Download Seconde anglais européen Année scolaire 2007-2008

Seconde anglais européen
Année scolaire 2007-2008
Discipline non linguistique
ECONOMICS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Chapter 1 : Family
I A changing social reality through times and places
A Households, kinship and families
Definitions
Household : A household consists of a person living alone, or two or more people who share the same residence.
Members of a household also share housekeeping –for example, sharing the rent and households chores. People who
live together in a household may or may not be related.
Kinship : The idea of kinship refers to relationships based on blood or marriage.
Family : The Office of National Statistics provides the following definition of a family. A family is a couple and their
never married children. Families also include couples with no children or a lone parent and her/his never married
children.
From Michael Haralambos and Peter Langley Sociology in focus for OCR AS Level, Causeway Press,2006
Homework
1) Read this text and check the vocabulary (by using an English-French dictionary and, if necessary, by
looking up definitions in a common French dictionary)
2) Give the differences between a household and a family.
3) Give three examples of kin relationships
Household change in Great Britain (percentages)
Type of household
1971 1981 1991 2002
One person
Under state pension age
6
8
11
15
Over state pension age
12
14
16
14
4
5
3
3
Two or more unrelated adults
One family households
Couple
No children
27
26
28
29
1-2 dependent children
25
20
19
26
3 or more dependent children
9
6
5
4
Non-dependent children only
8
8
8
6
Lone-parent
Dependent children
3
5
6
6
Non dependent children
4
4
4
3
1
1
1
1
Multi-family households
All households (=100%) (millions) 18,6 20,2 22,4 24,4
Adapted from Social Trends, 2003
Homework
1) Give an example of a household constituted of a lone-parent and non dependent children.
2) Give the meaning of the two numbers in bold type (You have to write a precise sentence for each).
3) Show the main changes in British households from 1971 until 2002.
B The diversity of family systems
Ideas about the biological relationship between parents and children vary from society to society. For
example, the Lakker of Burma see no blood relationship between mother and child –the mother is simply a container
in which the child grows. As a result, sexual relationships between children of the same mother are permitted –
because they are non- kin, such relationship are not seen as incest.
Most sociologists consider the tie between mother and child as basic and inevitable. However, in some
societies, many children do not live with their biological parents. For example, in Tahiti, in the Pacific Ocean, young
women often have one or two children before they are considered ready to settle down into a stable relationship with
a man. They usually give these children for adoption to their parents or other close relatives. Children see their
adoptive mother and father as “real” parents and their relationship with them as far closer than with their natural
parents.
Some sociologists argue that “marriage” varies so much from society to society that it makes little sense to
use the same world for these very different relationships. For example, the basic social group amongst the Nayar of
Northern India, the lineage, is made up of men and women descended through the female line from a common
ancestor. Brothers and sisters, women and children live together –children are members of their mother’s group not
of their father’s. Nayar girls “marry” a man before puberty and later take as many lovers as they like. Their
“husband” may or may not be one of these lovers. Children are raised in their mother’s social group. “Husbands” and
fathers do not share the same residence as their “wives” and have little to do with their children.
From Michael Haralambos and Peter Langley Sociology in focus for OCR AS Level, Causeway Press,2006
Homework
1) Read this text and check the vocabulary (by using an English-French dictionary and, if necessary, by
looking up definitions in a common French dictionary)
2) Define incest and show it is linked to social factors (§ 1)
3) In Tahiti, what is the kin relationship between a biological mother and her child when the child is adopted
by the natural mother’s parents (§ 2)?
4) Justify the use of inverted commas to qualify marriage, husband and wife in the Nayar society (§ 3)
C Marriages, divorces and types of families in contemporary Western societies
Marriages and divorces in the United Kingdom (Thousands)
1961 1971 1981 1991 1999
First marriages 330 360 250 200 165
20
80 150 170 160
Divorces
70
85 135 115 100
Remarriages
From Social Trends 2002
Homework
1) Give the meaning of the number in bold type (You have to write a precise sentence).
