Areas of Policy Formation and Decision-Making: Social, Global, and
Environmental
Political - public decision making: levels, modes and alternatives
Level
Global
Under the best circumstances needs of society and individuals are
met by the same rather than conflicting arrangements. Individuals
need stability and freedom. Society requires structure and innovation.
The correct amount of order provides structure for society and
stability for individuals; the right amount of variability provides
freedom for individuals and innovation [due to recombination and as
a consequence of innovation] for society, both individual and society
require a balance of variability and order and there may be
compatible arrangements, as a consequence of co-evolution,
satisfying both sufficiently or optimally
5-36
Further Considerations
Outline of a Complete Set of Areas and Needs for Design: Planning
Matrix
I have noted the dimensions of human existence on many occasions
and especially in Personal Design. There are
Natural [biological and material]
Social
Inner [psychological - of the psyche]
Universal. These levels also define a number of levels of being. Each
level of being has - or may have - needs corresponding to the
dimensions of existence as indicated below. All needs should be cared
for - by planning or in evolution.
92
A PLANNING MATRIX SHOWING NEEDS
Being a Projection of Human Being to the Universal
Level of Being
Natural
Social
Inner
Universal
Currently - in
terms of human
evolution - none.
Identity
Conditions of existence
- currently expressed,
for example in laws of
physics
Need
Dimensions
Being
Existence
of
or
Natural
Sustenance
Bonding249
Social
Sustenance
Structure
Innovation
and
Creativity,
Responsibility250
Bonding
Inner
Sustenance
Freedom
Bonding250
and
Self Actualization
Self Transcendence
Universal
Identity
Identity
Identity
Identity
and
and
Bridge
Figure 2 A Planning Matrix Showing Needs
The concept of this situation can be simplified - reduced - from a four by four to a two by two matrix by equating: Natural = Natural and Social,
Existential = Inner and Universal
5-36-1
5.3.4.6.1
Levels of global-social planning
Universal
Global
National
Regional
Local
Group...includes kin groups
Individual
5-37
5.3.5
Sciences of Design and Problem Solving: Formalizing
Creativity and Evaluation of Design and Priorities
Extent to which design can be reduced to science; rationalization
within artifactual contexts; science of design as an element of design
and social process
Design here is design of method, not of knowledge
Herbert A. Simon251 has claimed that design can be reduced to a
science. Insofar as certain technical questions are concerned and to
the degree of accuracy obtaining in relation to such questions,
reduction to “science” is possible. Generally, such reduction is neither
desirable, nor possible, in my opinion. We would need to
communicate with all levels of evolution and to be able to control
these - to an accuracy within the inherent stability of the evolved
levels - to have a science of design. Further, we would feel the
reduction of all levels of our being appropriate. In general, we,
humankind, do not feel such reduction appropriate. The origins of
such feeling find basis: in the reality of our evolutionary past, and this
past has “successfully” negotiated several futures; in evaluations of
the power of rational-empirical means, and such evaluations are
based in rational and other dimensions of personality and psychology;
in the existence of vast territories of unknown in our futures [carefully
concealed by human artifactual systems - physical and symbolic]; in
the potential need for fundamentally novel responses to such
unknown; as expression of our full and varied natures: these bases
are not exclusive
Simon's work includes a response to such criticism and opposition. His
work admits of the bounded nature of rationality and this finds
reflection in approximation in mathematical description of criteriavalues and objectives. Further his description of such objectives
allows for varying levels of aspiration; i.e., for inclusion of the
subjective, feeling, emotive aspects of human nature and their
influence on motivation. I would argue in two ways in response to
this: [1] it is incomplete. It does not include account of all human
levels of being, nor all dimensions of reality; nor does it include the
demands of real time [such may be, at least potentially, incorporated
as in interactive design [p 5-22]]. [2] Approximation of objectives is
admission of inadequacy unless it can be shown that such
approximation is within the inherent stability of systems being
designed. This must be determined rationally or empirically. I have
not found the provision of such rational treatment, as an a priori [i.e.,
independent of the specifics of the design or class of designs
concerned], in the literature, and empirical treatment that is
evolutionary. Further, the existence of fluctuating levels of aspiration
is not tantamount to an analysis of such levels in general, even if
certain species [of aspiration] or certain aspects can be reduced - in
whole, or in part - to, say, economic categories over individuals and
or populations
5-38
However, I do believe that there is a science of design which is a
codification and quantification [where possible and appropriate] of the
learning in method and knowledge for design. Such a science forms a
complement to other factors which are not under the purview,
control, or awareness of the designer: these other factors include the
limitations which arise because [1] the designer's rational faculty,
including enhancement by computational, technical and personnel
resources, is an incomplete element of the whole set of faculties of
understanding, and [2] as an individual the designer - or design
group - cannot be completely responsible for decision and control and
action
93
It should also be recognized that society is, in certain senses,
artifactual. This enables the rationalization [in a valid sense, as well
as invalid senses] and rational understanding of certain elements of
process within this artifactual framework. However the framework
itself is not completely rational or rationalized [in the same valid
sense of constructed through rationality - or partially so constructed].
This discussion repeats the content of some comments on p 5-37
Thus, science of design is an element of design and process but does
not provide the whole picture. To those who love adventure, and the
unknown - even if they fear it as they love it - this is fortunate. This
orientation is an expression of the essentiality of unknown elements
of our environmental universe
5-39
Sources for the Topics
One of the sources for the following list of topics is Simon's work.
However, I have made significant additions and modifications. The
major classifications - Areas A to E below; the whole of areas A, B,
and E; basis of design and design values-objectives in evolution; the
discussion of sub-optimization in item 7; area D.2 - are new
5-41
5.3.5.2
Area B254 Analysis of Systems
4. System analysis
“System[s] analysis” has many meanings. Here it refers to analysis of
complex systems by transformation of their symbolic representation.
Transformations are: expressive, linguistic, logical, mathematical,
schematic ... Rules or schemes of transformation are representations
of behavior or natural law: a priori and empirical. Systems of
expression and transformation [Å items 3 and 4] provide knowledge
Simply, system analysis is modeling of complex systems - holistically
[as in item G] or by reduction to components
5. Component analysis and analysis of the scientific categories
Modeling of simple components, or populations behaving as
components. Physical [mechanical, thermal, optical, acoustical,
electromagnetic, nuclear,...: classical, quantum, relativistic], chemical,
biological, human, social, ... behaviors. Analysis as in item 4, above
6. Empirical and statistical analysis
Further Modifications Necessary
Analysis of systems and components by testing and interpretation of
data. Input-output analysis
Before outlining the topics, I will mention some changes that seem
desirable:
5.3.5.3
1. The optimization should be more complete with respect to:
5-42
Area C. Evaluation
7. Theory of evaluation. Basis in evolution and philosophy of value.
Optimization vs. sub-optimization: synchronic vs. diachronic systems
Multiple interest
Value theory, utility theory; see item I, p 5-39, for modes of choice
[basis], combinations [multiple interest255] and interactions. Statistical
decision theory and optimal controls: classes of such theory
corresponding to item I [p 5-39]. Treatment of affect and other
“non”-cognitive aspects of human behavior. Quantification and other
ways to symbolize objects and concepts
Dynamic behavior
Interaction among and with regard to
Elements of process
Need [thought-in-action]
Real time
Basis in evolution and origins. [See 3.5.3, 3.5.6, Introduction to 4,
4.1, 5.3.1, and comments under item II, p 5-39.] Much work is
possible here. Objectivity256 in values has dual basis in: selection,
unknown future-human nature [and nature of environment],
philosophy of value [3.5.3]
Basis of choice
Ethics
Aesthetics
Economics
2. Incorporation into social process, social and other evolution
through
Comments on optimization vs. sub-optimization in a synchronic
system - one that is, can be, designed from scratch - design is
optimal design. In evolutionary-diachronic systems, in which
adaptation occur by building upon existing structure, design is
subsystem optimization. For complex systems, this is often true for
artifactual design - until power of analysis is sufficient
Design as an element of social process
8. Computational methods
Origin and nature of values and objectives
Approximate expression of symbolized-quantified value. Techniques
for deducing optimal set[s] and element[s]:
Incremental
Developmental
Evolutionary
Origin of knowledge, design, action, evaluation and feedback as
separate elements of human nature and social process: in human252
and social evolution
5-40
Topics in a Science of Design
5.3.5.1
Area A. Modes of Analysis253
a. Algorithms for a variety of situations,
b. Algorithms and heuristics for choosing satisfactory alternatives
9. Formal logic of design
Imperative-modal logic vs. declarative logic. Appropriate classes of
logic. Cases of very large and or ambiguously defined problem space
5-43
1. Quantity and quality
Cognition, affect, feeling. Origin of cognition and affect in feeling.
Priority of quality. Original of quantity in quality: quantity as a species
of quality. A priori, organismic and relational basis. Evolutionary basis.
General schemes describing and analyzing systems in which quality is
not reducible to even vector quantity, and vector “ordering” is not
reducible to scalar ordering. Mathematics and logic of nonquantitative analysis. Symbolic treatment
5.3.5.4
5.3.5.4.1
Area D. Problem Solution
Area D.1 Search for and Generation of Alternatives
2. Quantification
11. Allocation of resources
When can variables be quantified?
...For search and information gathering
Extension of the symbolic at various levels of specificity to questions
of analysis [behavior], value and decision [choice]: deterministic,
probabilistic, and ambiguous
3. Expression and modes of expression
12. Theory of systems with structure
10. Heuristic search
Factorization [planning] and means-end analysis as two basic
approaches. Includes large and ambiguous problem spaces.
Generation
...And implications for design organization. Complex systems.
Hierarchy, weak interactions.257
13. General and evolutionary analysis of creativity
The content, types and divisions of knowledge
94
Nature and development are not independent. Development =
development of genetic possibility in response to environmental and
cultural influence; also development = biological and learning. [Also
items 8, 5.2.4 and 5.4.2.4.2.]
14. Representation of design problems
Similar to item
representations,
representations:
4: design and solution oriented. Value
types
of
representation:
taxonomy
of
of
Analysis and problem solving are similar in that goals can be treated
as analytic conditions. [See also p 5-14 “Generate alternatives.”]
Description and concept formation
Partitioning [non-unique]
Hierarchization [and subsystem specification]
Examples: in social science: factor analysis, indices; in physical
Science: discretization, modal analysis
Expressive, symbolic [see 4.2.2]
Priority partitioning
Linguistic, logical, mathematical
Autonomizaiton [suppression of design of evolved characteristics]
Spatial
Analysis and problem solving
Plans, three-dimensional models
Quantification
Deterministic, stochastic, and ambiguous understanding and models
Flow-charts, programs for problems involving actions
5-44
5.3.5.4.2
Area D.2 Problem Solving for Complex Systems
258
Fundamental problems arise in describing, experimenting
with,
analyzing, and problem solving for complex systems. Systems may be
complex in the following senses:
Non-quantitative behavior
Concept formation, analysis and problem solving when control [or
understanding or computational capacity] is incomplete
Evolutionary treatment: iterative, incremental, developmental with
feedback
For description, analysis, partitioning into subsystems may be
essential. This is a function of the describer relative to the described.
Complexity of description needed at one level [e.g., material] is a
function of choices at other levels or, sometimes, of imperatives at
other levels. This, too, may be a function of perception and value.
However, if we consider organic evolution we find partitioning of
function. Not all partitioning is merely an artifact of human thinking.
Thus partitioning is not mere dissection or reduction but the
realization that a unitary description is inadequate: systems have
complexity. Even when unitary description is not possible, unified
description may be possible through introduction of adequate
interactions to model significantly holistic behavior. Another way of
saying this is that the significant interactions should be included
Planning [partitioning]
Partitioning and representation are rarely unique. However alternative
partitions or representations may be equivalent. This is, in fact, one
test of the consistency of such partition and representation
The focus here is not on rational design or in empirical design or in a
comparison of rational and empirical design. Rather, the focus is on
appropriate inclusion of both rational and empirical elements
Full partitioning, or full quantification or partitioning may be
impossible or undesirable
Analysis may be difficult or impossible owing to complexity of
analytical models supposedly required for adequate analysis.
Empirical study may be difficult or impossible owing to vastness,
sensitivity, power of control, analytical complexity and so on; e.g.,
social systems cannot be isolated, social “experiments” can not be
repeated under many circumstances. Yet some [empirical] science is
possible: [1] there may be some repetition under similar
circumstances and observation can replace control, [2] through
incremental and related approaches of planning [developmental,
iterative, evolutionary...]
In cases where description, representation, partitioning, analysis, and
empirical treatment are incomplete, full control must be relinquished
The scope of the problem is such that values are not clear. For
example, economic values derived in one context may be invalid in
other ones. Similar considerations exist with regard to ethical, moral,
aesthetic, varietals, action, adventives, inventive and other values and
the interchangeability or substitutability of these values
Again and for similar reasons, full control must be relinquished.
Further, in the case of incomplete valuation [many significant cases]
full control is undesirable. In such cases, insofar as control is
desirable, planning is: incremental, developmental, feedback,
iterative, and evolutionary. These include potential creation of values
in art, imagination, and poetry
5-45
Having discussed some of the sources of difficulty and approaches to
resolution for complex systems, I now review, tentatively, in outline:
Analysis, problem solving for complex systems; iterative-evolutionary
problem solving
Enhanced by low interaction levels
End means
Action and feedback
Analysis, such as is possible in these circumstances, is a guide rather
than an imperative. Therefore, education in distinctions between
guiding vision and imperative vision is needed
Value free knowledge259
5-46
Comments on Empirical and Rational Elements
1. Inclusion of rational and empirical elements
2. Interaction of rational and empirical elements. Origin in the real
In the total process of understanding and design, rational and
empirical elements enter at overall and sub-process levels. Both enter
into the translation from “reality” to representation: in this, empirical
activity has its rational aspect. Rationality enters as coherence and
consistency in symbolic representations and transformation of such
representations such as arise out of logic and natural law. Empirical
activity conditions this process at three levels: in the specific behavior
of specific systems, in the formulation of natural law and in the
criticism and formulation of consistency and logical transformation.
Even if, in the last case, the empirical element is hidden or wrapped
up with linguistic or prelinguistic development. Thus rationality has, is
conditioned with, and interacts with empirical elements. We wish to
understand: as far as is appropriate, the interaction of rational and
empirical elements at various levels, and in various spheres, of
activity; and the origin of these systems in the real
3. Rationality in design
Rationality enters design through the use of knowledge as an
information base and as method: science of design. Here again the
empirical element enters: to the extent that science and knowledge
have basis in empirical activity: knowledge, too, has basis in
empirical, rational [and other cognitive, affective] activity
4. Empirical elements in design
Empirical elements enter design directly in the traditional ways:
experimentally for those systems that submit easily to experiment and
through observation. Incremental, developmental, feedback and
evolutionary approaches for complex and or sensitive systems. Such
approaches are also applicable to systems for which rational and
controlled experimental analysis is possible. In such cases, the
question of balance is relevant: “science” vs. evolution. Of course, as
an example of previous discussion, science is evolutionary and such
95
evolution includes, or may include, elements of science. To the extent
that empirical elements are included there is lack of rational control;
to the extent that such elements are evolutionary there is lack of
human control. Such “lacks” are not deficits but are appropriate
5. Unity of rational and empirical analysis in both knowledge and
design
We have seen, in areas 3 and 4, the unity of rational and empirical
analysis in knowledge. We see this unity again, in design. This is
natural for there is analogy and continuity between knowledge and
design at one level: objective design. At another level: social process,
evolutionary and incremental-developmental design, knowledge is
included
5-47
as an element which, as a whole, is subject to elements of rational
and empirical construction and criticism. Perhaps humankind is
passing into a post knowledge-information phase in which the whole
process: awareness  knowledge and value  design and planning
 action  evaluation  feedback and its interactions are regarded
as fundamental. The lack of such a transition hitherto may be due to
the operation of the whole process at a mythic level. In this situation
of incomplete [relative to the possible and desirable] understanding,
and in transition from mythic culture to such understanding, it is
probable [and historical] that we would have: [A] substitutions of
elements
of
process:
knowledge-rationality-empiricismdesignandplanning-action-evaluation for process and [B] repressive
and violent returns to full institutionalization of mythic knowledge
6. Distribution of design and intelligence is consistent with phases and
modes of process
The empirical, evolutionary elements of design and planning are
enhanced by distribution of “effort” as opposed to centralization.
Further, such elements are enhanced, as is decentralized activity, by
curbs on interaction. Centralization of design is the optimal “solution”
corresponding to a single omniscient [all knowing] and omnipotent
[all controlling] designer. For design with limited rational power,
distribution of effort is valuable: more opportunities for solution, less
catastrophic consequences of failure. These considerations are in
addition to economies and diseconomies of centralization and
decentralization: scale. Complete decentralization is the optimal
solution corresponding to absence of rationality and control. Witness,
in biological evolution, the emergence of centralized nervous control
[over autonomic action]
7. Optimum distribution of effort, of degree of centralization and
control
The optimum for human society is some sort of mean260 and variety
of levels of control. Considerations in this context are [A] general
optimum levels of central vs. distributed “effort” [note the biological
analog: awareness  knowledge  ...], [B] hierarchies of
centralization and distribution and gradation of degrees of control
[again, a biological analog], [C] necessities of centralization arising
out of global levels of interaction - and resolution of related problems,
vs. values of centralization arising out of sharing of material and
human resources and economies of scale vs. disvalues of
centralization arising out of catastrophe of failure, unwieldiness and
diseconomies of scale and corruptions and temptations of centralized
power resolutions, [D] different degrees of centralization for different
activities and resources, and [E] questions of controls for levels of
decentralization
8. Application to knowledge
These considerations apply to knowledge and processes of knowing
and may also learn from knowledge
5-48
Step 3: Go back in the evolutionary development of rationality and
value - this implies incremental planning. Planning by trial is
inefficient
Step 4: Synthesis: rationality, valuation and trial; selection by [1]
rationality and value, [2] performance, [3] cultural selection:
developmental, evolutionary planning as an element of [cultural]
evolution
Step 5: Incorporate the model: Steps 1  5, as an element of
rational process
Mythic Elements
It is clear that rational and empirical knowledge has a valid domain
that is also useful in the context of some of the fundamental and
derived values of human life. It is equally clear that this knowledge
has a variety of limits. I refer to the epistemic and predictive side of
knowledge. This appears from the incompleteness of rational
planning. [For purposes of discussion here, rational includes
empirical, except where this is clearly not intended.] In the face of
unpredicted events, rationality can act only incrementally. It might be
argued that the limitations of rationality are not inherent, that we
have only to wait - on the physical side - for understanding to
become complete. On the human side, it might be argued that the
limitations are due to elements of human irrationality and not due to
limitation of rationality. It only remains to persuade humans to be
rational. However, the only empirical basis for rational and empirical
planning is the world of human behavior and of unpredicted physical
events. Further, rational and empirical thought have been repeatedly
shown to have limitations in the discovery of logical and other
paradoxes and in scientific revolutions. While there is rational
empirical knowledge, it is not complete
One of the key themes of this work, elaborated in a number of
5-48-1
of locations, especially in this preceding discussion, is that there are a
number of levels of evolution and design by trial and error which
supplement rational thought: indeed all aspects of human psyche
which influence human behavior, for there is no reason to suppose
that feelings, emotions, symbols, and such provide a foolproof basis
for behavior, any more than does cognition and rationality. The
humanists and rationalists are both wrong, both deceived by the
artifactual structure and reality of human society, into believing that
their preferred aspect of human psychology is without limitation as a
base for decision. I am not asserting that no humanists or rationalists
recognize limits
Through trial, psyche [cognition, emotion] and process can merge in
the following judgment: There are limitations on the infallibility of
human decisions relative to values and limitations to values as guides;
there are two approaches to this situation: [1] acceptance, [2] entry
into evolution - which includes acceptance
Evolutionary planning tacitly accepts mythic elements and provides an
overall “system” rationality
Therefore, we need not hesitate to accept mythic-symbolic elements
in our decisions: provided we do not confuse mythic symbols [the
explicit ones - we cannot avoid the implicit ones], with the rational in
those situations in which we choose to accept as worthwhile, the goal
to which the rational effort is directed, and the validity [including the
lack of influence of non-specified factors] of the rational thought and
its premises. It is true that we run risk of confusing the mythic and
the rational. This works equally to the detriment of both. The larger
risk is the exclusion of either the rational or the mythic
I am interested in syntheses, explicit and implicit, of the rational and
the mythic, by any appropriate-valid method including the
evolutionary one of pp. 5-46-48
5-49
9. Derivation of incremental, developmental approaches
These approaches may be regarded as derived:
5.3.5.5
Step 1: Apply rational planning
5.3.5.5.1
Area E. Open problems in science of design
Step 2: Ethical choice - specification is incomplete
Levels, and integration; evolution
Problems outlined in 5.3.5
Centralization and distribution: political, geographic, and temporal
96
Hierarchic and priority levels
adaptation is by no means certain; this applies equally to all human
faculties
Affect and other dimensions of human nature; inclusion
These levels co-evolve with the structure and nature of matter,
radiation and energy, which are fundamental to, at least, the material
and energy aspects of global planning levels
Non-human dimensions
Design within and without social artifact
Limitations of science having origin in artifact
The four known [1987] fundamental physical forces of nature and
their co-evolution with: the large-scale structure of the universe; the
fundamental constituents of matter; elementary particles
Modifications on p 5-39
Problems of areas §§1.3.5.1 - 1.3.5.4 [pp. 5-40-43]
Organization and realization
5.3.5.5.2
Transformation of General Problems of Design to
Science
To what extent is this possible and or desirable. Refer to 5.6.1 for
general problems
5-50
5.3.6
A Classification of Application Areas
In area 5.3.4.6, I presented a set of planning areas. This was based
on a set of dimensions of being. Each dimension can interact with
itself or any other dimension in producing an area of “need” for which
design may be possible. Thus, we obtain a matrix of planning and
design areas. The vantage points in formulating the dimensions of
being were characterized [A] by their generality and [B] by being
from the point of view of human experience. Item [B] cannot be
entirely eliminated. At least in my present understanding, nor is it
desirable to do so. This is not to limit future possibilities. The purpose
here is to provide a more detailed description of the dimensions of
existence
This will lead to a more detailed planning matrix. Explicit formulation
of such a matrix is unnecessary at this point. Planning may proceed
as follows: as each level is planned, appropriate interactions are
included. A T  D [top  down] process may be used: Step 1:
Planning areas generated in 5.3.4.6; Step 2: planning areas
generated by the level of detail to be considered below. An aspect of
planning design may be to specify “active” elements of the planning
matrix
Bases for the dimension of existence, and detailed description have
been provided in this and in early works
All areas of knowledge may be designed for. [See Area 4.] A
classification of such areas is implied by evolution [see 2.6, 3.5,
Introduction to 4, 4.1, 4.3-4, and 5.3.3.1]. As pointed out earlier,
prior levels imply constraints for subsequent ones. This is one reason
for co-consideration of planning levels and areas.261 The other is the
strong interaction and need for balance among the dimensions of
existence, from individual and social-global viewpoints. As pointed out
earlier,262 proper function is a mutual enhancement, not conflict, of
individual and group
5-51
5.3.6.1
Planning Levels - Constraints
First in evolution comes a set of four levels that provide constraints
but are not otherwise interactive factors in material level design and
planning. These levels may, however, be interactive factors at other
levels and may become interactive at the material level in the future.
These four levels are:
Universal
Cosmological
Galactic
Atomic nuclei and nuclear reactions; atomic structure. Chemical
elements, compounds and reactions; nuclear and chemical energy
Matter in bulk; solid, liquid, gas, plasma states; bulk descriptions of
matter and radiation: heat and thermodynamics, continuum
descriptions and treatments, chemical and nuclear species
5-52
5.3.6.2
Planning Levels - Constraints and interactions for which
control is possible
The next set of levels are increasingly interactive materially and
culturally, and expressive of human “nature”:
Global
Environmental and natural: cosmic, solar and geological influences on
global change and balance; equilibrium. Self-regulating elements
Permissible fluctuations and transitions; climate and the ecobiosphere
Resources: Consumable and renewable
Environmental - Land, air, water, space
Material, energy, biological and psychological or mental-conscious
Social
Public sphere: social organization
Cultural263
Religion
Art
Learning
Discovery, synthesis and transition:
Academic and educational systems
Political: decision making, execution and control
Political and legal aspects
Economic: origin, production, distribution and use of wealth
International, national and regional: macroeconomics
Production and distribution
Goods and services
Technology and technological systems
Industrial operations
System and product
Subsystem ...component
Human labor and distribution of income
Consumer market: pricing and distribution
Private sphere
Relations among individuals
Individual
Solar and solar system
Universal264 5-53
These are the scientific-empirical expressions c. 2000 AD of the
universal levels of existence. At such a level of conceptual and cosmic
vastness, such description, scientific or other, can only pretend to
completion. Other descriptions made by appeal to intuition and
imagination may be sources of knowledge through the provision of
the possible and the potential, as can also be provided by the rational
when it is not slave to empiricism. It should also be pointed out that
whereas science is an excellent provider of knowledge, there is a
close extrapolation from the empirical; its proof as an element of
This list is a supplement to the information and design and planning
levels in 5.3.3-4, especially 5.3.4.6, 5.3.6, and scattered throughout
areas 3, 4 and 5. Information is repeated to make the list relatively
complete, but full completeness is not the objective. The list reflects
the structure of area 5.3.3.1, 5.3.4.6 and 5.3.6, but not fully; for
those structures are in process of improvement. The objective here is
to provide basis for further work in design and planning in which a
5.3.7
Examples
of
Design
and
Planning
Activities...Towards a Complete and Structured Set
97
relatively complete and structured set of methodic procedures,
planning and design levels and areas, and problems will be provided.
These problems will be supplemented by solutions, proposed
solutions, and work toward solutions, [A] as contributions in the
significant problems, and [B] as examples
5-54
5.3.7.1
5-56
5.3.7.2
Social Planning and Design
Social systems
...General: see 5.3.7.1
Social process
Global Planning and Design
World Government
United Nations; League of Nations; other supranational coalitions;
learning from errors of the past-design of international government:
trans-governmental organizations; government of, by and for the
peoples of the world: infra-government [sublevels: p 5-36-1]; “United
World Government” as an alternative to the United Nations which has
its economic and power base in national governments and not in
peoples; basis in local reliance: alternative government: government
as conversation: bilateral government
Design of Change
Must be rooted in understanding and reformation of economic
[includes military] and charismatic [includes elements of politics and
law] sources of power and sources of inertia. Economic sources
require, equally, a resource base and a population locked into and
committed into the production of economic values. In “wealthy”
nations the consumer-demand both justifies and necessitates
economic means as the source of meaning and so, as a source of
power. Charismatic sources of power are based in imbalance in
emphasis in dimensions of [human] being and are rooted, in part, in
economics as meaning and power. Inertia can be traced to
imbalances: within, among these dimensions, and among peoples
Change must be rooted in reformation of all sectors of society, not
merely of government: political and legal, economic, cultural and
learning [discovery, synthesis and transmission-education] so as to
reflect the constraints of proper balance within and across all
dimensions of existence and all peoples. Force of reason and
compassion requires search for alternative forms that will respect
such balances. Thus we seek:
Alternatives
Awareness  knowledge and value  design  action  evaluation
and feedback
This concept has been known for a long time and is found in Vedanta.
For awareness see 5.5; for the remaining elements: appropriate areas
of this work; also for knowledge and design: below, for knowledge:
5.4.3
Knowledge and design
...Areas 3, 4, 5
Learning: discovery, synthesis and transmission-education; the
process is dynamic; design of academic and educational systems
Knowledge systems [area 4.2]; knowledge for design [pp. 4-37, 4041, 4.2.4.4.]
Structure of knowledge, philosophy at center: driven by evolution,
change; organization [3.5.6, p 4-38, 4.2-4.]
Method
Philosophy: 3.4.3
Knowledge, science: 3.3.2, 3.4.3, 3.5.6, and 4
Design [design of design and planning]: this work, specifically 5,
especially 5.1.1, 5.2.3, 5.3.3-4
Fine tuning in design: p 4-11
Management: 5.2.3, 5.3.2
Ethics and value
Social planning, public policy
Structure of the major social and cultural institutions
Art and religion; value
Resource planning and development
Alternatives in:
Politics, justice and law; economics; cultural and learning aspects and
institutions
Balances265 to be considered are:
Within and among: dimensions
Poverty of symbols
266
Urban, rural planning; architecture [also as a profession]
Social benefit systems
Social delivery systems; health care
Planning for technological development; appropriate technology
of existence; peoples;
Emergency systems: earthquake, flood, and other hazard
Material-natural: populations, needs and resources
Social: structure for stability, levels of centralization; societal function;
provision of human needs
Emergency medical systems
Inner: freedom as a source of creative potential; dignity and equity
Professions [includes professional decision making; careers; quality,
manpower]
Universal: as a condition of creative potential in face of the unknown
5-55
Fundamental Global Problems
1. Problems of needs and expression
There are problems of needs and expression, and balance in the basic
dimensions as discussed above. [See also personal design, and p 536; refer to modern engineering under world order.]
2. Fundamental problems
See 3.5.7: fundamental problems of humankind; 3.5.6 basis in
evolution.267
3. Immediate problems
Nuclear disarmament, war, arms production and flow
Global population; agriculture and food
Resource protection and policy: environmental, wilderness:
“New” attitudes to the environment268
Social design as balance between structural and human needs;
Proper design is mutually enhancing
5-57
Planning, education, architecture, law,
engineering, medicine, public administration
business,
theology,
Problems: redefine according to social, other functions; nature of
professions...design?
Trades, services [see Professions note]
Community design
Essential needs and functions; balance between self-reliance and
import and export; appropriate scales to meet needs of all dimensions
of existence; internal production of economic values as strength;
inner and universal values in unlocking from excess dependence on
economic value; proper understanding of needs; special problems of
small communities in industrialized nations: United States; special
problems of small communities: India; independent community and
village design269
5-58
5.3.7.3
Engineering and Technology. Professions
Modern engineering is an example of a profession. For
systematization, refer to design, modern engineering, the background
98
to these; discussions of organization of knowledge in Areas 4.2, 5.4.2,
p 5-59
Technology, 20th century trends, learning and the professions,
engineering
Technology [4.3.2.4] is know how in the use and transformation of
resources; engineering is the use and development of such know how
and of technical systems. The traditional resources are material and
energy - including agriculture. Engineering included the physical and
chemical aspects of such resources. The science of technology, then,
included the engineering sciences and the agricultural sciences [which
are separate from agricultural engineering, the application of
materials and energy-systems technology to agriculture]. Of course,
engineering and agriculture included much more than sciences.