2) Make an appropriate calculation to show the change in first marriages and divorces between 1961 and 1999.
3) Show the trends in first marriages, divorces and remarriages in the United Kingdom from 1961 till 1999.
Explaining changing divorce figures
Since the 1950s, a number of sociologists have argued that changes in people’s expectations of love and
marriage have resulted in increasingly unstable relationships. Functionalists such as Talcott Parsons claim that
people expect and demand more from marriage. Because of this, they are less likely to put up with an unhappy
marriage and more likely to end it with divorce. Ronald Fletcher argue that a higher divorce rate reflects a higher
value place on marriage. In terms of this argument, the fact that a large proportion of divorcees remarry suggests that
they are not rejecting the institution of marriage but simply expecting more from the relationship.
More recently, the British sociologist Anthony Giddens (1992)has seen a trend towards what he calls
confluent love. This form of love focuses on intimacy, closeness and emotion. It forms the basis of relationship rather
than the feelings of duty and obligation reflected in the traditional marriage vows of “for better or worse, for richer or
poorer, ‘til death do us part”. Intimate relationships based on confluent love tend to last as long as partners find
satisfaction and fulfilment.
Throughout the 20th century divorce became more socially acceptable. Couples were less likely to stay
together in order to “keep up appearances” and to avoid the stigma and shame formerly associated with divorce. The
rising divorce rate has led to the “normalisation” of divorce more acceptable as a mean of dealing with a failed
marriage.
Women have often been “trapped” in unhappy marriages because they cannot support themselves and their
children without their husband’s income. Unless they can become economically independent, their opportunities to
divorce are severely restricted.
Over the past 50 years, married women’s chances of economic independence have improved significantly,
increasing numbers of women have entered the labour market, divorce settlements have taken more account of
financial needs of women, and welfare benefits for women have improved. Although most women find themselves
financially worse after divorce, they are able to live independently from their former husband.
Feminists have seen rising divorce rates as a reflection of all that is wrong with traditional patriarchal
marriage –male dominance and the unequal division of domestic labour, with women still largely responsible for
house work and child care even when they are employed outside the home. It is women rather than men who are
increasingly dissatisfied with marriage.
There is some evidence for this view. Divorced men are more likely to remarry than divorced women.
According to Diana Gittins (1993), this is because women are more disillusioned with marriage. In the 1940s, around
two-third of divorce petitions were brought by husbands. By 2000 the situation was reversed with 70% of petitions
brought by wives.
From Michael Haralambos and Peter Langley Sociology in focus for OCR AS Level, Causeway Press,2006
Home work
1) Read this text and check the vocabulary (by using an English-French dictionary and, if necessary, by
looking up definitions in a common French dictionary). Please note this is long and difficult text, so you
are advised to work on it in several times.
2) Sum up in your own words the five arguments that are given to explain the rise of divorce in contemporary
Western societies.
3) Show the similarity and the difference between the argument made by Ronald Fletcher (§1) and the one by
Anthony Giddens (§2).
4) What does the third paragraph show about the way a society works?
5) Link the arguments dealing with the status of women (§ 4,5,6).
Lone parent families in Great Britain (percentages of families with dependent children)
1971 1981 1991 2001
Lone mothers
Single
Widowed
Divorced
Separated
All lone mothers
Lone fathers
All lone parents
1
2
2
2
7
1
8
2
2
4
2
11
2
13
6
1
6
4
18
1
19
9
1
6
4
20
2
22
From Social Trends 2002
Home work
1) Give the meaning of the number in bold type (you have to make a precise sentence).
2) Which type of lone-parent family had the highest increase part amongst families from 1971 until 2001?
How could you explain it?
Reconstituted families (or stepfamilies)
Reconstituted families or stepfamilies are defined as a married or cohabiting couple with dependent children, at least
one of whom is not the biological offspring of both partners.
Stepfamilies (Great Britain, 2000)
Type of stepfamily
%
Couple with child(ren) from the woman’s previous marriage/cohabitation 88
Couple with child(ren) from the man’s previous marriage/cohabitation
9
Couple with child(ren) from both partners’previous marriage/cohabitation 3
From Living in Britain, 2002
Homework
1) Give the meaning of the number in bold type (you have to write a precise sentence).