Design is an art, an applied art, which uses science and art both as
information and as method
control; extraction and conversion of raw materials for industry and
other application; industrial production processes; biogenetic
technology
Fields of technology; the major applications: agriculture and food
production; major industries and manufacture, fabrication, process,
construction,
service,
utilities];
construction
technology;
transportation; information processing and communication systems;
military technology; technology of the urban community; medical
technology; technology of earth and space exploration
5-60
5.3.7.4
Research Systems
Contracts, resource development and research planning
Contracts, grants, proposals
Resource development
Trends in twentieth century technology include [1] broadening of
scope to include: definitely [in 1987] information, aspects of biologybiotechnology and, less definitely, human psychological, social,
cultural, learning resources. I refer here, not to the mere application
of material, energy and information resources to biological,
psychological, and cultural contexts. I am considering an
enhancement to include as resources: material, energy, natural [living
and environmental], human, psychological, social, cultural and
learning [knowledge] elements. Technology is, then, know how in use
and transformation of this resource system. The development and use
of such know how can be regarded as the province of the professions
[in the original sense of learning = knowledge and profession = pure
knowledge and applied knowledge]; [2] emphasis on science, the
technological sciences
Research planning [see also p 5-93]
There are consequences of this attitude. Learning can be broken
down into knowledge [understanding and its methods] and profession
[use and transformation of resources and their methods: design].
There is a distinction between “pure learning” [i.e., knowledge] and
applied learning [i.e., profession], but the distinction is not clear.
Profession includes, but is not and cannot be restricted to, science.
Thus, it is incomplete to regard engineering as the science of
materials and energy technology. The knowledge needed for
engineering is both science and art. Additionally the method of
engineering, design [includes research, R and D], involves both
science and art. Finally, there is a broadening of the meaning of
engineering, in addition to the materials and energy aspect.
Engineering
includes,
definitely,
information,
human
and
psychological interactions with complex systems. There is a trend
toward a concept of engineering as development of expertise and
design for use and transformation of any system regarded as a
resource
Graduate research
5-59
5-61
5.3.7.5
Educational and Learning Systems
Instruction systems
Preparing for a course
Approaches to teaching
CAI project
Course outlines
Notes, projects, problems, examinations, other materials
Engineering text sequence
Undergraduate research
Instructional materials development
Careers
Career opportunities
Selection
Education and career planning
Job opportunities and search
Professional development
Design of learning systems, academic institutions, evaluation, and
academic leadership
Learning is discovery and research, synthesis, education
Academic Institutions
Schools
Trade schools, etc
Universities and colleges
Profession
art, science, other
Practical considerations
Engineering and related fields: definition
Symbolic considerations
Learning [content, method] applied to use and transformation
Design and evaluation
Information: knowledge
Management and academic leadership
Applied knowledge:
270
5-62
Method: design [includes research, R and D]
Engineering and related fields: list
5.3.7.6
Individuals and Groups
The focus will be the traditional one
See Areas 5.4.1, 5.4.3, and Personal Design
Traditional engineering fields
Personal design
Military, civil, mechanical, mining and petroleum, electrical and
electronic, chemical, aerospace
Modern-1987-interdisciplinary fields
Bionics; systems engineering - large-complex systems design and
operations research; cybernetics, control theory and information and
communication science, artificial intelligence and digital-logical
computation
Traditional Technologies271 - elements and fields
Elements of technology; the major techniques: energy conversion and
utilization; tools and machines; measurement, observation and
99
...Dimensions-expressions of being « needs; ... individual and social
health is consistent.
Needs
Basic or Survival
Natural
1. Global. Includes human, social, environmental aspects
2. Engineering. Includes engineering design
Security: Health, Finance272
Abundance: Beauty - Nomadic Impulse
Social
Some Application Areas: Detailed Considerations
The purpose of this section is to provide a relatively detailed outline
of design and planning considerations for some representative
application areas. In addition to personal criteria, these areas are
selected as providing a range with respect to two criteria of
classification: [1] level in hierarchy of inclusiveness, and [2] soft vs.
hard systems, i.e., human vs. technical, green vs. gray, etc. The
distinction is not to imply a lack of mutuality and interaction. The
areas are:
Human Needs - Based on Maslow's Hierarchy
Dimension
or
expression of Being
5-64
5.4
3. Personal design. Includes the dimensions: natural, social, psychic,
and universal
as Response o Beauty and or Survival
4. Knowledge. Includes nature, structure and organization, method
and content
Related to Societal Needs:
5.4.1
Belonging: Relation, Responsibility
Sketch of Considerations
Dominance: Status, Career
Awareness: dimensions - organization, human, natural [material =
physical and chemical, biological] and environmental considerations
Expression
Freedom
and
5-65
Self-Expression:
GLOBAL, SOCIAL, ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN AND
PLANNING
Fundamental problems connected with the dimensions: immediate
and continuous; material and existential ... poverty of resources and
of symbols
Inner
Actualization
Value: needs of [1] individuals, [2] society and organization, [3]
environment. Structural needs [basic] vs. needs and values of
freedom and expression: variety, space for experiment, meaning and
survival. Mutuality of needs of items [1], [2], [3]
Universal
Self-transcendence
General knowledge: philosophy, humanities, and religion
Figure 3 Human Needs - Based on Maslow's Hierarchy...Also
see Figure 2 A Planning Matrix Showing Needs
From this point on in 5.3.7.6 are some considerations of need and
expression
Basic needs security and natural expression
Specific knowledge: sciences, technology, and structure of socialcultural institutions and dynamics of social process.274
Considerations: all dimensions of each component [5.3.4.6, 5.3.6]
should be included; special focus should be given to process [design,
social process] and to mutual provision. I next consider:
Provision for society, individuals, and environment
...and emphasize that good-healthy design and planning inherently
involve mutual provision for needs and opportunities for expression of
value and being
Practical design: a system of practical functions
Clothing, gardening, water treatment
Housing and transportation - building and maintenance
5-66
Personal health: physiological, nutrition, activity; psychic
Provision for Society
Financial design and planning
Structure
Trip and expedition planning; hiking and camping
Institutions - economic, legal, political, cultural - learning, art, religion
and social: provision for structure, environment, and individual
Wilderness and emergency survival systems
Groups
Political process and public policy; contributions of individuals and
groups to decisions; mechanisms for provision and “guarantee” of
needs of individual, society-social structure [self-perpetuation is not
enough], environment
Counseling
Contribution of the free individual
Education
Contribution of the environment
Career
Provision for the Individual
Political commitment and advocacy; campaigning, diplomacy
Freedom
Inner
Basic needs: material [survival: air, water, dry land; food, shelter,
clothing], security, equity, dignity, freedom of movement and
expression
5-63
Social
Universal
Systems for Human Development
Yogic Systems for Human Development.273 Human = inner, universal;
refer to other systems; modern West emphasizes natural and social
Karma Yoga: Work
Bhakti Yoga: Love
Gyana Yoga: Knowledge
Education in the dimensions of being and awareness
Provision for the Environment
Balance between populations and environment; self-regulating
features of populations and environments; regard for self-regulation
of the global environment; considerations of regulation and selfregulation for human population[s]: quantity [numbers] and quality
Raja Yoga: Psychic
100
[value: appropriateness of resource development and use: new,
renewable and natural technologies; appropriate technology]
What is good for environment and humankind should be the same:
long-term it will be. Considerations include health of environment,
humankind, and margin of error; densities to maintain health of
population and environment; mechanisms of such maintenance; what
has happened - reintroducing regulations and considerations for such
regulation: autonomous is preferable by human and holistic valueethics; openness and freedom in the environment are probably
important to humankind and environment
Restraints on resource development and use and use rate are
desirable, essential; ultimately growth and misuse are self-limiting
[through equilibrium, catastrophe or decline]; it is preferable [unless
self-destruction is a value], if such self-limitation is not to be
catastrophic, that restraint be based in knowledge and understanding
5-67
5.4.1.1
Fundamental Problems
The question of the essential problems has been considered a
number of times in this work. In one sense, the whole work considers
this issue. The Preface, Areas 1-8 individually, and as a whole address
this issue. Each area and a number of sub-areas have portions and
sub-areas on open and or fundamental problems
Section 5.4.1 has considered some basic aspects of the issue of
completeness [with regard to dimensions of existence] and balance in
global planning. Further considerations are throughout this work,
especially in Area 5. Also, see §3.5, especially §§3.5.6 and 3.5.7. The
considerations in these sections include content and method
5-68
5.4.2
ENGINEERING
PROFESSIONS
AND
ENGINEERING
DESIGN.
Definition is difficult because it takes place in the context of a
complex and evolving set of constituencies trying to understand and
create a complex and evolving world. Let us try
Pure Knowledge
Understanding without specific objectives; there must necessarily be
generalized and personal motives
Applied Knowledge
The professions
Technology275
[1] Systems for transformation and application of material [physical,
chemical, biological] and energy states and resources: “the machine”
[2] Systems for transforming and applying any type of state or
resource: material, energy, human, psychological, social, political,
economic. Emphasis on mechanical approach [i.e., routine], but is this
essential?
[3] Know how for [1] or [2]
Engineering275 as a Profession
The activity of developing, designing, maintaining technology and
technological systems; overlaps science, research, art, meaning [3] of
technology. Focus on creation and transformation, and on meanings
[1] and [3] as applied to [1] of technology. However, this broadens
as knowledge opens abilities to transform through art, experiment
and understanding, and not just maintain and codify. Engineering
uses knowledge, research, art, expertise, but is not any of these. A
central, perhaps the central activity of engineering is design
5-69
Engineering Activities
Engineering activities [repeated in 5.4.2.3] include: basic and applied
research [pure or academic research is not regarded as engineering
although it has application; when there is, if ever, a science of
discovery there will be an engineering and a technology of knowledge
and this exists to some extent in artificial intelligence]; development,
design, construction, reduction, operation, management. Design is
design as traditionally understood but merges with and includes
research, development, and aspects of management
5-70
5.4.2.1
History of Engineering
Ancient
The nature and meaning of engineering evolves with society as need,
potential and circumstances change and as technical knowledge
grows. The Latin root from which engine [verb] is derived is create.
Engineering perhaps existed with the Egyptians, Persians, and
Greeks. The Roman engineer was concerned with military and civil
works. Medieval European engineers combined military and civil skills
and carried construction [e.g., the Gothic arch] to heights unknown to
the Romans. Similar developments occurred in India and the Far East
Modern - since the 17th Century
In the seventeenth century, military engineering grew in France; the
growth of modern [twentieth century] engineering dates back to this
development
The first branch of modern engineering to emerge was civil
engineering. This grew out of civil applications of military techniques
of construction of seventeenth century France; the term “civil
engineer” first came into use in the eighteenth century. Other
branches of modern engineering are: mechanical engineering which
grew out of the industrial revolution-related development of machines
and energy of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries; electrical
engineering, made possible by mechanical technology and growth of
electrical knowledge, and with applications in energy and lighting in
the late nineteenth century; chemical engineering which started with
the late nineteenth century proliferation of chemical processes in
metallurgy, food, textiles, etc.; and mineral and mining [and later
petroleum] engineering which has a long and, originally, independent
history, dates back to the mining schools of the eighteenth century.
These five branches, civil, mechanical, electrical, chemical and mining
are the core of modern engineering
Twentieth Century
Twentieth century development includes [1] increasing use of science
and quantitative and mathematical analysis in design and
development, [2] development of technology and development as a
growth factor; i.e., a technology of technological development
regarding large scale industrial and academic research organizations
dating back to the inventors of the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries, with application to invention and rapid development of very
complex systems. This development is dependent on the rapid
feedback between science and technology
5-71
dating back to the practices of the nineteenth century inventors, [3]
development of electronics, computer-information processing and
communications industry, [4] expansion of scope of concerns due to
increasing interaction [in part a function of modern university
organization and entrepreneurship] and sophistication of engineering
as a discipline: into research [and the hierarchy of research and
design functions] as an engineering activity, interface and application
in social-environmental concerns bringing the environment and “soft”
fields [human, social] within engineering activity [earlier important as
interface with buyers and promoters and workers]; incorporation of
art in engineering endeavor [a long established tradition in civil and
architectural works but often neglected in the name of efficiency and
government sponsorship]; a mesh with and inclusion of concern for
public policy, [5] a proliferation of disciplines deriving from interest in
new environments [ocean, cold regions, space and space
exploration], and specialization due to expansion of opportunity
[agriculture, aerospace], [6] an engineering of industrial and
production systems [industrial engineering] and human interactions
[human engineering: ergonomics, systems psychology, safety
engineering], [7] bio-engineering disciplines [biomechanical,
biomedical], bionics, and biogenetic engineering and nano-technology
101
5-72
5.4.2.2
Trends
Engineering and other Professions
Thus engineering starts as the idea “transformation and application of
material and energy resources” [based in arts and physical science]
and expands, of necessity, to include much more. While a core,
traditional meaning of engineering continues to exist and thrive, there
is also a generalized meaning of engineering emerging as a type of
creative, transforming activity. This comes, naturally, from the
traditional fields and the new ones such as artificial intelligence and
understanding of imperatives of finite environments and resources
and understanding of necessities and possibilities of evolution at
many levels. Relevant words are engineering, creation, genesis,
design, evolutionary design, choice, and decision, and are not used to
the exclusion of the full dimensions of existence in nature, society,
individual persons, and the unknown
design applies to specific end results such as a production or a
functional system, and also to the processes or means to obtain the
end, i.e., design applied to construction, production, operation and
maintenance. In other words, these activities are designed. For
example, it is prudent to include considerations of construction,
production, operation and maintenance in design for function. Design
for function is central to design. Finally, design is a reflexive activity it applies to itself, [3] design includes the transition between thinking
and action
The concept and methods of design have been elaborated generally
as a central theme of this work, and outlined, specifically, in areas
5.1-3. Therefore, the discussion of concept and method here can be
brief as concerns generalities. I will discuss four aspects in the
specific context of engineering design:
1. Process,
2. Creativity,
A Classification of the Professions
3. Tools,
Regarding professions as applied knowledge, we can regard
engineering as creative transformation of resources. Other
professions involved in similar activity are education and planning.
This point and classification of the professions deserves further
attention. I can make the following tentative classifications:
4. Elements
Creative transformations
An excellent review article277 on engineering design contains a
valuable overview of design, general design tools and methods and a
good set of references. Some of the aspects and tools discussed are:
the activity of design; decision theory; system design; cybernetics;
5-75
Engineering, education, planning and architecture
human and engineering communication; ergonomics; industrial
design; computer aided design; man-the designer or human problem
solving and knowledge and values; creativity; economics and cost;
design management
Conservation276
Theology, medicine, law
Efficiency and organization
5-76
Business
5-73
5.4.2.4.1
The process of design and its context
Descriptions can be developed for the different categories - basic and
applied research, development, and so on
As pointed out in 5.4.2.4, p 5-74, the concept and method of design
have already been elaborated. In 5.1 and 5.2 we saw how there is a
mesh with social [social, biological] need through value and active
problem solving. In 5.3, we saw the mesh through a hierarchy of
design levels. This hierarchy also includes the process of system 
subsystem analysis and design. This point was elaborated in 5.3.5.
Also touched upon in 5.2.5 and elsewhere, is the inclusion of
evolutionary constraint and diversity-variety, rationality and
empiricism, incremental, developmental and evolutionary [including
trial and error] approaches
All [universal] activity can be divided:
Hierarchic Procedures
Activity = design [includes affect and motivation] and action
One of the points implicit in these discussions is that all relevant
considerations should be built in to the design and not be introduced
later. These include:
5.4.2.3
Engineering Activities
Some of the activities in the traditional core of engineering are: basic
and applied research, development, design, construction, production,
operation and maintenance, management. This sequence corresponds
to a decrease in the emphasis on science [i.e., science of engineering
systems; modern management often relies on a science of
management systems]
And in this sense
Engineering
Social; general
Design and implementation
Safety, aesthetic, value-ethical, economic, legal, political,
Design
Environmental
Research, development, design, and management
Functional
Implementation
Manufacture [includes construction, production]
Construction, production, and operation and maintenance
Use cycle [includes operation, maintenance]
Also, note the close, but not exact, parallel:
Knowledge  applied knowledge  design and planning 
implementation  control  evaluation
Basic and applied research  development  design  construction
 operation  management
5-74
5.4.2.4
Engineering Design
Design as the Central Activity of Engineering
We see from the discussion of 5.4.2.3 that design occupies the center
of engineering activities as do design and planning occupy the center
of social process. This is also true in the sense of importance; for [1]
design is the focal point where all activities come together and are
played out in microcosm, [2] design includes research, development,
management just as in social process, design and planning include
awareness, philosophy, knowledge and values, evaluation; further,
Development [includes research and management aspects]
Functionality and Context
I have pointed out that all valid considerations are functional at some
level of design and planning. Process, at appropriate levels, includes
management of design and design of design
5-77
5.4.2.4.2
Creativity
Creativity is often thought of as generation of novelty, but has to do
with both generation and selection of alternatives; and the interaction
of generation and selection; and in effective use of design resources.
This has all been discussed in detail earlier, and in 5.1-3. Creativity
understood in this sense, is at a number of levels and has a number
of dimensions
Systems and Elements
102
Systems, technologies, methods, knowledge, elements available in
society
Methods and Heuristics
Methods of generating and selecting alternatives; includes algorithms
- methods which guarantee solutions but, possibly, in a prohibitively
inefficient manner; efficient algorithms, for example some selection
criteria, can easily be built into generation so that many, if not the
bulk, of nonviable alternatives are simply not generated. Many
problems are sufficiently complex that algorithms are not possible.
Heuristics are intuitive or semi-intuitive methods that reduce the labor
of solution finding by not requiring the search to be foolproof or
certain. Two ways in which heuristics can work are [1] by building
into generation, selection criteria which are reasonably [relatively]
easy to apply but which are powerful enough to eliminate the vast
majority of [not even close to] nonviable alternatives at the risk of
eliminating some viable alternatives. This risk arises from the
uncertain character of the heuristic; [2] by using selection or
evaluation criteria which are relatively simple to apply. The risk is that
some non-solutions may be admitted. The value of heuristics in
analytical or mathematical problem solving is that one, or a few,
tentative but probable solutions are generated which can be subject
to rigorous criteria. In engineering, heuristic design produces one or a
few probable design solutions. These can be tested by experiments
and trial runs or prototypes. If these fail, then it is “back to the
drawing board.” The overall objective is that design costs can be
reduced by use of bold but uncertain heuristics over cautious analysis.
In this sense, all design is heuristic design. Certainly
5-78
top  down and planning procedures, means-end analysis,
experimental testing can all be regarded as heuristics, and these
amount to entering evolution - “getting one's feet wet.”
Psychological Factors
The discussion of heuristics above is formal. There are also
psychological factors such as:
Combinatorial thought - which works with both conceptual and
physical alternates
Associated with suppression of critical, selective and evaluative modes
and enhancement of generative, combinatorial, perceptual, lateral or
metaphorical modes and change of set
Set
Conditions for change of set such as - related to - sleep deprivation,
aspects of brainwashing, ego-deprivation
Memory
Insight
Lateral thought
Perseverance [passion, commitment]
Withdrawal
Perception
Motivation
Immersion
Incubation
Concentration
Strategic thought
Sequential thought
Preparation
Personal, Social and Environmental Factors
In addition to the “purely” psychological factors are personal,
environmental and social factors that are conducive to creativity at
the roots of personality and not just as an afterthought
Management of creativity
Planning, facilities, marketing and persuasion, financial aspects
5-79
Creativity is discussed at length in the sources listed in 5.2.4 and
5.4.2, related material and secondary sources. There is a bulky
literature. [The remaining portion of this section could be placed in
5.2.4.]
Special and Non-conventional Aspects of Creativity278
Here, I will outline a few considerations, in addition to those
discussed above, as well as some new conventional ones. The
following discussion is not restricted to engineering. It is not possible
to consider creativity in some particular endeavor without considering
creativity in general. There is some focus on engineering in the
consideration of technical invention
Special Versions of the Process
This is the problem solving process; the generalized version is the
process described in 5.2 and 5.3. There are specialized versions. See
also the discussion Heuristics and references cited above
Creativity in science and art
Creativity in science is briefly treated in Areas 3, 4, and in 5.4.4. This
is also considered in artificial intelligence. Notable discussions of
creativity are those of Henri Poincare, Jacque Hadamard, George
Polya, Alan Newell and Herbert Simon. Comments on art are included
in area 4.2.2 where it is implied that, in some senses, art is an aspect
of creative response to limitations on method. These questions are
widely discussed in the literature of science, mathematics, art,
philosophy and psychology. These topics are left to later development
I believe that there are limitations, not only to focus on method, but
also to focus on the activity of creativity. In addition to principles
[psychology and philosophy] and method [intelligence and artificial
intelligence], sociology or social factors are also important. A number
of questions and considerations arise
[1] What are preconditions for creativity in childhood, development,
life-style, social relations, [2] what are the sources of creative energy,
[3] what is the role of proximity to creative individuals, especially in
growth, development and apprenticeship?
5-80
Technical invention. Some significant inventors:
Thomas Alva Edison [1847-1931]
Nikola Tesla [1856-1943]
Elmer Ambrose Sperry [1860-1930]
Lee de Forest [1873-1961]
Factors in Technical Invention
Thomas Hughes279 has studied some of the features and factors of
these inventors that have relation, or possible relation with their
inventive results:
1. The ways in which projects were conceived and chosen: Thinking
in terms of entire technical systems; keeping away from conservative
institutions [universities and large corporations - they all found
independent sources of funding]; projects with a potential for
breakthrough instead of focus on refinement; broad reading in the
science and technical literature to keep up with new information,
ideas, possibilities, and knowledge
2. Creative factors: Max Black: “A metaphor is the use of a word in a
new sense” - or an idea in a new sense. Aristotle: “Perception of the
similar in the dissimilar.” Examples: Newton saw similar causes
[inertia and gravitation] in the motion of heavenly bodies and
terrestrial projectiles. Edison's invention of the quadruplex telegraph
was based on analogy with water system pumps
3. To be independent: A common factor was search for funds through publicity and demonstration
4. Inventive styles: Focus on systems of problems, technologies - and
critical aspects; choice of appropriate problems and relation to
background [social and group] factors
5-81
Study of creativity in modern institutions and government280
103
Government
Early in the development of human knowledge there was,
undoubtedly, awareness and there were, undoubtedly, elements of
rationality and empiricism, but such awareness was not significantly
of knowledge itself and rationality and empirical attitudes were not
institutionalized
Social, environmental and other planning agencies
Corporations
Research organizations
Academic institutions
Only when there developed significant awareness of knowledge could
there be design of knowledge; and only when there became
institutions of rationality and empirical attitudes could there be design
of knowledge [see §5.3.5.4.2 in this context]
Independently creative individuals
Inventors, scientists, philosophers
Writers, statesmen
The paradigmatic individuals281
Creativity is the generation and evaluation of alternatives
For more detail, see 5.2.4
5-82
5.4.2.4.3
Tools knowledge, and language for design
Includes symbolic skills - language, geometrical-graphic, flow
charting: general and special purpose languages; mathematical,
computational, computer-aided design and drafting including
packages and advanced tools such as finite elements; knowledge of
sciences: physical, life, social;282 persuasion and communication. [See
also 5.3.5: sciences of design.]
5-83
5.4.2.4.4
Design elements
Design elements are standard components out of which, based in
experience, designs in a given developed field can be built. The
selection and standardization of such elements is an evolutionary
process and significantly eases the design process. There is also some
inhibition but the gain in efficiency can offset the loss due to
inhibition. Economics, creativity, inventory often determine that
standard elements should be used. However, this is not always he
case, depending on the problem, objectives, creativity, and license of
the designer. Creativity is involved in using standard elements in
addition to creating new ones
In what senses is knowledge designed? Even after rationality and
empiricism become institutionalized, we cannot dictate the
development of knowledge. Such development depends on three
factors: [1] existence of potential for development of understanding:
there exist characteristics of the universe and beings within that
universe capable of understanding these characteristics. We may
state this in a way that is less dependent on subject-predicate-object
form: there exists potential for development of understanding
relations. [2] Existence of an occasion: prior understanding of
proximate characteristics and relations. [3] Development of the
opportunity in the particular occasion. These factors are not under full
control of humankind, and therefore we do not have fully objectifiable
design of knowledge. However, based on the three conditions for
development just stated, and on the lack 285 of full control over
development, we arrive at the following considerations or approaches
to design in and of knowledge:
5-86
1. Understanding Origins and the Potential for Knowledge
The potential is in levels of evolution
Universal
Cosmological
Biological
Cultural
Empirical
Discussion of elements at various levels and aspects of design is
included in some unpublished articles.283 Other catalogs of elements
are in the design texts by Shigley and Mitchell, and Juvinall.284 These
discuss tools, standard sizes, sources of information such as
engineering societies and manufacturers catalogs
The object-content of knowledge is to be found in these levels [also
reflected in the dimensions of being-humankind [natural, social,
psychic, and universal]. Knowledge itself originates in these levels and
we may conceive, approximately, the history of conscious-rational
knowledge going back down these levels.286
A future plan is to provide element data for a spectrum of design
levels and areas
Rational
5-84
5.4.3
PERSONAL DESIGN. APOLLO AND DIONYSIUS
5-85
DESIGN FOR KNOWLEDGE AND INSTITUTIONS OF
LEARNING
Learning here
education
means
discovery,
synthesis,
and
Organismic
Physical
See Personal Design
5.4.4
Mythic
transmission-
Rational design for knowledge can only occur after rationality and
empirical activities become institutionalized and is limited to the
extent that development is under control of rational faculties.
Evolutionary design as discussed in §5.3.5.4.2 may occur if the
phrase “under control of rational faculties” is replaced by “influenced
by reason and intuition.”
Considerable discussion has been devoted to the nature and
development of knowledge. To a significant degree, this development
is not under human control. We can see knowledge as an aspect of a
local evolution [life on Earth] involved in expanding its sphere of
being and influence. In this sense, knowledge goes back to the early
development of life [organismic knowledge and biological evolution]
and to the early development of human society [mythic knowledgebiological, human-psychosocial evolution]. Only recently, through
development of a culture of rational and empirical knowledge, has
development of knowledge become a conscious function
Primal
We know that, with regard to culture, the rational partly suppresses
but does not displace mythic thought. I have discussed these issues
in some detail [3.3.2, 3.5.6, and area 4]; we have seen that all
cultures have a mix287 of mythic and rational thinking. The levels,
extent, and degree of institutionalization vary
There is undoubtedly a slower interaction with the biological level:
development of new faculties beyond a certain threshold increases
new ecological opportunities. There may be interactions at the
cosmological, physical level but we do not know whether the slow,
large-scale evolution of the universe affects biological evolution: over
three to four billion years of life it might. We do know that
cosmological, and geophysical and chemical, “set the stage” for
biological evolution
Understanding the potential for development of knowledge is a guide
to search. Understanding the origins of knowledge is a guide to
foundation
5-87
2. Provision of Occasions for Development. Institutions of Learning.
The Functions of the University
I noted in item [2], p 5-85 that occasion depended on prior
understanding - in culture and individual. The formal context for such
104
understanding is in codified and traditional knowledge. Knowledge of
evolutionary framework of universe-knowledge enhances codification
and the potency of occasions. Other cultural factors affecting potency
have to do with mood and opportunity. Mood is the ambience that
predisposes individuals and cultures to discovery and synthesis.
Opportunity is a function of mood and institutionalization of learning
As pointed out in classification of knowledge [4.3, 4.4] and design
levels [5.3.3.1, 5.3.4, 5.3.6-7], learning includes discovery, synthesis
and transmission-education. These functions occur in culture through
traditional [mythic] and rational and empirical means and in informal
and formal contexts. The informal include kin and other social groups,
social communication networks such as media, political interaction.
The formal includes research [discovery], academic [synthesis], and
educational [transmission] institutions of varying degrees of formality.
Research institutions are found, in modern industrial society, in
industrial settings, private and public research groups and in
institutes. Academic work is performed largely by individuals, a few
academic institutions dedicated solely to synthesis, and within
institutions of “higher learning.” Education is largely in schools, trade
schools, colleges and universities and also through types of
apprenticeship and partnership in research, academic and educational
settings. The three functions, discovery, synthesis and transmission,
form a whole that is vital within the context of modern [twentieth
century] society and come together in the university
Essential to the function of the university is universality: universality
or freedom of research ends288 [within ethical bounds and economic
constraints]; universality through synthesis; and universality through
educational opportunity and access. In addition to these formal
functions the university also provides the environment, through
mood, example, educational style and symbol in which the excitement
of academic and social
5-88
conscience catches fire
Many individuals have written eloquently on education: notably
Bertrand Russell, Education and the Good Life; and A. N. Whitehead,
The Aims of Education
5-89
3. Models for Development of Occasions and Potential for Knowledge
- Creative, Design, Philosophical, Art, and Science
Creativity has not been,289 and can not be reduced to a formula;
however, there is a non-definite extent to which formalization and
discipline is useful. Discussion and mention of factors, however, is not
a reduction. Formalization of method as an approach to
understanding development is not a reduction either - and such
understanding may be useful as a guide; i.e., when not interpreted as
a prescription for all occasions
I mention the following aspects:
Synthesis occurs [1] by appropriate design of method; see p 5-89,
recall levels of interaction in design, [2] content and method fuse in
an inclusive process: biological evolution includes social process
includes mythic knowledge includes rational and empirical knowledge.
Aspects of these considerations are outlined in 2.10-11, 3.5.6, 4.2.4,
5.3.5, especially pp. 5-39, 5-42, 5-44-48. Design of knowledge is an
example of non-objective design in which possible approaches are
rational [or, more generally, cognitive, including intuition and affect]
and incremental or rational [includes intuition, affect] and
developmental. These are rational mechanisms of entry into evolution
[cultural-environmental] appropriate when full rational control is not
possible. This is commonly the case; this situation is commonly
treated as if rational understanding-control exists
Potential applications
Synthesis: Institution of design in knowledge: learning from design,
evolution; codifying elements of the development of knowledge
regarding “What is knowledge” [3.3.2, 3.5.6, Introduction to 4, 4.1]
Evolutionary principles: varieties of content [levels of orientation
within ethical bounds [ethics, too, evolves, has foundation, is
debatable]; economic constraints] and varieties of method
[philosophical, scientific, literary or Dionysian vs. Apollonian] and
varieties of modes of expression [linguistic, artistic, action]
Recognizing potential for knowledge in evolution
Thought [understanding, horizons]
Design [thought  action]
Action [physical]
5-91
Some final reflections - and personal observations - from:
Ernest Becker: on synthesis
Ernst Mayr: on scientific method
Ernest Becker: on content vs. method
5-92
Ernest Becker on Synthesis290
“Mankind has always paid homage to its great thinkers; and its
greatest have always been the great theoreticians, those who by
force of abstract thought have reordered the world of knowledge.
This holds true on any level: in the primitive hunting band, the one
who is most valued is he who can conceptualize the whole territory of
the tribe and imagine what route the wounded animal will take; in the
Western world, it is a Plato, an Augustine, or an Aquinas - he who
reorders thought into a new synthesis that buoys men up for another
little while.”
5-93
Ernst Mayr on Design of Research or Scientific Programs291
Mayr's thoughts are interesting but not deep:
Creativity [5.2.4, 5.4.2.4.2]; includes evaluation
Design and problem solving [Area 5, especially Introduction; 5.1-3]
Philosophical “method” [3.4.3, 4.2.4]
Method in knowledge [3.3.2, 3.4.3, 3.5.6, Introduction to 4, 4.1-2,
especially 4.2.4]
Design of Research
Asking meaningful questions
Having a feasible research program
Partitioning a problem into its components [planning]
Accepting black boxes and treating them as such
Art [4.2.2]
Towards Improved Concepts
Scientific method [2.6.8, 3.4.3, 3.5.6, 4.2.4]
5-90
Elimination of invalid theories or concepts
4 Synthesis of Principles and Method
Elimination of inconsistencies and contradictions
Roughly, we may say that areas 3 and 4 have been focused on
content-correctness or principle, and area 5 on method - getting
results, or contents; i.e., on process. This separation can not be
absolute, for all results are, ultimately, known through some process:
even satisfaction is based on past experience and evolution.