2) Can you comment on this table in a few sentences.
II Family and society
A Primary socialisation
Socialisation: The social process through which children develop an awareness of social norms and values, and
achieve a distinct sense of self. Although socialisation processes are particularly significant in infancy and
childhood (primary socialisation), they continue to some degree throughout life (secondary socialisation). No human
individuals are immune from the reactions of others around them, which influence and modify their behaviour at all
phases of the life cycle.
From Anthony Giddens, Sociology, Polity Press, 2001
Homework
1) Why do humans have to be socialised?
2) Explain the underlined sentence.
Learning from parents
One way in which young children learn about social norms is by imitating their parents. They may copy the
way adults talk, or their table manners for example. By a process of trial and error, they learn what is acceptable –
asking politely- and unacceptable - rudely interrupting. As they get older they use their parents as role models. Girls
may play with dolls “just like mummy”.
For their part, parents try to instil social norms by setting an example and teaching their children how to
behave. They use sanctions (rewards and punishments) to guide and control the learning process. If children follow
the “proper” norms, their parents will reward them with smiles, loving attention, praise and treats. But if they
misbehave they are likely to be punished by frowns, reprimands, the denial of treats, and maybe even a smack.
This system of rewards and punishments does not guarantee that children will always behave “correctly”sometimes they will test the boundaries of acceptable behaviour, and sometimes they will show open defiance. But
over a period of time they get a pretty good idea of the social norms held by their parents!
The socialisation process may vary according to the particular family structure. For example, an “absent
father” may find it difficult to act as a role model for his children, while a step-father may not feel entitled to control
his step-children in the same way as their biological father could.
The experience of growing up within a family also varies according to its social and cultural values. For
example, a devout Muslim family will ensure that religion plays a strong part in the child’s upbringing.
From Michael Haralambos and Peter Langley, Sociology in focus for OCR AS Level, Causeway Press,2006
Homework
1) Read this text and check the vocabulary (by using an English-French dictionary and, if necessary, by
looking up definitions in a common French dictionary).
2) How does the socialisation process work?
3) Can you draw the consequences of the differences in the socialisation process due to the diversity of
families (you may use the two examples that are given in the text)?
B Family and gender
Gender and the domestic division of labour in Great Britain (percentages)
Allocation of tasks
Household shopping
Makes evening meal
Does evening dishes
Does household cleaning
Does washing and ironing
Repairs household equipment
Organises household money
and bills
Looks after sick children
Teaches children discipline
Mainly
man
5
5
17
3
1
82
29
1983
Mainly
woman
51
77
40
72
89
6
39
Shared
equally
44
17
40
24
10
10
32
Mainly
man
8
9
28
4
3
82
31
1
10
63
12
35
77
1
9
1991
Mainly
woman
45
70
33
68
84
6
40
Shared
equally
47
20
37
27
12
10
28
60
39
17
73
From Social Trends, 1995
Homework
1) Give the meaning of the number in bold type (you have to make a precise sentence).
2) Build two tables (one for 1983, the other for 1991) in which you will classify in three columns the tasks that
are more frequently done by women, more frequently done by men or those which are equally shared, in
each column you will classify these tasks by decreasing order (from the one which has the highest
percentage to the one which has the lowest)
3) From these tables, what can you say concerning the domestic division of labour and its evolution in Britain?
The double shift
Many women in dual-earner families experience what has been referred to as a double shift. One “shift”
consists of their paid employment, the second is their responsibility for managing and organising family life.
The extent to which women build their jobs around family responsibility is indicated by the numbers of each
sex in part-time work. 60% of women with dependent children are in part-time work compared with 4% of men with
dependent children (2002).
Women’s career are far more likely to be disrupted by having children than men’s. Fathers’work is rarely
affected by the birth of children. Women, however, are more likely to drop out of employment or move to part-time
work. However, this trend is becoming less pronounced with successive generations –an increasing proportion of
women with young children are staying in full time work.