Evaluation is an aspect of method; also, an objective of method is
results. Content and method are complementary, incomplete by
themselves
Input from other fields
Elimination of semantic confusion
Eclectic fusion of competing theories [dialectic]
Impediments to Maturation of Theories and Concepts
Failure to consider alternatives
Erroneous search for laws
Heuristic value of erroneous theories
105
5-94
Ernest Becker on Content vs. Method290
Ultimates in meaning; universal and cultural goals; beyond inward
looking culture
Ernest Becker has pointed out that method is not important and that
knowledge itself is important. Knowledge can be taught without
teaching how it was obtained. In this way, the student can get an
overview of what is important. There is truth in what Becker says.
Modern educational institutions, although they make a pass in this
direction, are not teaching the essence and central message of the
knowledge that is available and could be the basis of a full growth of
individual, society and of knowledge itself. Becker's view is based in
his concept that a completed knowledge exists, a psychosociology of
alienation of “our time,” and this is the core of what should be taught
Meanings of design
I believe that the central message is changing, is never complete.
Method is important in that we are continuously preparing for
newness and unknown. I do not believe that knowledge is a
consumer commodity. The fundamental problems are continually
requiring of reinterpretation. Therefore, although it may not be
essential to expose each student to the details of scientific method, it
is essential for people to be open to and know the dynamic nature of
evolution at relevant levels. In this sense, in a sense of openness,
method is essential. Education would, in my ideal view, provide an
account of and an orientation to content and method: a synthesis of
knowledge and process
Background
5-95
5.4.4.1
What are the fundamental problems of knowledge?
Review 5.4.4; see 3.5, especially 3.5.6-7, 4.5, 5.3.5.5, and 5.6.1.
Refer to Becker's Beyond Alienation
5-96
5.4.4.2
Design of a Knowledge Base
OPEN PROBLEMS OF DESIGN
As in any endeavor, design has perennial and ongoing problems.
These are open - their treatment is never definitive. Lessons require
to be learned repeatedly. I will classify the open problems in the
categories of:
Method
Content
Method
Analysis and improvement of design methods and procedures;
optimization
Central design and planning vs. distributed; integral: combinations
Political, geographic, temporal
Elements of design method; their analysis; [see also 5.3.5.5]
Social process and evolution as design
Elements of social process; their analysis
Content
Bringing design and planning to the individuals, groups, communities
and other entities that stand to benefit
The fundamental problems of humankind; [see 3.5.7, 5.3.3.1, 5.3.4.6,
5.3.7, 5.4.1]
Essential areas of design; [see 5.3.3.1, 5.3.4.1-6, 5.3.6-7, 5.4]
See 4.2.3.4, 4.2.4, 4.3, and 4.4; review design method: 5.2.3, 5.3.4,
and 5.5
5-97
5.5
5-99
5.6.1
AN OUTLINE OF KNOWLEDGE FOR GENERAL DESIGN
Problem of action; [see area 6]
Background
Knowledge for design; [areas 4 and 5, especially pp. 4-41, and area
5]
Awareness
Foundations of design; [see 3.5.6, 5.3.1, 5.2.4, 5.4.2.4.2, 5.3.5]
Related to active search for problems. Immersion in life, states of
mind receptive to such information, creative reception
Foundations in social process, evolution
Awareness; openness; states of consciousness; meditation; dreams;
daydreams; emotion; intuition; thought; mystic thought; non-critical
thinking; metaphysics
5-100
Foundations of social process - in evolution and
5.6.2
PROBLEMS IN SPECIFIC LEVELS OF DESIGN
Values292
Review area 5
Needs of life, human needs and dimensions, health, social needs,
environmental needs, theory of value
Knowledge for design [see 5.5]
Knowledge
Research methods
Technology, science and art for technology; health and health arts
and sciences; physical, earth, life and human sciences; society - social
science; economics, politics, law, education; art, religion
Design methods
Origins. Processes of knowledge; organization of knowledge and
knowledge systems
Design methods
Elements
Cases
5-101
5.6.3
SIGNIFICANT MODERN AND EMERGING DESIGN
PROBLEMS
Areas
Review area 5
Specific problems
Action
Methods
Review area 6
Evaluation, feedback and learning
6-1, 6-2
Review areas 7 and 8
5-98
5.6
TOWARDS GENERAL AND UNIVERSAL DESIGN
A general and universal design is an objective of this work
Full levels of living in nature, culture, individuality, and universe
Content and evolution integrated
Balance of thought and action - Apollo and Dionysius; action as an
end
Embedding in cognitive, social, natural evolution
106
6
ACTION
...And Implementations and Controls
In the Dionysian mode of being [and earlier in evolution and
development], action is whole in itself. The existence of thought is
not negated, but thought flows with and into action. In the Apollonian
or rational mode, thought and action are separated. Action becomes
implementation and control. Thought and action are made whole
through design: thought  design  action. This goes back to the
original separation: action  reflection and action
For some individuals, the Dionysian mode of being is insecure. For
others the Apollonian mode is dissatisfying and fragmenting. Carl
Jung claimed that humankind contains not one personality orientation
but several orientations which reflect different stages of evolution or,
alternatively in my estimate, the different requirements of social
structure, environmental interaction, and social evolution and change,
and so on. In between the Dionysian and Apollonian modes are a
continuum of intermediate levels of separation of thought and action.
Different levels may be appropriate for different activities. Individuals
may be or become whole by finding the right level or balance of
levels. This includes sensitivity to context
It is consistent with both individual variation and societal need for
diversity that there will be different modes of living including balanced
ones. The human needs for which are psychological-physiological.
Societal needs include both problem solutions and social relations
Design, as rational - or rational and empirical - problem solving is
incomplete. Action completes design and there is a fuller view of
design and action that is mutually inclusive. In rational design, this
inclusivity partially separates out into awareness  design  action.
In awareness, we can include openness, knowledge, values and
evaluation and feedback or learning. Then awareness  design 
action describes social-individual process. The Vedanta recognizes
sravana [study, contemplation]  manana [reflection, meditation] 
application in life [action]. Note that the process study  reflection 
action includes empirical, rational and, by implication, evolutionary
elements
However, this separated activity is not complete in itself and is
subject to the circumstances of the real: selection. Apollo is
psychically whole when he permits emergence of or even abandon to
his Dionysian self
There are varieties of social context. This need not burden individuals
for, although there are types, humans are flexible and adaptable.
However there may be contexts of social change which unnecessarily
and or excessively burden individuals at large despite flexibility and
variability
6-3
6.1
THE NATURE OF ACTION
Consideration can be divided into investigation [6.1.1] and concrete
aspects [6.1.2]
6.1.1
Philosophies and psychologies of action
Philosophy considers two related aspects: understanding the nature
of action-this includes the psychological aspect, and action as a
philosophy. Understanding is considered in this section. Action as
philosophy is considered in item 6.1.3 below
General philosophical considerations: Dual nature of thought of
action293; determinism, free will, choice; design as intermediate
between thought [includes processes, knowledge] and action-the
transition; design and dance; Apollo and Dionysius; Brahma, Vishnu,
Shiva-Creator, Maintainer, Destroyer; other religious and mythological
sources; Bhagavad-Gita; action and belief-survey of religions; action
in times of stress, lack of meaning
and dimensions of being] vs. physiological-action needs; interaction
between reflection and action, psycho physiological interpretation;
motivation and evolution; origins of the cognitive, affective and other
aspects of psychophysiology in evolution
6-4
6.1.2
Philosophies of life
See 3.5.5
Aspects to consider are:
Existentialism and choice
Nietzsche and other existential philosophers such as Kierkegaard,
Sartre, Camus, Jaspers
Eastern philosophies
Religion
Psychology and psychiatry
6-5
6.1.3
Action as philosophy
Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga; pragmatism
6-6
6.2
ACTION AND CONTROL
...And implementation of plans
Initiation
Group action: direction and nature of behavior and attitudes
Authority vs. equality; political systems; agencies
Social aspects
Resource and environmental aspects
Observation, measurement, monitoring and comparison with plan
Control and corrective action
Comment: Observation and control are different from evaluation and
feedback. Observation and control address the problem of adherence
to plans during implementation. Evaluation and feedback have to do
with success and modification of plans after implementation. The
activities are conceptually distinct. Their separation in practice is a
first approximation to actuality. Such separation has value
6-7
6.3
SYNTHESIS OF BEING, ACTION, MOTIVATION294
Synthesis of dimensions of being [natural, social, psychic or inner,
universal], 6.1 and 6.1, action and the fundamental existential
problems [the existential aspects include the practical] and practical
problems-individual, global
6-8
6.4
OPEN PROBLEMS
Problems vs. phenomena
Problems have “logical” origin in the “dissection” of phenomena. See
Introduction to Area 5 on the origin of purpose
Synthesis
7-1
Psychologies: Psychology is an aspect of philosophy. The
considerations under philosophies above have their psychological
aspect. It is probably an epistemic mistake to separate, in principle,
the philosophical and psychological aspects of action. In modern
psychology [twentieth century]:
Explicit and implicit motivational systems: social-cultural, political,
religious, individual, psychological needs [e.g., Maslow's hierarchy
107
7
LEARNING...AND TRANSFORMATION
7-4
This area was originally titled evaluation and feedback
7.3
Note that evaluation and feedback are a part of learning...and
transformation
1. Methods
Design and implementation are not complete in themselves because
of “limited” rationality and control. Evaluation and feedback recognize
this, and complete the process, recognize the strength of reality,
bring about entry into evolution
ENGINEERING EVALUATION: OTHER PROFESSIONAL
SYSTEMS
2. Organizations
7-5
7.4
EVALUATION OF GLOBAL SYSTEMS
Although evaluations in design and of design [and overall process]
are similar in nature and analogous in context, perhaps it might be
better to have separate names
1. Global, national, regional, local
Evaluation in Design
7.5
One of the phases toward the end of the objective design is to
evaluate the functionality, feasibility, of the design, to compare with
competing designs before implementation. This is often done by
prototype testing. In smaller projects, experiment may be part of the
analysis. The objective is to certify the design before implementing.
The objective is not to replace analysis but to provide a balance, a
sort of optimum between analysis and optimization and evaluation.
The function is different from the evaluation after implementing
Feedback is use of evaluative information from any of items 7.1.1,
7.1.2, 7.1.2 to minimize competitive selection of economic, ethical,
cultural...types. Feedback loops evaluation back into awareness,
knowledge and design so that design can be improved. This includes:
However, there are similarities. In either case, iteration can be
involved. In one case iteration of the design, in the second [the
evaluation of this area] iteration of an entire projector program. In
either case, we wish to optimize design and evaluation [and other
aspects]: to balance foresight and hindsight
Functional considerations
In very large scale contexts prototypes can not be build. Only after
the fact or post implementation, evaluation is possible
Creation of new systems
Evaluation in Social Process295
Here evaluation is concerned with the entire process: awareness 
values  knowledge  design  action; and with the question of
general direction
7-2
7.1
EVALUATION OF DESIGN AND DESIGNS
Concern here is whether needs recognized in design are being met.
There are three aspects here:
7.1.1
7-6
LEARNING AND FEEDBACK
Implementation or design of implementation; control
Design modifications
Inputs: needs, data, and model[s]
Synthesis-concept
Modification
Selection from alternates
Process: analysis, optimization, and evaluation of design
The deficiency may not be in the design; rather, it may be in the
elements that precede design: see 7.6
7-7
7.6
EVALUATION OF AWARENESS
Awareness
Value
Philosophy
Knowledge
Was the design or plan implemented?
If not, the answer has to do with action and control. Were actions
appropriate, what about design of actions [which may or may not
have been part of original design]. Was control adequate, can the
design be implemented?
7.1.2
2. Environmental, social, individual
Is design or planning effective?
Needs
8-1
Are the needs being met? If not and design [noun] was implemented,
is this due to design inputs [data, model, etc.] or design process [see
Area 5]. Which input[s] and or phase[s] of the process are the causes
of lack of effectiveness? If needs are met, is it because of design?
7.1.3
Is the design efficient?
Even if answers to [7.1.1] and [7.1.2] are positive, we ask: could the
concept have been simpler, more economical, have contributed more?
Even if simpler concepts are not found, could there be better
economy, more contribution?
The question of efficiency [at least aspects of efficiency] can be built
into effectiveness - and often is
Evaluation vs. Selection
Without evaluation, there is no rational way to select better products,
designs, and programs. Selection then becomes purely “competitive”:
economic, ethical, and cultural. Of course, when existence is more
than marginal or meets criteria of satisficience, competition may be
valued as undesirable or actually undesirable in terms of other
extrinsic or intrinsic criteria
7-3
7.2
PERSONAL EVALUATION: DIMENSIONS OF BEING OR
GROWTH
See “Personal Design,” especially 5.5 and 5.6
108
8
DESTINATIONS: THE FUTURE OF EVOLUTION AND
DESIGN
...And of the Evolution and Design project
Note that “conclusions” are a necessary concurrent to “destinations.”
THE PURPOSE AND PLAN FOR AREA 8
Introduction and Assessment of Progress
Evolution and Design, written in 1986-87 was of a preliminary,
investigative nature. Areas 6 on Action and 7 on Learning were
especially tentative and existed in outline
A number of supporting works was compiled and written during and
after Evolution and Design. These include the Bibliographies to
Evolution and Design - in three parts, and Reference and Access
Systems
A number of “offshoot” essays and articles were written. Design and
Intelligence, Life, Unity and Meaning, Personal Design, Modern
Engineering, Evolution, Ideas and Empiricism in the Study of Mind,
and others - including reviews of useful works by other authors were written before Evolution and Design. These works were
preliminary to Evolution and Design
History of Western Philosophy, The Role of Magic and Religion, The
Journey Quest, Psychotherapies: Systems, Principles and Selection,
Organization of Mind and Psychiatric Systems, and many others were
written after Evolution and Design. These were informed by Evolution
and Design
The main evolution of the original ideas was from the evolutionary
paradigm of Evolution and Design to the newer paradigms of
Evolution, Design and the Absolute. Evolution, Design and the
Absolute is an idea and a work in process - it is the central
continuation of the search recorded in Evolution and Design. Whereas
Evolution and Design was based in an historical, evolutionary and
material paradigm, Evolution, Design and the Absolute is based in an
atemporal, absolute and personal or ideal paradigm. Evolution and
Design did not avoid the later ideas but its development of them was
immature. Similarly the newer ideas are not a rejection of the older
ones; rather the new is a complement to and includes the old
These newer ideas and their origins are first recorded in the same
personal journals - mentioned above - that record the development of
the ideas of Evolution and Design after its original writing - there was
a natural progression. Additionally the newer ideas and their origins
appear in works such as The Role of Magic and Religion [1991], and
in Reflections on Metaphysics and the Problems of Consciousness
[1996]. As one of my main current foci - the others are The Journey
and The River296 - Evolution, Design and the Absolute is not merely a
piece of prose but is in my life
I thought that it would be good to work with a group of individuals on
the fundamental aspects of my ideas and intentions. This is the idea
of a group, perhaps a research group or institute that I called Horizon
Research. Related concepts are for a consultation and applications
enterprise. This is the idea of Horizon Enterprises. Since the
paradigms of Evolution, Design and the Absolute and of Evolution and
Design are paradigms of the world, the processes and plans of human
societies are part of that paradigm. The ideas apply naturally to
design and planning at all levels -from individual to national and
global. This was one of the originals motivating ideas for Evolution
and Design. It is a sub-plot of the main idea that I wanted to ground
place myself and my person and thought in its background of the
universe. Horizon Enterprises would be necessary
Application would not necessarily be automatic or guaranteed. Careful
thought and planning would be needed. This is the content of Version
2 of Area 8, of Assist and of Dynamic Uses of Computers in Universal,
Global and Personal Process
These articles describe plans for the Evolution and Design and related
central projects and for Horizon Enterprises. There is a lot of useful
and information from central ideas and concepts down to detailed
organization and budgeting
Assist [1995 with recent updates] describes a plan for the work. One
organizational tool. This evolved into automation of processing and of
conceptual work. The idea is continued in Dynamic Uses of
Computers and in recent experimental applications of database
manipulation of concepts where, in addition to efficient mechanical
assistance, I attempt to have the computer enter “as a dynamic
element in the active and recursive stream of knowledge, being,
relationship, process, design and action.” I reflect on “What is
Thinking?” - a theme in my work on consciousness - and what it
means a computer to think. In the database work, the comparison of
different conceptual
...These ideas derive from and feed back into my Reflections
on...Consciousness
All these threads are interwoven and so plans for the future of the
ideas and the text are mutually dependent on my own plans - plans
for my life and for my involvements including the idea of Horizon
Enterprises
Why should these plans and ideas be part of Evolution and Design?
The concept of “text”
Evolution and Design, which places being and endeavor in an
evolutionary context has an important and ongoing role in my own
development. A central line of development is Evolution, Design and
the Absolute, which develops alternative views including atemporal
and absolute ones. The different points of view are complementary,
not in opposition. Process is contained within the ultimate. Process is
essentially uniform - in conceptual advance, non-uniformity is reconceptualized as uniformity. There are stages...and the ultimate is
an ultimate stage. We, the actual, remain in process against a
backdrop of the ultimate
Although persons, ideas and works come to definite stages and
plateaus of development, I see them as being in ongoing process, in
evolution. My view of the evolutionary text contains similar elements.
These ideas in part derive from Evolution and Design and are
elaborated in Assist
Areas 1 and 8 of Evolution and Design place the work in process.
Area 1 discussed origins and Area 8 focuses on the future of the work
and its ideas and their application
The content of Area 8 must therefore include review and plans for the
future
The essential content of Area 8
The Present State of Area 8
Review: Accomplishments, open problems
Future:
Central ideas and technical aspects
Offshoots and applications such as: publications, policy and planning global to local and individual, design, encyclopedia and encyclopedia
design, and:
...A research, concepts, design, consultation and applications group or
institute and enterprise
Advertisement and support: publishing, management of research and
creativity, funding and support of research, and general
administration and management
There are two versions
Version 1 is an outline. The contents are as described above. The
outline is below in §§1.2, 3, 4, and 5
Version 2 is in two parts. Part I is an elaboration of Version I but the
electronic version remains in outline. There is a manuscript version
mainly in the form of a detailed tree. Part II of version 2 is a Special
Annotated Bibliography for Research Organization and Leadership the contents are as for advertisement and support in the box above.
There is also an associated collection of readings from select items of
the bibliography
I currently feel there is a somewhat distorted and poorly expressed
focus to Area 8, especially of Part I of Version 2. This is relative to the
original and ongoing contents and intent of Evolution and Design.
of its foci is the use of a computer as a text processing and
109
Relative to the central intent, some parts of Version II Part I are
overly detailed and technical
Style, organization and simplicity
This is not a significant problem since the ongoing work has proper
focus as expressed in ideas and plans for “The Elements of My Life,”
“The Program for Evolution, Design and the Absolute,” and in related
works such as Assist, Dynamic Uses of Computers... Reflections on
Metaphysics and the Problems of Consciousness and so on.
Furthermore, the actual contents of Area 8 are valid and useful even
though they require balance and re-focus
Reading and references
PLANS for area 8
The body of Area 8 begins, below, in §1.2 Review. This is version 1 or
V. 1
Study and Background
Material
Regarding world, fact, action
Completeness, comprehensiveness
Foundation: philosophy, knowledge, awareness, value, and evaluation
Design: process, areas
Action: implementation, control, and feedback
Correctness
The plans are:
Conceptual: rational, empirical
Immediate
Importance: fundamental problems
Immediately - retain the original outline only version of Area 8 as the
standing version
Processes [means]
I may not need to go beyond the outline since detailed ideas and
plans exist. Incorporation of the whole or part of the outline of the
manuscript version of V.2 Part I is an option but not essential
However, the outline version starting in §1.2 Review below is very
preliminary and can be refined for the logic of the organization and
for current emphasis and plans
States [ends, values]
8-4
FUTURE OF THE WORK
TECHNICAL ASPECTS
The open problems of 8.2
Begin at the important levels, the global levels
Version 2 Part I
Philosophy...knowledge and values...design
In any case V.2 Part I may be referenced from Area 8 as emphasizing
the join of the Evolution and Design Project with “Research
Organization and Leadership” - and administration and management
Social...technical
Subsequently I may modify and merge parts - outline and or content
- of Version 2 Part I, perhaps with altered emphasis and possible new
content, with Version 1. This will be done only if it would be useful to
the main work or as a publishable reference...and in conjunction with
word processing of the text of V.2 Part I
Although V.2 Part I remains only in outline there are two fragments in
the folder C:\My Documents\Archive for EDA\E&D Text Area 8 Version
2 Pt I Fragments
Global...national...individual
Universality of the processes
Systematic treatments
Area 3: Logic
Area 4: Essences and summaries
Area 5: Organization, key concepts of planning
Area 6, 7, 8: Complete the treatment
Update
Focus would be as follows. Focus content to the fundamental, and
conceptual with grounding. Focus applications to those in a dynamic
loop with content. The concept of application is evolutionary. Focus
work on my fundamental individual effort and the establishment,
management and administration of a research group - or enterprise for the fundamental focus
Supplement readings, references, and secondary references
Version 2 Part II
...Applications, consultation and enterprise
V. 2 Part II may be eliminated since it essentially already exists as the
Bibliography Part III a Bibliography for Research Organization and
Leadership to Evolution and Design. This bibliography would then be
referenced from Area 8 as pertaining to the topic of research
organization and leadership...and as a source for data
Publications, books
Readings
Readings will remain separate and are not an essential focus. They
may be referenced - from Bibliography Part III and or from [Area 8]
Evolution and Design itself - or omitted with perhaps only a mention
in Bibliography III
8-2
THE ORIGINAL OUTLINE VERSION OF AREA 8 WRITTEN IN MARCH
OF 1988
REVIEW
National policy and planning
Other levels: global, regional, local
Design encyclopaedia
Institute of Design
Experts
8-6
PUBLICITY AND PUBLICATION
Marketing
Need
Advertising: selling - Design to sell
Institutions
Social relations
...A problem in design?
Communication
The future
Simplicity, immediacy, application
See 8.2 Open Problems
Persuasion
See 8.3 Future
8-3
Style
8-5
related work and plans
Agents
Evaluation of the project
OPEN PROBLEMS FOR THIS WORK
Hierarchy of change rates in fields - and update frequency of parts of
the work
Finances
Grants
Home institution
110
Planning [in some detail as appropriate]
Areas to be planned
Preliminary work
8.2.3
Institute for Design
Organization of the outline
Key Areas of Significance
Main divisions [intrinsic - content; external - support]
See area 8.3.1. Open Problems of Areas 2 through 7, and sub areas,
particularly 5.3.5
It is neither useful nor practical to make the list of topics detailed or
uniformly explicit. The following §§8.1.3.1, 8.1.3.2, and 8.1.3.3 are
therefore, selective
8-7
Detailed outline of considerations
PLANS FOR PUBLICITY AND PERSUASION
8.2.3.1
Develop plans
Values and objectives:
Intrinsic dimensions
Copyright
Quality:
Mail outlines to
Dimensions of quality - inner, socio-cultural and environmental
Applications: types:
Prepackaged services
Critics
Individuals with influence
“epistemology”
of
knowledge
-
action.
Applications: areas: by dimension of existence - natural, socialcultural, inner-universal
Publicity, agent, editor
Funds, grants, institutes
Dimensions of culture: Learning
Employment
8-8
Technology, systems of technology
Institutions, economic and others
NEW VERSION OF DESTINATIONS
By geo-political division
The Following Includes An Outline for Topics in Management of Social
Action, Research and Consulting Services
Understanding:
8.1
Knowledge: General. Capability for individual learning
INTRODUCTION
The contents of this chapter are:
Central ideas, values and implementation
Review and evaluation
Openness, attitudes, learning
Human: division: by content - general. By nature; representation
By function and by content
Aspects, means and approaches to development
Continued - special aspects: nature and natural science; society,
culture; and social analysis
Support: social, technical, and financial
Source and means of development of content
Planning
Evaluation
Main priorities
Aspects to be reviewed; criteria of evaluation; through interaction and
learning: self, communication
Factors
8.2
CONSIDERATIONS FOR DEVELOPMENT
8.2.1
Objectives
Central objectives: developing:
That understanding which leads to quality of action and existence
Quality - of action and existence
Aspects of understanding
Progressive and explicit
There are progressive epistemologies
Conserving
Primordial tradition
There are traditions in which understanding and existence are in such
harmony as to coalesce
Understanding and quality as intrinsic values
Issues of balance
8.2.2
General outline of considerations AND priorities for
planning
Sources of new material
Aspects - sources of new material: communication, experience,
literature, personal material; review, creation, synthesis
Creation and synthesis
Synthesis and selection
Selection criteria: criteria of significance
Reason, communication, and persuasion...the processes of group
knowledge, learning and interaction
Reason: Imaginative-inductive. Modes of communication and
representation: language. Critical and deductive pattern encoding:
logic, mathematics, and applied mathematics
Interactive communication and learning [dialectic]
Functions and modes...Aspects - medium and occasion; dimensions of
meaning; communication of meaning
Persuasion and presentation - or rhetoric - and rhetorical design;
considerations:
Audience and medium
Outline: tree form
Types of arguments
Considerations
Types of discourse
Intrinsic aspects: having to do with the content and nature of the
project
Types of proof:
External aspects: organizing study and research, forming a research
group or institute, publicizing and selling; funding
Emotive aspects - nature of emotion and motivation; practical aspects
Priorities
Priorities for planning
General approach...specific operations...criticism
Problems and opportunities for sequencing
Motivation, value and ethics
Appeal to reason. Fallacies
Scope and organization of arguments - or selection and arrangement
Classical arrangement
Style or expression: Enhancing functions and classical elements
Sources
111
8.2.3.2
External
dimensions:
Publicity
and
Publication
Administration, Financial, Facilities, Auxiliary and Other
Support297
Types:
Environmental [physical, social]
General management
Functional strategies with emphasis on research management
8.4
FURTHER SPECIALIZED INFORMATION ON FUNDING
INSTITUTIONS
Applications for funds
Technical
8.4.1
Through affiliation - research, consulting
A listing of some grant AND contract sources
International, federal, national - various categories - state, and local
Through enterprise
8.4.2
Financial support
Plan for research and related funding
Response to a request for proposal
Forms of support - grants, consultants
Sample outline
Types of source - information resources, classification
8.5
Example: computational fluid dynamics
IDEAS TOWARD A RESEARCH GROUP OR INSTITUTE
Initial statements of purpose for communication
Development and generation of support:
8.5.1
Short term
Long term:
Publicity: for work: aspects; publicity and publication; publication and
publishing; self-publishing [order of publication], production
Generation and management of support
The idea of a research group
Knowing and living: knowledge in its relation to action and the quality
of existence. On the significance of knowledge and understanding and
potential for development and use
The idea of a research group: a small, well-formed group of
individuals can make revolutionary contributions
Technical support - dimensions: research, organization, physical;
entrepreneurial management: initiative; standard management
functions
The dimensions of interest: development of understanding;
development of guidelines for group and a full range of issues; special
interests
8.2.3.3
How to form and constitute a research group. Selection of individuals
Leadership, Administration and Management for an
Effective Research Environment
8.2.3.3.1
Effective research environment
institutional and large scales
on
individual,
and
understanding
effectiveness.
Measures
of
Effective management: overall vision and initiative action [for starting
an organization and adapting to opportunity and change] and routine
administration. Factors of good research administration
Additional considerations for applied research
8.2.3.3.2
Technical experience
Work
8.5.3
Outline of budget - AN example
8.5.4
Further sources
problems
8.5.5
8.6
Considerations
Long-term vision for initiative activities and research opportunities
Routine
Long term and large scale
Large scale
Long-term operation of effective research institutions
of
information
AND
special
Further possibilities for a group or institute
PERSUASION AND PRESENTATION
Essay on “Modern Rhetoric: Philosophy and Design”
8.6.1
Introduction: old and new rhetoric
8.6.2
Practical rhetoric:
communication
8.6.3
Rhetorical design
the
art
of
persuasion
and
Personal relations with the audience
Administration
Basis of agreement
Factors in a creative and productive environment
Social: developing and maintaining contact
Public relations
Types of argument and aids to invention
Social: general support
Financial management
Administration of finance: general business; research institutes and
universities; procuring funds for research and educational institutions:
factors in attracting funds; loans and investors; campaigning and
fundraising; applying for funds marked for, or, transferable to
research; pre-application: proposal planning, content; application;
post application
8.2.4
Background work towards forming a group
Statement of purpose and mode
Manuscripts
Outline
Effectiveness
effectiveness
8.5.2
Scope and organization
arrangement
of
an
argument,
or,
selection
and
Style and expression: nature, use and effect
Comprehensiveness
Relations among the factors
8.6.4
Rhetoric and philosophy
Supplementary Topics
Essay: Growth and Status of Systematic Knowledge
FOOTNOTES
Essay: Reason, Communication and Persuasion: Individual and Group
Knowledge
1. An evolutionary path: population[society[colony[organism [or
composite: cell]
Information: References on
management, venture capital
2. Classically, with evolution as “dynamic progression”. But, in QM
and QF with discrete stable ordered states, and variations due to a
“chaotic” environment, would this not be closer to “blind”
variation...or even classically with variations due to “chaotic” sources?