An influential study by Robert and Rhona Rapoport focused on case studies of five dual-career families.
They found that the couples had negotiated ground rules about managing family and work commitments –for
example, neither partner should accept promotion involving a change of geographical location. But social pressures
from friends, relatives and the media kept reasserting conventional gender stereotypes. As a result, the female partner
ended up with primary responsibility for the childcare and household arrangements needed to sustain work and
family life.
From Michael Haralambos and Peter Langley, Sociology in focus for OCR AS Level, Causeway Press,2006
Homework
1) Read this text and check the vocabulary (by using an English-French dictionary and, if necessary, by
looking up definitions in a common French dictionary).
2) How does the double shift affect women’s career?
3) Set a schema (three points, two links) to show the stages of R. and R. Rapoport’s argument about the
division of labour changes in modern couples.
C Life chances
Life chances : A person’s chances of obtaining those things defined as desirable and avoiding those things defined
as undesirable in the society this person lives in.
Adapted from Michael Haralambos and Martin Holborn, Sociology, themes and perspectives, Collins, 2004
Homework
1) Give an example of a desirable thing and of an undesirable thing in our society. Show how the social
background of a person can affect the obtaining or avoiding them.
Dian Reay (1998) made a detailed study of 33 mothers in London. All of these women put great effort into
“practical maintenance” of children –feeding, clothing and so on- as well as emotional work –reassuring and
encouraging their children. All of them tried to support their children’s schooling. However Reay identified major
class differences. The middle-class mothers had time and energy to spend reading to their children and were
confident when talking to teachers. The working-class mothers, by contrast, had more of a struggle to make ends
meet and so had less time and energy. They also had fewer cultural resources such as verbal confidence and
knowledge of how the educational system operates. This meant they were less effective in compensating for poor
schooling and in persuading teachers to act on their complaints.
From Michael Haralambos and Peter Langley, Sociology in focus for OCR AS Level, Causeway Press,2006
Homework
1) Read this text and check the vocabulary (by using an English-French dictionary and, if necessary, by
looking up definitions in a common French dictionary).
2) Explain the differences between middle-class mothers and working-class mothers concerning their children
schooling.
3) What are the consequences of these differences in life chances?
III A theoretical view on modern Western family
The transformation of intimacy
Part 1
In an influential book (“The transformation of intimacy”,1992)The British sociologist, Anthony Giddens,
argue premodern relationships in Europe were largely based around “economic circumstance”. People got married to
particular people largely to provide an economic context in which to produce a family. For the peasantry, life was so
hard it was unlikely to be conductive to sexual passion […]
However, in the eighteenth century, the idea of romantic love began to develop, first among the aristocracy.
Romantic love involved idealizing the object of the love and, for women in particular, telling stories to themselves
about how their lives could become fulfilled through the relationship. […] This allowed sex, for women, to
gradually become separate from an endless round of (at the time very dangerous) pregnancy and child birth.
Romantic love contains the idea that people will be attracted to one another and this attraction will lead to the
partners being bound together.
In theory, romantic love should be egalitarian. The bond is based upon mutual attraction. In practice
however, it has tended to lead to the dominance of men. Giddens says, “for women dreams of romantic love have all
too often led to grim domestic subjection”. Sex is important in romantic love, but a successful sexual relationship is
seen as stemming from the romantic attraction, and not the other way round. In the ideal of romantic love, a woman
saves herself, preserves her virginity, until the perfect man comes along.
Giddens argues that in the most recent phase of modernity the nature of intimate relationship has undergone
profound changes. Virginity for women is no longer prized, and few women are virgins on their marriage day.
Plastic sexuality has developed. With plastic sexuality, sex can be freed from its association with childbirth
altogether. People have much greater choice over when, how often and with whom they engage in sex. The
development of plastic sexuality is obviously connected to the development of improved methods of contraception.
To Giddens, however, it began to emerge before these technological developments and has more social than
technical origins. In particular, as we will see, it was tied up with the development of a sense of the self that could be
actively chosen.