However, remember the complexity of states and processes, that
system = environment and structure, and remember the non-finality
of description, classical or quantum
8.3
institutional
investments,
portfolio
MANAGEMENT
An elaboration of some aspects of 8.1.3, Part B for research, study
and synthesis, management of research groups and institutes
Flow depiction of enterprise
112
3. This implies, possibly, preference in short-range variations, but not
necessarily preference in long-range change except if there is a
structure and a trend to the distribution of the states
4. In addition, of life: variation is Dionysian, selection is Apollonian
5. This includes “use” and application of this unity. The “value” is
both “practical” [efficiency] and existential [being, experiencing,
sacred]
6. Finiteness and boundedness of knowledge and organismic
rationality are regarded, within an evolutionary part of its essential
and necessary nature
34. Non-photosynthetic. For other differences see Gould, just cited, p.
117
35. A linear arrangement is appropriate for a sequential process
1[2[3[4[[1] or 1[2[3[4[2 but a nonlinear one is better if there is a
high degree of interaction: 1[2, 1[3, 1[4, 2[3, 2[4, and 3[4
36. Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, 1982
37. Encyclopedia of Philosophy
38. John Alcock, Animal Behavior, 1979. Douglas J. Futuyma,
Evolutionary Biology, 1979. R. E. Rickleffs, Ecology, 1978
8. Refer to Appendix
39. Eldredge, N. and S. J. Gould, 1972, “Punctuated Equilibria: An
Alternative to Phylogenetic Gradualism”, in T.J.M. Schopf, Ed., Models
in Paleobiology, pp. 82-115
9. Disunity [and “illusion” of time] comes from mistaking givens for
real [Gödel]
40. An example where the use of inclusive terminology and concepts
is better than the use of polarized concepts
10. This is in the nature of rational human being; there is nothing
intrinsically wrong with fragmentations and plurality kept in balance
with holism and unity
41. See BIBLIOGRAPHY
11. Essay, “Life, Unity, Meaning”, p. l
43. A similar comparison with idealism is possible
7. World as universe of idea and action
12. Reality could be considered an extended process
13. The infinite past would be the remote past
14. A. N. Whitehead has given an explanatory [variation and
selection] basis of history as evolution in Adventures of Ideas. See
especially pp. 1-9, FP edition
15. Study of evolution must be historical, in part
16. See the bibliography for references on the philosophy of history
17. See Bibliography
18. Western academic culture separates pre-religion, mythology,
nature worship, and folklore from Religion
19. Refer to “Religious Doctrines and Dogmas”, Encyclopedia
Britannica, 15th edition
20. See General Statement, 1.1-3, and 2.2 for variations of this idea
and related themes. See 2.2.5 for levels
21. R. Rucker, Infinity and the Mind for related metaphysical
speculation
42. Possibly, extinction of other races of Homo sapiens occurred
about 40,000 years ago. See Max Delbrück, Mind from Matter [1987]
44. Source?
45. This is an original interpretation. Although science, officially, in
some versions, disavows any search for ultimates, many still search
and hope
46. Related question: Nature of death instinct [J. Lacan...]
47. Is this impersonal science real?
48. This is from Whitehead. I need to identify sources
49. Standard biological and physical evolutionary theory, 1986
50. It is probable that all truths are relative [incomplete], whether
symbolic[ symbolic, symbolic[ natural, natural[ symbolic, natural[
natural. Note: [1] all are aspects of natural[ natural, and [2] being
[noun, verb] is not true, not false and if absolute truth is to be found,
it is in being [verb] in being [noun]...etc
51. Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science, A history of the
cognitive revolution, 1985
52. J. Passmore, “Philosophy,” Encyclopaedia of Philosophy
22. Categories: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species,
race; various intermediate and finer types omitted. A taxon is a
member of a category
53. See also 2.6.8 and 3.4.3.3
23. Ernest Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity,
Evolution and Inheritance
55. Nor is need apparent; but see also 3.5.3, 5.3.2, and 5.3.5.3.7
24. Randomness refers to our knowledge of something - a process,
an event, or class of such
25. Remember that these features as more or less exclusive to
biology are ideas of Mayr, as is the whole of this Section 2.6.8.1
54. A. N. Whitehead, Process and Reality, 1929, Corrected Edition,
David Ray Griffin and Donald W. Sherburne Eds, 1978
56. Op. cit., J. Passmore
57. Op. cit., Whitehead
58. This and the following five quotations are from Whitehead,
Process and Reality, Op. cit
26. G. G. Simpson, “Biology contains physics, is central” applies more
to social philosophy
59. Knowledge: Discovery,
transmission, and education
27. E. H. Carr, What is History, 1961
60. Area 1 is a general statement of the origins, nature and objectives
of Evolution and Design
28. I am at odds with the bio-centric subterfuges of sociobiology,
which appear to make and deny various claims. This, of course, must
be the position of any reduction
29. I think this is a principle that says any action that is based in
inheritance must somehow enhance continuation of the actor
30. I distinguish between theory and concept formation because Mayr
does. I do not think his understanding here is good. I see both as
species of one concept
31. These ideas would, if true, argue against common descent in the
large, and non-treelike merging at any stage would argue against
common descent in the small; but none of these ideas argues against
evolution
32. Science, January 10, 1969
33. “Evolutionary biology”, 1974. Discussed in Gould, Ever Since
Darwin, 1977
creation,
validation,
production...
61. Op. cit. Whitehead
62. Note the close relation with the concept of language; see 3.2.3.6
63. Although modern science indicates a non-final micro-cosmology,
this non-finality is by no means a final fact; nor does non-finality of
cosmology place essential restrictions on descriptive metaphysics and
ecological epistemology
64. Spirits, gods and God, irrespective of their ontological status, are
not primary in this sense
65. Again, balance with Eastern, and other ideas including religion will
be provided later
66. I am not distinguishing - or uniting - mind and matter
67. See summary in introduction to Area 4; also see 3.4.3.3, 3.5.6.1,
and 3.6.1
68. Reason: logic, formal logic are the symbolic or linguistic
expression of reason
113
69. The “indirect” - mode is: data, epistemic process [ information,
logical process [ knowledge. It is not obvious that the separation is
possible, hence inclusion of logic in epistemology. Note that the
epistemic process is not at all purely Baconian, i.e., there is no
inexorable logic that proceeds from fact to theory. In the direct mode,
there is no separation this does not mean there is no processing or
logic
90. A theory cannot be validated by any number of experimental
agreements, can be invalidated by a minimal number, perhaps;
theories not invalidated remain as active theories
70. We can think of heuristics as a type of fallible logic which is
simpler and therefore more powerfully suggestive than formal logic
94. Refer to Section 4
71. See also 3.5.6 and Area 4
96. Personal Design, unpublished ms
72. Perhaps relative is a better word
97. Learning: discovery, synthesis and transmission of knowledge,
understanding and wisdom [education]
73. This could be defined rationally, behaviorally
74. Which satisfies the criterion of a quantum leap in quality for
significant numbers of people and purposes. Note a potential relation
between the situation implied by this model and growth according to
“punctuated equilibrium” models of general evolution. “Advance”
followed by equilibrium is a characteristic of growth. Not all rapid
advance or “revolutions” in knowledge” are due to novelty “paradigm
shifts”; there are ways besides conceptual novelty...novelty in which
“niches” are opened up - new tools - instruments, technologies,
mathematics - new discoveries, syntheses, new insight into
implications, cross fertilization between fields, and so on
75. There is also a value to the play and dance of primal being,
psychologically as well as adaptively. See references to “Personal
Design” in this work
76. Can these be provided a basis: organismic, or direct, or
evolutionary or other process?
77. A. N. Whitehead, Process and Reality, Op. cit
91. K. R. Popper
92. Is this an adventure or what? On the edge!
93. For method in science, see 3.5.6.1
95. See 3.1.4
98. Punctuated equilibrium can be regarded as a general model of
evolutionary change in which changes remain normal - incremental,
chromosomal splitting...- on a biological level. However, due to
opening up of opportunity such as niche evolution due to critical
points or extinction... on a geological or paleontological level change
is rapid and thus equilibrium appears to be punctuated
99. Some “socio-biologists” appear to believe that all social behavior
is of this type
100. My preliminary reading is that cultural evolution is a general
description of a process that is embedded in other levels and these
other levels provide the mechanisms of variation and selection.
However, writing later, I am not sure why I thought that way.
Although the earlier statement includes truth, cultural evolution is an
independent element of change
101. This does not imply that there are no new and or unforeseen
ones
78. This discussion does not recognize a universal or absolute arbiter;
careless use of this idea can lead to fallacy. Ultimately, each
perception-set is “validated” by percept-concept sets. Even this is
limited. What is final when everything may be transient, solid when all
is fluid, true when knowledge and being form an interwoven web? I
regard this question as something to be reflected on and
reformulated before answering it or deriving conclusions from it
102. I do not interpret mind in its Cartesian sense as dual to body
but, rather, as an expression of organism
79. We can distinguish knowledge, truth: [1] more thought goes into
knowledge; or [2] knowledge is systematization of truths, or [3]
knowledge is the systematization function and truth is the
consonance function. In any case, the distinction is not perfect; and
we are dealing with shades of “meaning” and potential meaning
106. A note to all climbers of mythic mountains - climbing up includes
climbing down...into a traditional and phylogenetic past
80. Vocabulary, grammar: e.g., the subject-predicate object form that
is not ontologically neutral
81. Logic is the linguistic expression of reason, just as language is the
expression of proposition. Remember, propositions are whole organismic
82. Terms are to be interpreted on their broadest organismic levels
83. Fill out from religion, science, art, east-west philosophies, and
design
84. Value: economy, integrity: anti-alienation, truth, living
85. Analytic, rational thought which proceed from conscious thought,
necessarily employ division. However, such thought can proceed to
higher levels of integration by concept formation: relations[ synthesis
by concept. There are cross disciplines: biophysics, mathematical
logic. Instead of forming tertiary connections we proceed by hierarchy
and or process...[ These are the methods of philosophic
generalization. In this analytic process analysis is “informed” by
feeling, emotion, intuition which are among the faculties of reason
and perception. We, therefore, have unity by analysis and synthesis
86. Includes general problems. See 3.5 for more detail on the special
problems
87. It is not implied that all process explicitly includes all elements.
Some spheres re best described by omitting certain elements.
However, I have formulated the system as a comprehensive one
88. The value here is the insight and the motive provided
89. There is an inclusion of and relevance to scientific method
103. Max Delbrück, Mind from Matter
104. And institutionalized due to or enhanced by written records
105. This concept goes beyond invalidation. Success includes
synthesizing, resolving, and crystallizing areas of knowledge
107. P. Munz, op. cit
108. A. N. Whitehead, Process and Reality, and Modes of Thought
109. P. Munz, op. cit
110. In nature, the identity of manifold itself is part of the hypothesis
111. A. N. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World
112. Ibid
113. A careful analysis of the question “What is knowledge?” is an
essential prerequisite to notions of science and criteria. Although
criticism is good and even negative forms of it are useful at times, a
lot of futile pessimism and histrionic attacks result from careless
assumptions as to the nature and purposes of knowledge
114. Based in hidden psychological and sociological assumptions
about science and knowledge. This can grow into a full-scale criticism
of [Western?] civilization
115. Since conceiving and first writing this, I have encountered these
ideas in Max Delbrück's Mind from Matter, and Konrad Lorenz's
Behind the Mirror
116. Note added in 1992 and supplemented in 1998. The form of the
statement here was somewhat limited and unclear. The main points
are as follows. [1] Analytic knowledge is possible in this universe. [2]
There may be universes in which [our form of] analytic knowledge is
not valid; and that in this sense analytic knowledge is synthetic
knowledge. [3] The present universe is such a universe. This is so in
a number of ways. Firstly, language, which is part of the metaphysical
background to the expression of analysis, cannot be regarded as
having completed its potential evolution even in a progressive sense.
A second argument relates to the nature of the distinction between
analytic and synthetic knowledge. The original distinction was as
114
follows. Analytic truth of a proposition follows from a syntactical
analysis of the internal relations of its constituent parts. Synthetic
truth follows from a comparison of the semantic contents of the
proposition with external world to which those contents refer. The
synthetic a priori was supposed to refer to fundamental truths so
basic that reference to the world was not necessary for their
validation. Alternatively, it may be said that the reference was prior to
the becoming of an individual, a society, a civilization... A better
distinction from the evolutionary and modern anthropological points
of view is between knowledge that is phylogenetically bound into the
organism through evolution and knowledge that is ontogenetically
learnt through development. Many sub-distinctions are possible based
on such considerations as the distinction between linguistic vs. iconic
representation, and blurring of distinctions as in the phylogenetic
basis of ontogenetic potential. However, the main distinction between
phylogenetic - or ultimate - and ontogenetic - or proximate - process
is fundamental. Moreover, as suggested by the previous sentence this
distinction can be generalized: ultimate, absolute and necessary vs.
proximate, temporal and contingent. Thus, in the 20th century especially in the last 25 years - it has become common to regard the
distinction between the analytic, the synthetic a priori and the truly
empirical as incomplete. Further, the distinction is seen to be less
central than at the time of Kant. What of the newer distinctions:
ultimate vs. proximate...? As our learning advances, our reading is
that such distinctions begin to blur and assume lesser importance. At
the same time, the implicit and explicit actual and metaphysical
frameworks broaden in spatial, temporal and conceptual scope. This
latter process reintroduces into our knowledge a distinction between
the two processes: metaphor or reading of established patterns or
logic - the ultimate... and experiment or discovering new patterns the proximate...we remain in this process
and Monod appear to believe that their views, if not actually scientific,
are grounded in science. The issue of the scientific grounding of these
views is not completely separable from the related questions “What is
science?” and “What is the nature of human endeavor?” The views of
the scientific establishment are surely important here. However, since
that establishment is a specialist constituency the final determination
is not and cannot be left to it even if such determinations are
occasionally delegated to specialist establishments by default. I
believe my view to be grounded although I cannot claim to be
unwavering in the way in which I hold it. To go further into the
nature of my view would be to go into self-psychoanalysis or
psychological analysis. This may be useful and is something that I
may take up later in its appropriate setting. If that setting is this work
and its continuation then I will be careful to place it in its best relation
to the rest of the work and its purposes. I will remember that the
purposes themselves are grounded, by my intention, in that they
naturally flow from my life and my world
117. From Max Delbrück, Mind from Matter
141. For design, see: Area 5, and §3.5.7.3...For action see Area 6
118. Known institutions, cultures could, and do, operate at different
levels of independence
142. See next “Foundation of the Unity”. See Area 4 and §4.2 in
particular. Finally, see M. Adler, A Guidebook to Learning, 1986, for
background knowledge for design
119. Is there a relation to ideas of Imre Lakatos?
120. See E. Becker, Birth and Death of Meaning
121. Essay “Life, Unity, Meaning.”
122. Also, see 2.6.1, 1, 3, and 13
123. 3.3.1, 3.3.2, 3.5.6.1, etc
124. See Konrad Lorenz, Behind the Mirror, and Max Delbrück, Mind
from Matter
125. Would this be with or to the object of the concept?
126. Not as distinguished from an Oriental or an Eastern science, but
as distinct from a universal science
127. Emotion, here, is diversification and expression of feeling along
the dimensions of quality and intensity...cognition is diversification
and expression of feeling along the dimensions of structure and
quality
128. See also T. N. Tice and T. P. Slavens, Research Guide to
Philosophy, 1983, ALA, especially pp. 305-312
129. Refer to Encyclopedia Britannica 15th Edition article “History of
Western Philosophy.”
130. See 3.1-3; 3.4.3, and 3.5.1-6
131. Here, reference is being made to the cognitive function of
philosophy
135. Again, see 3.1-3, 3.4.3, and 3.5.1-6. Considerations for items 1 3 are taken up in 3.5.7.1-3
136. Refer to P. Munz [1985], Konrad Lorenz [1973], and Delbrück
[1986] op. cit
137. This includes academic, psychoanalytic, and “alternative”
psychologies
138. Howard Gardner, The Mind's New Science: A History Of The
Cognitive Revolution, 1985
139. The “hypothetico-deductive method” is not a complete
prescription of scientific method or process...see 3.4.3, 3.5.6
140. These problems are considered in a global and a universal
context
143. Between atomic and global scales: Max Delbrück, op. cit
144. See “On Universality,” 3.5.6.5
145. Refer to The Nature Of Philosophy, 3.2; The Divisions, 3.3;
Methods, 3.4; and Special Problems, 3.5
146. There is a need to consider the problem of fragmentation. This is
related to what I have called this the problem of “specialism.”
Specialism is the negative side of specialization that includes a cult of
specialization. I distinguish specialization, which can provide benefits
such as “division of labor,” “expertise,” and “opportunity” from
specialism which is an excess
147. Refer to manuscripts Modern Engineering, Personal Design,
Design and Evolution, Background Knowledge for Design, to Dreams
and Ideal Religion for further comments, problems and lines of
solution. Also seek out references recent and historical problems and
recent and historical social designers: the ancient prophets and
philosophers of East and West - Gandhi, Schumacher, Schweitzer,
and Heilbroner. Do not seek mere address of special problems,
expressions of vast political constituencies, or expressions of
conventional wisdom
148. These are the problems of urban centers and over-cultured, antinaturalistic forms and meanings
149. These are listed in the previous paragraph
132. Criticism, in this admittedly mixed metaphor, is at the surface of
the “ground of being and mythic thought.”
150. A range of risk is compatible with value. This issue is related to
the one of conservatism vs. adventure
133. As Bertrand Russell said in The Problems of Philosophy:
“Philosophy is not studied for the sake of answers but for the
questions...” [3.4.2.2]
151. In addition to their restrictive aspect, design and planning should
have a permissive aspect
134. It is strange that writers such as Jacques Monod and Steven
Weinberg, steeped in modern science, see humankind as tragic,
lonely, alien. Coming from the same view - but by no means limited
to it - I love my being in the universe. A topic that deserves attention
is the question of the basis of such epi-scientific views. Are they
scientific rather than merely epi-scientific? Writers such as Weinberg
152. Note the balance between context and need
153. Personal Design
154. Before I begin to accuse myself of “naturalism”, let me inquire
what I mean and might mean by that term
155. Additionally, a new view of emotion, knowledge, and design is
emerging
115
156. The origins of each item are from before its immediate
predecessor. This sequence is not in completed form. I am not
making an assumption of complete causation
186. A little poetic license
157. I am not trying to imply that space-time-matter is the ground or
origin of being. Rather, for me, it is an example
188. Question this
158. See §3.5.6.1
159. Western philosophy...The circumstances of Greece ~600 BC
which permitted development of philosophy - as distinct from
theology - are of interest
160. Applied to East and West this distinction is a stereotype;
nonetheless, the distinction-concept is valid
187. Although relativity is deterministic, it shows the incomplete
nature of conceptions thought to be universal
189. Before technology, yes
190. Area 9 could go into Area 5, ... another alternative is - Areas 1
through 5 remain unchanged and the following renumbering could be
done: 6 and 7 and 8 and 10 [ 7 and 9 [ 6. There would [in this latter
case] be seven Areas. Areas 1 through 5 would be unchanged; Areas
6 and 7 would be labeled “History” and “Artifact” respectively
161. For adaptivity, B will include A - or similar condition - and
therefore A knows itself sufficiently well for adaptation. S
191. Divisions: matter and energy...the Earth or life...human
society...human artifact are not perfectly clear according to
evolutionary or structural principles
162. It is necessary to include this possibility until the contrary can be
demonstrated
192. This does not mean that one evolutionary level is complete
before the next begins
163. This statement is not intended to exclude other, non-intuitive
elements. Intuitive knowledge may have origin in phylogenetic
evolution, while mythic knowledge may have basis in cultural
evolution
193. A similar statement occurs on page 2, Albert Einstein, The
Meaning of Relativity, 1922, Oxford
164. Includes all dimensions...social, psychological, biological,
physical, environmental, and so on - persistent and occasional
165. It is interesting to speculate the origin of individual learning:
cells, eukaryotes, metazoa, creatures with nervous systems,
encephalization, i.e., centralization of the nervous system
166. Max Delbrück, Mind from Matter? An Essay on Evolutionary
Epistemology, 1986, [op. cit.], Blackwell, pp. 121-132
167. Preface, General Statement - Area 1, Area 2, 3.5.6, 5
168.
Natural,
psychologically
social
and
self...anatomically,
genetically,
169. To whom or what? Why not? What is an appropriate and or
evolutionary meaning of clarity - truth - knowledge? Is this relevant?
170. This includes dynamic, short and long-term memory
171. This includes knowledge itself, and the universe, and the world
of experience
172. Herein lies a certain degree of artificiality: organismic knowledge
is communicated genetically
173. What does the plural do to “naturalism”?
174. This is not to deny the value of intuition; but the only valuable
knowledge is knowledge that can be “wrong” in principle. This point
deserves reflection. Intuition can be “wrong.”
175. Realism, idealism: Since 4.2.1.2 was “ideal” and 4.2.1.3 referred
to ideal and practical elements, respectively, this is superficially
paradoxical
176. See the contents outline of Archie J. Bahm, Introduction to
Philosophy
177. These are included for completeness; I have incorporated many
of these in 4.2.1.1-3. Also, see Encyclopedia Britannica article
“Classification Theory.”
178. There is hardly any such thing as a pure symbol. For some
purposes, certain symbols could adequately be treated as pure
179. This type of relation exists between any actuality and concept
and, more generally, between any two [or more] mutually adapting
systems except when dissolution or final adaptation has occurred
180. To direct experience or analysis
181. A priori is not necessarily “correct” or adaptive - in all instances
182. Encyclopedia Britannica article “Classification Theory.”
183. Which includes both understanding and reality
184. M. Adler, A Guidebook to Learning [1986], Macmillan, is a useful
reference. I have used Adler's book for information and ideas; I have
made additions
185. The French encyclopaedists Denis Diderot and Jean d'Alembert
extend poetry to include all fine arts
194. However, such danger is not essential
195. Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy [1945], p 828
196. C. S. Pierce, W. James, Giovanni Papini, F.C.S. Schiller, John
Dewey, C. I. Lewis, and P.W. Bridgman
197. Ernest Becker, Beyond Alienation 1967
198. I am not suggesting that all individual objectives are well defined
199. Adler, op. cit
200. Wisdom or grace does not have to do with accumulated
knowledge
201. See Areas 3 and 4 [4.2.3]; also E. Becker, Beyond Alienation
202. Encyclopedia Metropolitana [19th century], with a natural or
logical and alphabetic organization was not successful...due in part to
financial and organizational problems. The Encyclopedie Française
[18th century] with a systematic-natural was highly successful in its
time. Encyclopaedia Britannica [1768-present] with an alphabetic
organization is, so far, the only continuously successful encyclopedia
of the modern era. The 15th edition of the Britannica, 1974 with a
major and definitive revision of 1985, has a mixed alphabetic
organization
203. Generally, knowledge function also serves information-reference
function. The converse is not true
204. See also 4.2.3.1
205. Computer programmed for reference through index and access
systems
206. We may say that empirical knowledge is coded, expressed; a
priori and empirical are en coded into the structure of symbolic
systems. The distinction is not one hundred percent clear
207. Details omitted
208. By no means strict and exclusive. Throughout this work, there
are shifts in meaning to allow for possibility and ambiguity and
reflecting development
209. See discussion of “Mythic Elements,” Area 5
210. The separation of knowledge into a priori-empirical is, probably,
an approximation. Additionally, symbolic systems do contain empirical
knowledge when they are constructed-modified empirically. However,
such construction-modification will contain elements of the a priori as
will symbolically coded and expressed knowledge
211. Since both empirical and pre-linguistic and mythic and
phylogenetic knowledge can be built in, such knowledge is not
completely a priori
212. Semiotics = theory of signs = pragmatics, semantics and
syntactics. See D. D. Runes, Dictionary of Philosophy, 1984
213. See Area 3; also T. Tice and T. P. Slavens, Research Guide to
Philosophy, 1983, and St. Elmo Nauman, Jr., Dictionary of Asian
Philosophers, 1978
116
214. The academic tradition is limited to philosophic doctrines,
systems and schools. The understanding here is the broader one of a
general approach to life. Further the correspondence West-East [
Actual-Potential refers to a dominant stereotype
241. 1987
242. The list emphasizes technical design and could provide further
divisions for item 5.3.4.6
215. In the West the possible and potential are represented in poetryimaginative literature, and existentialism, religion, and the like
243. That is, design of engineering components. This could be
process-operations [chemical engineering] or the basic units of any
system
216. Poetry is used in its general conception of as literature or even
“imaginative” expression...and this includes art
244. Also See 5.2.3 for details: these accounts are generic
217. These elements are hypothesized-discovered-created as part of
the scientific symbolic explanation-prediction system
245. For further comment on planning and management, see
appropriate sections in 5.2 and 5.3; also refer to Melvin J. Stanford,
Management Policy, 1983
218. There should be no problem in considering terrestrial life, life,
mind, and universal being...if one is explicit about the extent to which
such phenomena are known...empirically or imaginatively
246. Art, technology, religion and modern engineering. In addition,
see 5.4.2 regarding engineering
219. Matter, energy, life, information, society, culture and knowledge
correspond with technologies such as materials, energy, genetic
medicine and mental, urban, economic, legal, education, art....These
are techniques of
247. The concept - trans-national government - will not be a
federation of governments of nations, and therefore not subservient
to national governments and nationalism
220. See “Modern Engineering” for information on technology. Also,
see Encyclopaedia Britannica
248. For areas, references and journals see readings and references
for evolution and design: Robert U. Goehlert and Fenton S. Martin,
Public Policy Analysis and Management: A Bibliography, 1985, ACICLIO Information Services
221. K. Eric Drexler, Engines of Creation, 1986
249. This includes time and material balances
222. As discussed in this work. Elaboration of the nature [conceptactuality] of design follows in areas 5.1-3
223. Some relations discussed pp. 4.4, 6, 8-11, and Area 4
224. Clearly these are not independent concepts, nor are they
alternatives; but the evolutionary model includes the rational and the
interactive includes the first two
225. General Statement, Area 1
226. Donald Shön, The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals
Think in Action, 1982
227. Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial, 1969. Note that
Simon's discussion of problem solving in this and other work [e.g.,
Models of Thought, 1979] displays precisely the sort of interaction
between solution process and problem environment that is in
question
228. In Medieval terminology theology, law, are medicine are the
professions
229. It is not necessary to accept dogma, etc. In physical knowledge,
science is usually more accurate [except aspects of the metaphysical].
However, in psychological understanding religion is often superior to
science
230. This refers to cycles of growth and creation, life and equilibrium,
and decay and destruction
231. This is a process
232. This points to the incomplete separation of evolution into
variation and selection, and the advantage of having such separation
incomplete. I have discussed this from another point of view in the
General Statement
233. This is related to an issue of freedom since rational adaptation
can lead to stagnation despite cautions
234. This goes in the section on synthesis. This is an example of
combining aspects of selection in variation
235. Refer to works of Herbert Simon, including Models of Thought,
AI, and mathematical, literary, artistic, scientific, psychological
literature on creativity
250. Structure
reproduction,]
and
time
[time:
continuity,
perpetuation,
251. Herbert A. Simon, The Sciences of the Artificial, 1969
252. This includes biological evolution. I am not implying that
biological evolution completely determines the structure of society or
social process - or of design. This would be equivalent to denying
existence of freedom [needed regarding the unknown]
253. This is not in Simon. Refer to modern engineering, background
to design, background to modern engineering, and science of
symbolic systems
254. Areas A and B correspond, approximately to the divisions of
knowledge: symbolic systems [4.3.1] and empirical knowledge [4.3.2]
255. Arrow's Theorem and related aspects of multiple decisionmakers. This concerns determination of group preference
256. Non-objectivity has basis in dynamic behavior, incomplete
selection
257. Consider an outline of a text on applied mathematics - conceived
as a science of symbolic systems
258. This may be prohibitively expensive, dangerous, or impossible
due to complexity, sensitivity, and so on
259. I am not asserting that knowledge is ultimately value free. I am
not entering this debate. However, I am suggesting, as I have done
before, that there is value to knowledge that serves its own
imperatives
260. Alternatively, the optimum is a distribution of controls
throughout society. This concept is more inclusive than the slogan
“Thinking globally acting locally.”
261. Levels are the dimensions of existence; areas are elements from
the “Planning Matrix” whose rows and columns are labeled by the
levels
262. Personal Design, 1986
263. The sequence cultural, political, economic correspond, roughly,
to individual, social, and material aspects of social process
236. See Preface, General Statement, Areas 1, 2, especially 3.5.6,
Introduction to 4 and 4.1
264. Individual and universal: see Personal Design. Global[ national[
regional[ local[ group[ individual
237. The meanings and intents of key words in this paragraph, such
as action, design, knowledge, intention, purpose and values, can be
referred to in this work
266. These imply attention to politics, economics, and culture
238. All dimensions of the global-universal context of human life and
interactions should be included
239. This listing is incomplete. See also 5.3.6
240. Global[ national[ regional[ local[ group[ individual
265. Justice and equity imply balance among peoples
267. Basis in evolution is discussed in Preface, General Statement,
and Introduction to 4, 4.1, 5.3.1, and 5.3.5
268. This idea is implied by balance among the dimensions. It is not
new and is practiced in primitive cultures. It is also the imperative of
a number of traditional morals and religion
117
269. Work of Michael Kinsley and others - Rocky Mountain Institute,
Arun Gandhi: 5 Shradanjali, Vithalnagar, North Avenue, Santa Cruz
West, Bombay 400054
295. For the process of learning and evaluation in planning, refer to
Area 5. Also see Robert Mayer, Policy and Program Planning: A
Developmental Perspective
270. This includes learning and its content - knowledge - and its
“method” or discovery, synthesis, transmission, and education]
296. I have used The River as a metaphor before but this is its first
appearance as a title or phase of life. It is related to the feeling
evoked by the idea of The Ocean - I prefer the image and feeling
evoked by the river - and refers to the phase of life of being rather
than doing...which is therefore not of not-doing which is also a form
of doing. In being the focus is neither on doing or on not-doing but
on being, on the present, and not on ends, progress, results and
intense future focus
271. Refer to art, technology, and religion for further details. Also,
see comments on p 5-58 for newer technologies
272. These are important concerns in modern society
273. See Huston Smith, The Religions of Man
274. Sequential [awareness[ knowledge[] vs. interactive [awareness
and knowledge and...][ concepts; “diagonalization” perhaps; relation
or analogy to mutual provision
275. See article by Lord Ritchie-Calder, Propaedia, Encyclopaedia
Britannica, and “Technology.”
297. For these functions and for enterprise, entrepreneurship and
self-support see “Bibliography Part III: Special Bibliography on
Research Organization and Leadership.”
276. These professions are creative, if so treated. They involve
creativity and have creative aspects. However, their primary function
is conservation and preservation
277. C.A. Murfin, “Design,” pp. 356-373, in K. W. Mildren, Ed., Use of
Engineering Literature, 1976. There is a more recent edition
278. I plan further information gathering and study on these topics
279. Thomas P. Hughes, “How Did the Heroic Inventors Do It,”
Invention and Technology, fall 1985
280. Evolution and Design, Bibliography Part III, Special Bibliography
on Research Organization and Leadership, with Annotations, Anil
Mitra, 1988
281. Karl Jaspers, The Great Philosophers, has called paradigmatic,
those individuals who have shown humankind how to live. His primary
choices are Socrates, Buddha, Confucius, and Jesus
282. Traditionally, 1950-1980s, engineers are not strong in life and
social sciences
283. See the manuscripts Design, Modern Engineering
284. Joseph Edward Shigley and Larry D. Mitchell, Mechanical
Engineering Design, 4th edition, 1983; Robert C. Juvinall,
Fundamentals of Machine Component Design, 1983. The text by
Juvinall has additional information, considerations, and an example of
a mechanical system
285. Such a lack may be regarded as a limitation, or we may
recognize the reason for the lack and use this understanding [1]
existentially in the sense of acceptance, and [2] “positively” to
understand the nature and function of knowledge and use of this
understanding in selecting areas and variety to emphasize and in
developing methods and approach
286. Piaget had similar ideas about formation of concepts in individual
growth. These are now known to have some approximate validity
287. E.g., in modern society the foundation of rational knowledge is
partly rational, partly mythic and, undoubtedly, partly organismic
288. As pointed out earlier, a range of orientations towards
immediate and universal ends is desirable. Oriented research occurs
within professional schools in universities and in other institutions and
organizations
289. The “methods” below channel creativity through codified
experience. Such codification and the related experience may have
limitations that are hard to overcome because of tradition, training
and value. Overcoming usually requires immersion
290. Ernest Becker, Beyond Alienation, 1967, p 279; see also
comments by Bertrand Russell, area 3.4.2.2
291. Ernst Mayr, The Growth of Biological Thought, 1983
292. See 3.5.3, 5.3.5.3 and 5.3.5.4
293. Refer to manuscripts “Personal Design”, and “Life, Unity,
Meaning”. See other references concerning determinism and choice
294. See Objective 3, §§1.2.1-3
118