The emergence of plastic sexuality changes the nature of love. Romantic love is increasingly replaced by
confluent love. Confluent love is “active contingent love” which jars with the “forever”, “one and only” qualities of
the romantic love complex.[…]
Once people are married through romantic love they were usually stuck with one another however their
relationship developed. Now people have much more choice. They are not compelled to stay together if the
relationship is not working. The ideal which people increasingly based relationship on is pure relationship, rather
than a marriage based on romantic passion. Pure relationships continue because people choose to stay in them.
Giddens says :”What holds the pure relationship together is the acceptance on the part of each partner, “until further
notice”, that each gains sufficient benefit from the relationship to make its continuance worthwhile”. Love is based
upon emotional intimacy and only develop “to the degree to which each partner is prepared to reveal concerns and
needs to the other and to be vulnerable to that other”. These concerns are constantly monitored by people to see if
they are deriving sufficient satisfaction from the relationship to continue it. Marriage is increasingly an expression of
such relationship once they are already established, rather than a way of achieving them.
In general Giddens sees pure relationships as having the potential for creating more equal relationships
between men and women. They have an openness and a mutual concern and respect which make it difficult for one
partner to be dominant[…]. The pure relationship is more of an ideal than a relationship that has actually been
achieved by most intimate couples. But Giddens does think there is a trend towards such relationships, because their
development is intimately bound up with the development of modernity.
Part 2
Giddens sees institutional reflexivity as a key, perhaps the key, characteristic of modernity. In premodern
times institutions were largely governed by tradition. They carried on in certain ways because they had operated that
way in the past. Modernity involves the increasing application of reason. Reason is used to work out how institutions
can work better. Reflexivity describes the way in which people reflect upon the institutions that are part of the social
world and try to change them for the better.
Increasingly such reflexivity reaches into all areas of social life, including very personal areas. For example,
publication such as the Kinsey Report (a survey of sexual behaviour among Americans) opened up sex to critical
reflection. An increasing number of manuals, magazine columns and so on are written to help people reflect upon
and try to improve their sex lives. Giddens says “the rise of such researches signals, and contributes to an
accelerating reflexivity on the level of the ordinary, everyday sexual practices”.
Reflexivity extends into the creation of self-identity. People can increasingly choose who they want to be.
They are no longer stuck with the roles into which they are born and confined by the dictates of tradition. Within the
limits of the opportunities available to them, people can increasingly shape who they are and who they think
themselves to be. Giddens argue there is a “reflexive project of the self” which” is oriented only to control. It has no
morality other than authenticity, a modern day version of the old maxim “to thine own self be true”. People want to
discover who they really are, and trying different relationships can be an important part of this process. Seeking a
pure relationship may, for example, allow an individual to try to decide whether he is truly homosexual, heterosexual
or bisexual. People have far more choice of lifestyle than in the past, and trying different ones may be part of
creating a self-identity. Giddens says “Today, however, given the lapse of tradition, the question “Who shall I be?” is
inextricably bound up with “How shall I live?” “
From Michael Haralambos and Martin Holborn, Sociology, themes and perspectives, Collins, 2004
Homework
Part 1
.
1) Read this text and check the vocabulary (by using an English-French dictionary and, if necessary, by
looking up definitions in a common French dictionary). so you are advised to work on it in several times.
2) According to Giddens, what are the three stages of couple and marriage relationships? Sum up their
characteristics.
3) According to Giddens, what is “confluent love”?
4) Show how “plastic sexuality” implies “confluent love”, “confluent love” implies “pure relationship”, “pure
relationship” implies more equal relationships between men and women.
Part 2
1) Read this text and check the vocabulary (by using an English-French dictionary and, if necessary, by
looking up definitions in a common French dictionary). so you are advised to work on it in several times.
2) Explain what is “institutional reflexivity” for Giddens.
3) According to Giddens, how is “institutional reflexivity” linked to the creation of self –identity?
4) How can you relate Giddens’ analysis to the changes in contemporary family?